Walther Gerlach

<h2 id="education">Education</h2>
Gerlach was born in <a href="/facts/Biebrich%2c_Rhineland_Palatinate/y7fKx8SJ">Biebrich, Hessen-Nassau</a>, German Empire, as son of Dr. med. Valentin Gerlach and his wife Marie Niederhaeuser.
He studied at the <a href="/facts/University_of_T%25C3%25BCbingen/3dplfKmh">University of Tübingen</a> from 1908, and received his doctorate in 1912, under <a href="/facts/Friedrich_Paschen/HoL36xLr">Friedrich Paschen</a>. The subject of his dissertation was on the measurement of radiation. After obtaining his doctorate, he continued on as an assistant to Paschen, which he had been since 1911. Gerlach completed his <a href="/facts/Habilitation/VSEhfx78">Habilitation</a> at Tübingen in 1916, while serving during World War I.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5">5</a>

<h2 id="career">Career</h2>
<h3>World War I and the interwar period</h3>
From 1915 to 1918, during the war, Gerlach did service with the <a href="/facts/German_Army_(German_Empire)/23PWtXgP">German Army</a>. He worked on wireless telegraphy at <a href="/facts/Jena/c1NwhRon">Jena</a> under <a href="/facts/Max_Wien/nbrI37pN">Max Wien</a>. He also served in the Artillerie-Prüfungskommission under <a href="/facts/Rudolf_Ladenburg/hg6Dcbvy">Rudolf Ladenburg</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6">6</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7">7</a>
Gerlach became a <a href="/facts/Privatdozent/Cd6m1pFt">Privatdozent</a> at the University of Tübingen in 1916. A year later, he became a Privatdozent at the <a href="/facts/University_of_G%25C3%25B6ttingen/UTUodvX1">University of Göttingen</a>. From 1919 to 1920, he was the head of a physics laboratory of Farbenfabriken Elberfeld, later Bayer-Werke A.G.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a>
In 1921, he became a.o. (extraordinary) professor at the <a href="/facts/Goethe_University_Frankfurt/76b0rJfI">Goethe University Frankfurt</a>. It was before 17. Feb. 1922 that Gerlach succeeded with the experiment on spin quantization in a magnetic field ("Richtungsquantelung"), which is commonly called the <a href="/facts/Stern%25E2%2580%2593Gerlach_experiment/PCWPE56v">Stern–Gerlach experiment</a>, having originally been proposed by <a href="/facts/Otto_Stern/9eP2K5rB">Otto Stern</a> and also making use of molecular beam methods developed by Stern. The experiment itself was carried out only by Gerlach, Stern by that time having left for a professorship in Rostock,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a> in Frankfurt some time before 17. Feb 1922. On this day the "critical theorist" Wolfgang Pauli sent Gerlach a postcard with congratulations and the remark "Jetzt wird hoffentlich auch der ungläubige Stern von der Richtungsquantelung überzeugt sein" ("Hopefully the disbelieving Stern will now be convinced of the spin-theory"). The results were published jointly by Gerlach and Stern in 1922.
In 1925, Gerlach took a call and became an ordinarius professor at the University of Tübingen, successor to <a href="/facts/Friedrich_Paschen/HoL36xLr">Friedrich Paschen</a>. In 1929, he took a call and became ordinarius professor at the <a href="/facts/Ludwig_Maximilian_University_of_Munich/eJtBcjAE">Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich</a>, successor to <a href="/facts/Wilhelm_Wien/Fm4W3S11">Wilhelm Wien</a>. He held this position until May 1945, when he was arrested by the American and British Armed Forces.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a>
From 1937 until 1945, Gerlach was a member of the supervisory board of the <a href="/facts/Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft/FeQcYSho">Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft</a> (KWG). After 1946, he continued to be an influential official in its successor organization after World War II, the <a href="/facts/Max_Planck_Society/lVNb39aD">Max-Planck-Gesellschaft</a> (MPG).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a>

<h3>During World War II</h3>
In November 1939, he joined the Comerlin working group on ship <a href="/facts/Degaussing/ePx3r3ug">degaussing</a> and <a href="/facts/Torpedo/RLLPpktk">torpedo</a> physics.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a> Other than his military research for the <a href="/facts/Kriegsmarine/uaRl8jgc">Kriegsmarine</a>, he worked closely with Hitler's nuclear research adviser <a href="/facts/Rudolf_Mentzel/7xSatGC8">Rudolf Mentzel</a> and other Nazi science policy-makers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a>
On 2 December 1943, on Mentzel's initiative, Gerlach was appointed by the <a href="/facts/Reich_Ministry_of_Armaments_and_War_Production/xXHRSMmh">Reich Minister of Armaments and War Production</a> <a href="/facts/Albert_Speer/VMYu0WaU">Albert Speer</a> as head of the physics section of the <a href="/facts/Reichsforschungsrat/feKIFgQP">Reichsforschungsrat</a> (RFR, Reich Research Council) ("the emperor of physics") and as the plenipotentiary of nuclear physics, replacing <a href="/facts/Abraham_Esau/7hxAjVho">Abraham Esau</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a> He established himself with his deputy <a href="/facts/Kurt_Diebner/AJYtQ9HB">Kurt Diebner</a> in the <a href="/facts/Fritz_Haber_Institute_of_the_Max_Planck_Society/WSqr4Lt8">Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics</a> in <a href="/facts/Dahlem_(Berlin)/4Qx5Qrdq">Berlin-Dahlem</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a> Working within a budget of 3 million <a href="/facts/Reichsmark/A6xBl5fp">RM</a> for 1944, he was due to send monthly progress reports on nuclear physics to Mentzel as his superior.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a> In April 1944, he founded the <a href="/facts/Reichsberichte_f%25C3%25BCr_Physik/AS8DToVG">Reichsberichte für Physik</a>, which were official reports appearing as supplements to the <a href="/facts/Physikalische_Zeitschrift/AS8DToVG">Physikalische Zeitschrift</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a> From April to September 1944, he negotiated with <a href="/facts/IG_Farben/3cTsQw87">IG Farben</a> a contract for the building of a <a href="/facts/Heavy_water/3dbSrTw5">heavy water</a> production plant, and thwarted the company's attempt to patent the process.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a> In June 1944, he took steps to concentrate personnel and funds on the nuclear power project, which remained a top priority, in accordance with Speer's decree.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a>
He is known to have worked in the <a href="/facts/Uranium/n2sGWBzU">uranium</a> research laboratory in the basement of the <a href="/facts/Mittelschule/ts1mW5Js">secondary school</a> at <a href="/facts/Stadtilm/adAuw8GT">Stadtilm</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a> where Diebner's team evacuated from Berlin in the autumn of 1944 and began to prepare a low-temperature experiment in a uranium machine <a href="/facts/Light-water_reactor/c330w1Wt">without the use of heavy water</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a> This led to the supposed <a href="/facts/Nuclear_weapons_testing/s2srGDFP">nuclear weapons testing</a> carried out in March 1945 at the <a href="/facts/Jonas_Valley/bmW8x3Pk">Jonas Valley</a> near the <a href="/facts/Ohrdruf_concentration_camp/aFzjMjrf">Ohrdruf concentration camp</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a>
As late as December 1944, he asserted to the <a href="/facts/Nazi_Party_Chancellery/lH0mQKMc">Chief of the Party Chancellery</a> <a href="/facts/Martin_Bormann/kVL8KVbC">Martin Bormann</a> that nuclear power could influence the outcome of the war and that Germany had a "considerable advantage" over the rival United States programme.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a> On 22 March 1945, following the Ohrdruf experiment, he was sent by the SS <a href="/facts/Reichsf%25C3%25BChrer-SS/7xtNeAg8">Reichsführer</a> <a href="/facts/Heinrich_Himmler/8xMKCuh2">Heinrich Himmler</a> to Bormann to personally report that the <a href="/facts/Nuclear_chain_reaction/3l0lHBM4">nuclear chain reaction</a> had worked but no immediate military breakthrough was forthcoming.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31">31</a>
His progress reports were seized by <a href="/facts/Alsos_Mission/LkszbEGV">Alsos Mission</a>'s <a href="/facts/Samuel_Goudsmit/C5UszfUx">Samuel Goudsmit</a> in Stadtilm on 12 April 1945.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32">32</a> One of these mentioned the necessity of acquiring tons of uranium (for the uranium machines), which led Goudsmit to the erroneous conclusion that the Germans failed to understand the mechanism for an atomic bomb.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33">33</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34">34</a> Gerlach himself was captured by the American troops in <a href="/facts/Bavaria/CLbr6NIG">Bavaria</a> by 12 May 1945.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35">35</a>
From May 1945, he was interned in France and Belgium by British and American Armed Forces under <a href="/facts/Operation_Alsos/LkszbEGV">Operation Alsos</a>. From July 1945 to January 1946, he was detained in England at Farm Hall under <a href="/facts/Operation_Epsilon/5Dlgdsz8">Operation Epsilon</a>, which interned 10 German scientists thought to have participated in the development of atomic weapons.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36">36</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37">37</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38">38</a>

<h3>Post-war era</h3>
Upon Gerlach's return to Germany in 1946, he became a visiting professor at the <a href="/facts/University_of_Bonn/PpaE8Xvf">University of Bonn</a>. From 1948, he became an ordinarius professor of experimental physics and director of the physics department at the University of Munich, a position he held until 1957. He was also rector of the university from 1948 to 1951.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39">39</a>
From 1949 to 1951, Gerlach was the founding president of the <a href="/facts/Fraunhofer_Society/JS0cK2Qo">Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft</a>, which promotes applied sciences. From 1949 to 1961, he was the vice-president of the Deutsche Gemeinschaft zur Erhaltung und Förderung der Forschung (German Association for the Support and Advancement of Scientific Research); also known in short as the <a href="/facts/Deutsche_Forschungs-Gemeinschaft/bFK92BdY">Deutsche Forschungs-Gemeinschaft</a> (DFG), previously the <a href="/facts/Notgemeinschaft_der_Deutschen_Wissenschaft/bFK92BdY">Notgemeinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaft</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40">40</a>
In 1957, Gerlach was a co-signer of the <a href="/facts/G%25C3%25B6ttinger_Manifest/A2DHJern">Göttingen Manifesto</a>, which was against rearming the Federal Republic of Germany with atomic weapons.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41">41</a>

<h3>Other positions / Decorations / Honours</h3>
<ul><li>From 1935 – Chairman of the committee to appoint a successor to <a href="/facts/Arnold_Sommerfeld/cJtpVHvn">Arnold Sommerfeld</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42">42</a></li>
<li>From 1948 – a member of the Göttingen, Halle, and Munich Academies of Sciences.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43">43</a></li>
<li>Civil Class of the order <a href="/facts/Pour_le_M%25C3%25A9rite/t1d6gL2n">Pour le Mérite</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44">44</a></li>
<li>1970 – Bundesverdienstkreuz mit Stern <a href="/facts/Order_of_Merit_of_the_Federal_Republic_of_Germany/k61E5k2R">Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany</a></li></ul>
<h2 id="literature">Literature</h2>
<ul><li>Walther Gerlach: Matter, Electricity, Energy: The Principles of Modern Atomistic and Experimental Results of Atomic Investigations (D. Van Nostrand, 1928)</li>
<li>Mac Hartmann and Walther Gerlach: Naturwissenschaftliche Erkenntnis und ihre Methoden (Springer, 1937)</li>
<li>Walther Gerlach: Die Quantentheorie. Max Planck sein Werk und seine Wirkung. Mit einer Bibliographie der Werke Max Plancks (Universität Bonn, 1948)</li>
<li>Walther Gerlach: Probleme der Atomenergie (Biederstein Verlag, 1948)</li>
<li>Walther Gerlach: Wesen und Bedeutung der Atomkraftwerke (Oldenbourg, 1955)</li>
<li>Walther Gerlach and Martha List: Johannes Kepler. Leben und Werk (Piper Verlag, München 1966)</li>
<li>Walther Gerlach (editor): Das Fischer Lexikon – Physik (Fischer Bücherei, 1969)</li>
<li>Walther Gerlach: Physik des täglichen Lebens – Eine Anleitung zu physikalischem Denken und zum Verständnis der physikalischen Entwicklung (Fischer Bücherei, 1971) <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 3-436-01341-2</li>
<li>Walther Gerlach (editor): Physik. Neuasugabe Unter Mitarbeit Von Prof. Dr. Josef Brandmüller (Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, 1978) <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 3-596-40019-8</li>
<li>Walther Gerlach and Dietrich Hahn: Otto Hahn – Ein Forscherleben unserer Zeit (Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft, WVG, Stuttgart 1984) <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 3-8047-0757-2</li>
<li>Walther Gerlach and Martha List: Johannes Kepler : Der Begründer der modernen Astronomie München, (Piper Verlag GmbH, 1987) <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 3-492-15248-1</li></ul>
<h2 id="bibliography">Bibliography</h2>
<ul><li>Walther Gerlach and Otto Stern, Das magnetische Moment des Silberatoms, Zeitschrift für Physik Volume 9, Number 1, 353-355 (1922). The article was received on 1 April 1922.</li></ul>
<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers/WzVcT6pJ">List of German inventors and discoverers</a></li></ul>
<h2 id="notes">Notes</h2>

<ul><li>Bernstein, Jeremy (2001). Hitler's Uranium Club: The Secret Recordings at Farm Hall. Copernicus. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9780387950891.</li>
<li>Friedrich, Bretislav; Herschbach, Dudley (2003). <a href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1650229">"Stern and Gerlach: How a Bad Cigar Helped Reorient Atomic Physics"</a>. <a href="/facts/Physics_Today/7VQJyPJw">Physics Today</a>. 56 (12): 53–59. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003PhT....56l..53F">2003PhT....56l..53F</a>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1650229">10.1063/1.1650229</a>.</li>
<li>Hentschel, Klaus, ed. (1996). Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources. Birkhäuser. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-8176-5312-0.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Jagdish_Mehra/rWz0UW9j">Mehra, Jagdish</a>; <a href="/facts/Helmut_Rechenberg/cQzm6D7H">Rechenberg, Helmut</a> (2001). The Historical Development of Quantum Theory. Volume 1, Part 2. Springer. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-387-95175-X.</li>
<li>Utschig, Wolfgang (2012), <a href="http://lostbattlefields.com/uploads/3/4/9/8/34984225/kernwaffenversuche_in_ohrdruf_1945.pdf">Über die im März 1945 auf dem Truppenübungsplatz Ohrdruf in Thüringen statt gefundenen "Kernwaffenversuche"</a> (PDF), Nittendorf: Lancelot</li>
<li>Walker, Mark (1989). German National Socialism and the Quest for Nuclear Power, 1939–1949. New York: <a href="/facts/Cambridge_University_Press/fgEBSSRq">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-521-36413-3.</li>
<li>Walker, Mark (2024). Hitler's Atomic Bomb: History, Legend, and the Twin Legacies of Auschwitz and Hiroshima. Cambridge: <a href="/facts/Cambridge_University_Press/fgEBSSRq">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9781009479288.</li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">"Gerlach, Walther | Frankfurter Personenlexikon". frankfurter-personenlexikon.de. Retrieved 29 October 2021. <a href="https://frankfurter-personenlexikon.de/node/5452" target="_blank">https://frankfurter-personenlexikon.de/node/5452</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">Gerlach, W.; Stern, O. (1922). "Der experimentelle Nachweis der Richtungsquantelung im Magnetfeld". Zeitschrift für Physik. 9 (1): 349–352. Bibcode:1922ZPhy....9..349G. doi:10.1007/BF01326983. S2CID 186228677. <a href="/wiki/Zeitschrift_f%C3%BCr_Physik" target="_blank">/wiki/Zeitschrift_f%C3%BCr_Physik</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">Gerlach, W.; Stern, O. (1922). "Das magnetische Moment des Silberatoms". Zeitschrift für Physik. 9 (1): 353–355. Bibcode:1922ZPhy....9..353G. doi:10.1007/BF01326984. S2CID 126109346. <a href="/wiki/Zeitschrift_f%C3%BCr_Physik" target="_blank">/wiki/Zeitschrift_f%C3%BCr_Physik</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">Gerlach, W.; Stern, O. (1922). "Der experimentelle Nachweis des magnetischen Moments des Silberatoms". Zeitschrift für Physik. 8 (1): 110–111. Bibcode:1922ZPhy....8..110G. doi:10.1007/BF01329580. S2CID 122648402. <a href="https://zenodo.org/record/1525119" target="_blank">https://zenodo.org/record/1525119</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">Hentschel 1996, p. XXVIII. - Hentschel, Klaus, ed. (1996). Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources. Birkhäuser. ISBN 0-8176-5312-0. <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">Mehra & Rechenberg 2001, p. 436 - Mehra, Jagdish; Rechenberg, Helmut (2001). The Historical Development of Quantum Theory. Volume 1, Part 2. Springer. ISBN 0-387-95175-X. <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">Bernstein 2001, p. 364 - Bernstein, Jeremy (2001). Hitler's Uranium Club: The Secret Recordings at Farm Hall. Copernicus. ISBN 9780387950891. <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">Hentschel 1996, p. XXVIII. - Hentschel, Klaus, ed. (1996). Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources. Birkhäuser. ISBN 0-8176-5312-0. <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">Mehra & Rechenberg 2001, p. 436 - Mehra, Jagdish; Rechenberg, Helmut (2001). The Historical Development of Quantum Theory. Volume 1, Part 2. Springer. ISBN 0-387-95175-X. <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">In "Orden pour le Mérite für Wissenschaften und Künste", Reden und Gedenkworte (speeches and "memorials"), vol. 16, 1980, Verlag Lambert Schneider in Heidelberg, pp. 47–53, physicist Wolfgang Gentner (1906-1980), evidently a close friend of Gerlach, points out that it was Gerlach who had by himself- given his extraordinary gift for experimenting – after Otto Stern had already in 1921 left for Rostock, where he had been given a professorship. <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">Hentschel 1996, p. XXVIII. - Hentschel, Klaus, ed. (1996). Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources. Birkhäuser. ISBN 0-8176-5312-0. <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">Friedrich & Herschbach 2003, pp. 53–59 - Friedrich, Bretislav; Herschbach, Dudley (2003). "Stern and Gerlach: How a Bad Cigar Helped Reorient Atomic Physics". Physics Today. 56 (12): 53–59. Bibcode:2003PhT....56l..53F. doi:10.1063/1.1650229. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1650229" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1650229</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">Gerlach, W.; Stern, O. (1922). "Das magnetische Moment des Silberatoms". Zeitschrift für Physik. 9 (1): 353–355. Bibcode:1922ZPhy....9..353G. doi:10.1007/BF01326984. S2CID 126109346. <a href="/wiki/Zeitschrift_f%C3%BCr_Physik" target="_blank">/wiki/Zeitschrift_f%C3%BCr_Physik</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">Hentschel 1996, p. XXVIII. - Hentschel, Klaus, ed. (1996). Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources. Birkhäuser. ISBN 0-8176-5312-0. <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">Bernstein 2001, p. 364 - Bernstein, Jeremy (2001). Hitler's Uranium Club: The Secret Recordings at Farm Hall. Copernicus. ISBN 9780387950891. <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">Hentschel 1996, p. XXVIII. - Hentschel, Klaus, ed. (1996). Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources. Birkhäuser. ISBN 0-8176-5312-0. <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">Walker 2024, p. 110. - Walker, Mark (2024). Hitler's Atomic Bomb: History, Legend, and the Twin Legacies of Auschwitz and Hiroshima. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781009479288. <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">Walker 2024, p. 110. - Walker, Mark (2024). Hitler's Atomic Bomb: History, Legend, and the Twin Legacies of Auschwitz and Hiroshima. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781009479288. <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">Walker 1989, p. 129, 131. - Walker, Mark (1989). German National Socialism and the Quest for Nuclear Power, 1939–1949. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-36413-3. <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:20">Walker 2024, pp. 109, 294. - Walker, Mark (2024). Hitler's Atomic Bomb: History, Legend, and the Twin Legacies of Auschwitz and Hiroshima. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781009479288. <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:21">Walker 1989, p. 131. - Walker, Mark (1989). German National Socialism and the Quest for Nuclear Power, 1939–1949. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-36413-3. <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:22">Walker 1989, p. 131. - Walker, Mark (1989). German National Socialism and the Quest for Nuclear Power, 1939–1949. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-36413-3. <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:23">Hentschel 1996, p. XXVIII. - Hentschel, Klaus, ed. (1996). Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources. Birkhäuser. ISBN 0-8176-5312-0. <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:24">Walker 1989, pp. 143–145, 255. - Walker, Mark (1989). German National Socialism and the Quest for Nuclear Power, 1939–1949. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-36413-3. <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:25">Walker 1989, p. 136. - Walker, Mark (1989). German National Socialism and the Quest for Nuclear Power, 1939–1949. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-36413-3. <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:26">Utschig 2012, p. 4. - Utschig, Wolfgang (2012), Über die im März 1945 auf dem Truppenübungsplatz Ohrdruf in Thüringen statt gefundenen "Kernwaffenversuche" (PDF), Nittendorf: Lancelot <a href="http://lostbattlefields.com/uploads/3/4/9/8/34984225/kernwaffenversuche_in_ohrdruf_1945.pdf" target="_blank">http://lostbattlefields.com/uploads/3/4/9/8/34984225/kernwaffenversuche_in_ohrdruf_1945.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:27">Walker 1989, p. 151. - Walker, Mark (1989). German National Socialism and the Quest for Nuclear Power, 1939–1949. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-36413-3. <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:28">Utschig 2012, p. 23. - Utschig, Wolfgang (2012), Über die im März 1945 auf dem Truppenübungsplatz Ohrdruf in Thüringen statt gefundenen "Kernwaffenversuche" (PDF), Nittendorf: Lancelot <a href="http://lostbattlefields.com/uploads/3/4/9/8/34984225/kernwaffenversuche_in_ohrdruf_1945.pdf" target="_blank">http://lostbattlefields.com/uploads/3/4/9/8/34984225/kernwaffenversuche_in_ohrdruf_1945.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:29">Utschig 2012, p. 23. - Utschig, Wolfgang (2012), Über die im März 1945 auf dem Truppenübungsplatz Ohrdruf in Thüringen statt gefundenen "Kernwaffenversuche" (PDF), Nittendorf: Lancelot <a href="http://lostbattlefields.com/uploads/3/4/9/8/34984225/kernwaffenversuche_in_ohrdruf_1945.pdf" target="_blank">http://lostbattlefields.com/uploads/3/4/9/8/34984225/kernwaffenversuche_in_ohrdruf_1945.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:30">Walker 1989, p. 137. - Walker, Mark (1989). German National Socialism and the Quest for Nuclear Power, 1939–1949. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-36413-3. <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:31">Utschig 2012, p. 18. - Utschig, Wolfgang (2012), Über die im März 1945 auf dem Truppenübungsplatz Ohrdruf in Thüringen statt gefundenen "Kernwaffenversuche" (PDF), Nittendorf: Lancelot <a href="http://lostbattlefields.com/uploads/3/4/9/8/34984225/kernwaffenversuche_in_ohrdruf_1945.pdf" target="_blank">http://lostbattlefields.com/uploads/3/4/9/8/34984225/kernwaffenversuche_in_ohrdruf_1945.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:32">Walker 1989, p. 157. - Walker, Mark (1989). German National Socialism and the Quest for Nuclear Power, 1939–1949. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-36413-3. <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:33">Walker 1989, p. 157. - Walker, Mark (1989). German National Socialism and the Quest for Nuclear Power, 1939–1949. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-36413-3. <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:34">Walker 2024, p. 148. - Walker, Mark (2024). Hitler's Atomic Bomb: History, Legend, and the Twin Legacies of Auschwitz and Hiroshima. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781009479288. <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:35">Walker 2024, pp. 149, 301. - Walker, Mark (2024). Hitler's Atomic Bomb: History, Legend, and the Twin Legacies of Auschwitz and Hiroshima. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781009479288. <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:36">Hentschel 1996, p. XXVIII. - Hentschel, Klaus, ed. (1996). Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources. Birkhäuser. ISBN 0-8176-5312-0. <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:37">Bernstein 2001, p. 364 - Bernstein, Jeremy (2001). Hitler's Uranium Club: The Secret Recordings at Farm Hall. Copernicus. ISBN 9780387950891. <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:38">The nine other scientists interned at Farm Hall with Gerlach were: Erich Bagge, Kurt Diebner, Otto Hahn, Paul Harteck, Werner Heisenberg, Horst Korsching, Max von Laue, Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker, and Karl Wirtz. <a href="/wiki/Erich_Bagge" target="_blank">/wiki/Erich_Bagge</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:39">Hentschel 1996, p. XXVIII. - Hentschel, Klaus, ed. (1996). Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources. Birkhäuser. ISBN 0-8176-5312-0. <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:40">Hentschel 1996, p. XXVIII. - Hentschel, Klaus, ed. (1996). Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources. Birkhäuser. ISBN 0-8176-5312-0. <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:41">Hentschel 1996, p. XXVIII. - Hentschel, Klaus, ed. (1996). Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources. Birkhäuser. ISBN 0-8176-5312-0. <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:42">Hentschel 1996, p. XXVIII. - Hentschel, Klaus, ed. (1996). Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources. Birkhäuser. ISBN 0-8176-5312-0. <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:43">Hentschel 1996, p. XXVIII. - Hentschel, Klaus, ed. (1996). Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources. Birkhäuser. ISBN 0-8176-5312-0. <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:44">Hentschel 1996, p. XXVIII. - Hentschel, Klaus, ed. (1996). Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources. Birkhäuser. ISBN 0-8176-5312-0. <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
</ol>

Walther Gerlach open-in-new

Walther Gerlach