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<h2 id="administration">Administration</h2> <p>Windows administrators can manage services via: </p> <ul><li>The Services <a href="/facts/Plug-in_(computing)/351Du3Wu">snap-in</a> (found under <i>Administrative Tools</i> in Windows <a href="/facts/Control_Panel_(Windows)/WEfhKClH">Control Panel</a>)</li> <li>Sc.exe</li> <li><a href="/facts/Windows_PowerShell/G1d10lwn">Windows PowerShell</a></li></ul> <h3>Services snap-in</h3> <p>The Services snap-in, built upon <a href="/facts/Microsoft_Management_Console/SkY3jHFG">Microsoft Management Console</a>, can connect to the local computer or a remote computer on the network, enabling users to:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> </p> <ul><li>view a list of installed services along with service name, descriptions and configuration</li> <li>start, stop, pause or restart services<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a></li> <li>specify service parameters when applicable</li> <li>change the startup type. Acceptable startup types include: <ul><li><i>Automatic</i>: The service starts at system startup.</li> <li><i>Automatic (Delayed)</i>: The service starts a short while after the system has finished starting up. This option was introduced in <a href="/facts/Windows_Vista/IASEUCTB">Windows Vista</a> in an attempt to reduce the boot-to-desktop time. However, not all services support delayed start.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a></li> <li><i>Manual</i>: The service starts only when explicitly summoned.</li> <li><i>Disabled</i>: The service is disabled. It will not run.</li></ul></li> <li>change the <a href="/facts/User_account/zQRzG0KG">user account</a> context in which the service operates</li> <li>configure recovery actions that should be taken if a service fails</li> <li>inspect service dependencies, discovering which services or device drivers depend on a given service or upon which services or device drivers a given service depends</li> <li>export the list of services as a text file or as a <a href="/facts/Comma-separated_values/dv1pSR1r">CSV</a> file</li></ul> <h3>Command line</h3> <p>The <a href="/facts/Command-line_interface/R9JpGmXQ">command-line</a> tool to manage Windows services is sc.exe. It is available for all versions of <a href="/facts/Windows_NT/EtccWvxQ">Windows NT</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> This utility is included with <a href="/facts/Windows_XP/IozrkAYS">Windows XP</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> and later<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> and also in <a href="/facts/ReactOS/BFmfC6BB">ReactOS</a>. </p><p>The sc command's scope of management is restricted to the local computer. However, starting with <a href="/facts/Windows_Server_2003/3vIJam5L">Windows Server 2003</a>, not only can sc do all that the Services snap-in does, but it can also install and uninstall services.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> </p><p>The sc command duplicates some features of the <a href="/facts/Net_(command)/c2Flu1jC">net</a> command.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> </p><p>The ReactOS version was developed by Ged Murphy and is licensed under the <a href="/facts/GPL/S75KhLSX">GPL</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> </p> sc sub-commands<table><tbody><tr><th>Name</th><th>Description</th><th>Windows support</th><th>ReactOS support</th></tr><tr><td>query</td><td>Show service status</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td>queryex</td><td>Show extended service info (e.g. pid, flags)</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td>start</td><td>Start a service</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td>pause</td><td>Pause a service</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td>interrogate</td><td>Send an INTERROGATE control request to a service</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td>continue</td><td>Continue a service</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td>stop</td><td>Stop a service</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td>config</td><td>permanently change the service configuration</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td>description</td><td>Change a service description</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td>failure</td><td>Change the actions taken by a service upon failure</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td>failureflag</td><td></td><td>Yes</td><td>No</td></tr><tr><td>sidtype</td><td></td><td>Yes</td><td>No</td></tr><tr><td>privs</td><td></td><td>Yes</td><td>No</td></tr><tr><td>managedaccount</td><td></td><td>Yes</td><td>No</td></tr><tr><td>qc</td><td>Show the service config (e.g. dependencies, full path etc.)</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td>qdescription</td><td>Query a service description</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td>qfailure</td><td></td><td>Yes</td><td>No</td></tr><tr><td>qfailureflag</td><td></td><td>Yes</td><td>No</td></tr><tr><td>qsidtype</td><td></td><td>Yes</td><td>No</td></tr><tr><td>qprivs</td><td></td><td>Yes</td><td>No</td></tr><tr><td>qtriggerinfo</td><td></td><td>Yes</td><td>No</td></tr><tr><td>qpreferrednode</td><td></td><td>Yes</td><td>No</td></tr><tr><td>qmanagedaccount</td><td></td><td>Yes</td><td>No</td></tr><tr><td>qprotection</td><td></td><td>Yes</td><td>No</td></tr><tr><td>quserservice</td><td></td><td>Yes</td><td>No</td></tr><tr><td>delete</td><td>Delete a service</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td>create</td><td>Create a service</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td>control</td><td>Send a control to a service</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td>sdshow</td><td>Display a service's security descriptor using SDDL</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td>sdset</td><td>Sets a service's security descriptor using SDDL</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td>showsid</td><td></td><td>Yes</td><td>No</td></tr><tr><td>triggerinfo</td><td></td><td>Yes</td><td>No</td></tr><tr><td>preferrednode</td><td></td><td>Yes</td><td>No</td></tr><tr><td>GetDisplayName</td><td>Show the service DisplayName</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td>GetKeyName</td><td>Show the service ServiceKeyName</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td>EnumDepend</td><td>Show the service Dependencies</td><td>Yes</td><td>Yes</td></tr><tr><td>boot</td><td></td><td>Yes</td><td>No</td></tr><tr><td>Lock</td><td></td><td>Yes</td><td>No</td></tr><tr><td>QueryLock</td><td></td><td>Yes</td><td>No</td></tr></tbody></table> <h4>Examples</h4> <p>The following example enumerates the status for active services & drivers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> </p> C:\>sc query <p>The following example displays the status for the <a href="/facts/Windows_Event_log/YkmF3hrP">Windows Event log</a> service.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> </p> C:\>sc query eventlog <h3>PowerShell</h3> <p>The Microsoft.PowerShell.Management PowerShell module (included with Windows) has several cmdlets which can be used to manage Windows services: </p> <ul><li>Get-Service<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a></li> <li>New-Service<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a></li> <li>Restart-Service<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a></li> <li>Resume-Service<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a></li> <li>Set-Service<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a></li> <li>Start-Service<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a></li> <li>Stop-Service<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a></li> <li>Suspend-Service<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a></li></ul> <h3>Other management tools</h3> <p>Windows also includes components that can do a subset of what the snap-in, Sc.exe and PowerShell do. The <a href="/facts/Net_(command)/c2Flu1jC">net</a> command can start, stop, pause or resume a Windows service.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> In Windows Vista and later, <a href="/facts/Windows_Task_Manager/Fp70IsH6">Windows Task Manager</a> can show a list of installed services and start or stop them. <a href="/facts/MSConfig/cFAB6jP0">MSConfig</a> can enable or disable (see startup type description above) Windows services. </p> <h2 id="installation">Installation</h2> <p>Windows services are installed and removed via *.INF setup scripts by <i>SetupAPI</i>; an installed service can be started immediately following its installation, and a running service can be stopped before its deinstallation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="development">Development</h2> <h3>Writing native services</h3> <p>For a program to run as a Windows service, the program needs to be written to handle service start, stop, and pause messages from the <a href="/facts/Service_Control_Manager/lvTwwwVw">Service Control Manager</a> (SCM) through the <a href="https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/win32/system-services">System Services API</a>. SCM is the Windows component responsible for managing service processes. </p> <h3>Wrapping applications as a service</h3> <p>The <a href="/facts/Windows_Resource_Kit/ypdhwzeQ">Windows Resource Kit</a> for <a href="/facts/Windows_NT_3.51/pSnh50be">Windows NT 3.51</a>, <a href="/facts/Windows_NT_4.0/EcKYxrkx">Windows NT 4.0</a> and <a href="/facts/Windows_2000/amJIt9gz">Windows 2000</a> provides tools to control the use and registration of services: SrvAny.exe acts as a <a href="/facts/Service_wrapper/GmcPH55J">service wrapper</a> to handle the interface expected of a service (e.g. handle service_start and respond sometime later with service_started or service_failed) and allow any executable or script to be configured as a service. Sc.exe allows new services to be installed, started, stopped and uninstalled.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> Windows services <ul><li><a href="/facts/List_of_Microsoft_Windows_components/DevuU3KN">List of Microsoft Windows components § Services</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Windows_Service_Hardening/KHI8pDto">Windows Service Hardening</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Svchost.exe/05gR0AhN">svchost.exe</a></li></ul> Concept <ul><li><a href="/facts/Background_process/evBqvbHy">Background process</a> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Daemon_(computing)/bzuEVGGX">Daemon (computing)</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/DOS_Protected_Mode_Services/1bt44EVm">DOS Protected Mode Services</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Terminate-and-stay-resident_program/6croHFxf">Terminate-and-stay-resident program</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Device_driver/rDYnHU1G">Device driver</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/facts/Operating_system_service_management/qFPA6nN0">Operating system service management</a> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Service_Control_Manager/lvTwwwVw">Service Control Manager</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Service_Management_Facility/P6NpgQrN">Service Management Facility</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/facts/Service_wrapper/GmcPH55J">Service wrapper</a></li></ul> <h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2> <ul><li>Savill, John (5 March 1999). <a href="http://windowsitpro.com/windows/what-are-errorcontrol-start-and-type-values-under-services-subkeys">"What are the ErrorControl, Start and Type values under the Services subkeys?"</a>. <i>Windows IT Pro</i>. <a href="/facts/Penton_Media/cI4nxmIW">Penton Media</a>. Retrieved 29 March 2013.</li> <li>David B. Probert, <a href="http://www.i.u-tokyo.ac.jp/edu/training/ss/lecture/new-documents/Lectures/11-WindowsServices/WindowsServices.ppt">Windows Service Processes</a></li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: <i>Guide to Windows Commands</i> <ul><li><a href="https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/sysinternals/bb963902.aspx">Windows Sysinternals: Autoruns for Windows v13.4</a> – An extremely detailed query of services</li> <li><a href="https://www.poftut.com/service-management-windows-sc-command-line/">Service Management With Windows Sc From Command Line</a> – Windows Service Management Tutorial</li> <li><a href="https://github.com/patrikx3/service-manager-tray-for-windows/">Windows Service Manager Tray</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>"Services overview". TechNet. Microsoft. Retrieved 29 March 2013. <a href="https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc783643%28v=ws.10%29.aspx" target="_blank">https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc783643%28v=ws.10%29.aspx</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>"Services overview". TechNet. Microsoft. Retrieved 29 March 2013. <a href="https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc783643%28v=ws.10%29.aspx" target="_blank">https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc783643%28v=ws.10%29.aspx</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>"Services". Microsoft Developer Network. Microsoft. Retrieved 29 March 2013. <a href="http://msdn2.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms685141.aspx" target="_blank">http://msdn2.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms685141.aspx</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>"New Elevation PowerToys for Windows Vista". TechNet Magazine. Microsoft. June 2008. Retrieved 21 June 2013. The service CmdAsSystem is configured as interactive whose support is being deprecated. The service may not function properly. The problem is that this script tries to create and start an interactive service. Interactive services will not function correctly due to Session 0 Isolation in Windows Vista. <a href="https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/magazine/2008.06.elevation.aspx" target="_blank">https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/magazine/2008.06.elevation.aspx</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>"Services in Windows". MSDN. Microsoft. 18 October 2010. Retrieved 21 June 2013. <a href="http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/hardware/gg463428.aspx" target="_blank">http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/hardware/gg463428.aspx</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>"Services overview". TechNet. Microsoft. Retrieved 29 March 2013. <a href="https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc783643%28v=ws.10%29.aspx" target="_blank">https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc783643%28v=ws.10%29.aspx</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>"Start, stop, pause, resume, or restart a service". TechNet. Microsoft. Retrieved 29 March 2013. <a href="https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc736564%28v=WS.10%29.aspx" target="_blank">https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc736564%28v=WS.10%29.aspx</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>"ServiceInstaller.DelayedAutoStart Property (System.ServiceProcess)". Microsoft. Retrieved 28 November 2017See Remarks section{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link) <a href="http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/system.serviceprocess.serviceinstaller.delayedautostart.aspx" target="_blank">http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/system.serviceprocess.serviceinstaller.delayedautostart.aspx</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>"How to create a Windows service by using Sc.exe". Support. Microsoft. 11 September 2011. Retrieved 29 March 2013. <a href="http://support.microsoft.com/kb/251192" target="_blank">http://support.microsoft.com/kb/251192</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>"Command-line reference A-Z: SC". TechNet. Microsoft. Retrieved 8 January 2014. <a href="https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/bb490995.aspx" target="_blank">https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/bb490995.aspx</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>"Command-Line Reference: Sc". TechNet. Microsoft. Retrieved 8 January 2014. Windows 7, Windows 8, Windows Server 2003, Windows Server 2003 R2, Windows Server 2003 with SP1, Windows Server 2003 with SP2, Windows Server 2008, Windows Server 2008 R2, Windows Server 2012, Windows Vista <a href="https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc754599.aspx" target="_blank">https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc754599.aspx</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>"Command-Line Reference: Sc". TechNet. Microsoft. Retrieved 8 January 2014. Windows 7, Windows 8, Windows Server 2003, Windows Server 2003 R2, Windows Server 2003 with SP1, Windows Server 2003 with SP2, Windows Server 2008, Windows Server 2008 R2, Windows Server 2012, Windows Vista <a href="https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc754599.aspx" target="_blank">https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc754599.aspx</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>SC - Service Control - Windows CMD - SS64.com <a href="https://ss64.com/nt/sc.html" target="_blank">https://ss64.com/nt/sc.html</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>reactos/sc.c at master · reactos/reactos · GitHub <a href="https://github.com/reactos/reactos/blob/master/base/applications/sc/sc.c" target="_blank">https://github.com/reactos/reactos/blob/master/base/applications/sc/sc.c</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>MS-DOS and Windows command line sc command <a href="https://www.computerhope.com/sc-command.htm" target="_blank">https://www.computerhope.com/sc-command.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>MS-DOS and Windows command line sc command <a href="https://www.computerhope.com/sc-command.htm" target="_blank">https://www.computerhope.com/sc-command.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>"Get-Service". TechNet. Microsoft. Retrieved 29 March 2013. <a href="https://technet.microsoft.com/library/hh849804.aspx" target="_blank">https://technet.microsoft.com/library/hh849804.aspx</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>"New-Service". TechNet. Microsoft. Retrieved 29 March 2013. <a href="https://technet.microsoft.com/en-US/library/hh849830.aspx" target="_blank">https://technet.microsoft.com/en-US/library/hh849830.aspx</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>"Restart-Service". TechNet. Microsoft. Retrieved 29 March 2013. <a href="https://technet.microsoft.com/en-US/library/hh849823.aspx" target="_blank">https://technet.microsoft.com/en-US/library/hh849823.aspx</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>"Resume-Service". TechNet. Microsoft. Retrieved 29 March 2013. <a href="https://technet.microsoft.com/en-US/library/hh849811.aspx" target="_blank">https://technet.microsoft.com/en-US/library/hh849811.aspx</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>"Set-Service". TechNet. Microsoft. Retrieved 29 March 2013. <a href="https://technet.microsoft.com/en-US/library/hh849849.aspx" target="_blank">https://technet.microsoft.com/en-US/library/hh849849.aspx</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>"Start-Service". TechNet. Microsoft. Retrieved 29 March 2013. <a href="https://technet.microsoft.com/en-US/library/hh849825.aspx" target="_blank">https://technet.microsoft.com/en-US/library/hh849825.aspx</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>"Stop-Service". TechNet. Microsoft. Retrieved 29 March 2013. <a href="https://technet.microsoft.com/en-US/library/hh849790.aspx" target="_blank">https://technet.microsoft.com/en-US/library/hh849790.aspx</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>"Suspend-Service". TechNet. Microsoft. Retrieved 29 March 2013. <a href="https://technet.microsoft.com/en-US/library/hh849791.aspx" target="_blank">https://technet.microsoft.com/en-US/library/hh849791.aspx</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>"Start, stop, pause, resume, or restart a service". TechNet. Microsoft. Retrieved 8 January 2014. <a href="https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc736564%28v=ws.10%29.aspx" target="_blank">https://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc736564%28v=ws.10%29.aspx</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>"INF AddService Directive". Microsoft. Retrieved 10 July 2017. <a href="https://docs.microsoft.com/windows-hardware/drivers/install/inf-addservice-directive" target="_blank">https://docs.microsoft.com/windows-hardware/drivers/install/inf-addservice-directive</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>"SetupInstallServicesFromInfSection function". MSDN. Microsoft. Retrieved 10 July 2017. <a href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/library/aa377402.aspx" target="_blank">https://msdn.microsoft.com/library/aa377402.aspx</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>"SetupInstallServicesFromInfSectionEx function". MSDN. Microsoft. Retrieved 10 July 2017. <a href="https://msdn.microsoft.com/library/aa377403.aspx" target="_blank">https://msdn.microsoft.com/library/aa377403.aspx</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>"How To Create a User-Defined Service". Support. Microsoft. Retrieved 29 March 2013. <a href="http://support.microsoft.com/kb/137890" target="_blank">http://support.microsoft.com/kb/137890</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>