Menu
Home
People
Places
Arts
History
Plants & Animals
Science
Life & Culture
Technology
Reference.org
Dairy product
open-in-new
<h2 id="types-of-dairy-product">Types of dairy product</h2> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/List_of_dairy_products/uCr1zPN5">List of dairy products</a></p> <h3>Milk</h3> <p><a href="/facts/Milk/wDJBUHvy">Milk</a> is produced after optional <a href="/facts/Homogenization_(chemistry)/Yv3Bzkr0">homogenization</a> or <a href="/facts/Pasteurization/LnpM2tK1">pasteurization</a>, in several grades after <a href="/facts/Standardization/vS9AhNMS">standardization</a> of the fat level, and possible addition of the bacteria <i><a href="/facts/Streptococcus_lactis/hz0EFq5F">Streptococcus lactis</a></i> and <i><a href="/facts/Leuconostoc_citrovorum/Vzz4h2wV">Leuconostoc citrovorum</a></i>. Milk can be broken down into several different categories based on type of product produced, including cream, butter, cheese, infant formula, and yogurt. </p><p>Milk varies in fat content. <a href="/facts/Skim_milk/MFspysez">Skim milk</a> is milk with zero fat, while <a href="/facts/Whole_milk/wDJBUHvy">whole milk</a> products contain fat. </p><p>Milk is an ingredient in many confectioneries. Milk can be added to chocolate to produce <a href="/facts/Milk_chocolate/76gSPMRM">milk chocolate</a>. </p> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Scalded_milk/BV5ancSH">Scalded milk</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Condensed_milk/ddV2uxhn">Condensed milk</a>, milk which has been concentrated by evaporation, with sugar added for reduced process time and longer life in an opened can</li> <li><a href="/facts/Evaporated_milk/9hV8DsAT">Evaporated milk</a>, (less concentrated than condensed) milk without <a href="/facts/Added_sugar/cqYAro7o">added sugar</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Baked_milk/6Lt4w7kS">Baked milk</a> is milk simmered on low heat for long time which results in mild <a href="/facts/Caramelization/pLKsnSIV">caramelization</a>. Particularly popular in <a href="/facts/Eastern_Europe/f5CDGzNA">Eastern Europe</a>.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Dulce_de_leche/YbcbaAGg">Dulce de leche</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Malai/7YSoDB4G">Malai</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Powdered_milk/Wt4bHboG">Powdered milk</a> (or milk powder), produced by removing the water from (usually skim) milk</li> <li><a href="/facts/Khoa/9Sb2NyAI">Khoa</a>, milk which has been completely concentrated by evaporation, used in <a href="/facts/Indian_cuisine/3kvMt2Nh">Indian cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Infant_formula/lrbUhzXV">Infant formula</a>, dried milk powder with specific additives for feeding human infants</li> <li>High milk-fat and nutritional products (for infant formulas)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Whey/sTKcoxRq">Whey</a>, the liquid drained from curds and used for further processing or as a livestock feed</li> <li><a href="/facts/Buttermilk/A6T5mkvT">Buttermilk</a>, the liquid left over after producing butter from cream, often dried as <a href="/facts/Livestock/Quhv6GvP">livestock</a> feed</li> <li><a href="/facts/Milk_skin/B20QarXf">Milk skin</a></li></ul> <h3>Cream</h3> <a href="/facts/Cream/3zSQTkuK">Cream</a> and fermented cream <ul><li>Single cream, double cream and <a href="/facts/Whipped_cream/A8PD9PF8">whipped cream</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Clotted_cream/daUK9P2x">Clotted cream</a>, thick, spoonable cream made by heating milk</li> <li><a href="/facts/Kaymak/VyoMLPHp">Kaymak</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Sour_cream/DfoCEtpQ">Sour cream</a> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Smetana_(dairy_product)/sV06ETgF">Smetana</a>, Central and Eastern European variety of sour cream</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/facts/Cr%25C3%25A8me_fra%25C3%25AEche/91xlLnou">Crème fraîche</a>, slightly fermented cream</li></ul> <h3>Butter</h3> <p><a href="/facts/Butter/FqydR0dC">Butter</a>, mostly milk fat, produced by churning cream </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/facts/Ghee/mv1b2ILY">Ghee</a>,</i> also called clarified butter is made by gentle heating of butter and removal of the solid matter <ul><li><i><a href="/facts/Smen/aetEUIGW">Smen</a></i>, a fermented, clarified butter used in Moroccan cooking</li> <li><a href="/facts/Anhydrous/A7B0fDLE">Anhydrous</a> milkfat (<a href="/facts/Clarified_butter/lsrpx6ap">clarified butter</a>)</li></ul></li></ul> <h3>Fermented</h3> <p><a href="/facts/Fermented_milk_products/hdvoA3r6">Fermented milk products</a> include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Soured_milk/szoTVd3F">Soured milk</a> obtained by fermentation with <a href="/facts/Mesophile/pyedpVMd">mesophilic bacteria</a>, mainly <i><a href="/facts/Lactococcus_lactis/hz0EFq5F">Lactococcus lactis</a></i> and other bacterial cultures and yeasts</li> <li><a href="/facts/Soured_cream/DfoCEtpQ">Soured cream</a> and <a href="/facts/Cr%25C3%25A8me_fra%25C3%25AEche/91xlLnou">crème fraîche</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Buttermilk/A6T5mkvT">Cultured buttermilk</a> resembling buttermilk, but uses different yeast and bacterial cultures</li> <li><a href="/facts/Clabber_(food)/0YY20JqX">Clabber</a>, milk naturally fermented to a yogurt-like state</li> <li><a href="/facts/Filmj%25C3%25B6lk/kg5T2CHM">Filmjölk</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Ymer_(dairy_product)/uXqxf1uH">Ymer</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Viili/2wuSaRJ0">Viili</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Kefir/L1Q3JvJt">Kefir</a>, fermented milk drink from the <a href="/facts/Northern_Caucasus/GpxBJatP">Northern Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Kumis/myVoCo2o">Kumis</a>, fermented mares' milk popular in <a href="/facts/Central_Asia/rB8k0CyT">Central Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Amasi/eXN3ePX6">Amasi</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Mursik/eXIK8Lv8">Mursik</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Quark_(dairy_product)/6TNShLyc">Quark</a></li></ul> <h3>Yogurt</h3> <p><a href="/facts/Yogurt/JoQjepa7">Yogurt</a>, milk fermented by <a href="/facts/Thermophile/HGuP161d">thermophilic bacteria</a>, mainly <i><a href="/facts/Streptococcus/Fx8lJ0nz">Streptococcus</a> salivarius</i> ssp. <i>thermophilus</i> and <a href="/facts/Lactobacillus_delbrueckii_ssp._bulgaricus/g91Xa8M4"><i>Lactobacillus delbrueckii</i> ssp. <i>bulgaricus</i></a> sometimes with additional bacteria, such as <i><a href="/facts/Lactobacillus/pwoacAbe">Lactobacillus</a> acidophilus</i> </p> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Acidophiline/Me7rgAv8">Acidophiline</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Matzoon/Ab0Gvbxr">Matzoon</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Skyr/zwMTp3RE">Skyr</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Strained_yogurt/EHEJShbA">Strained yogurt</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Qatyq/ECFFL86W">Qatyq</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Ryazhenka/eH4ck0dr">Ryazhenka</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Varenets/X6jdhTA7">Varenets</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Ayran/UgLgIpzm">Ayran</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Doogh/UgLgIpzm">Doogh</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Lassi/U490E5Gh">Lassi</a>, Indian subcontinent</li> <li><a href="/facts/Leben_(food)/NXaEdYh2">Leben</a></li></ul> <h3>Cheese</h3> <p><a href="/facts/Cheese/JrG8nGCm">Cheese</a>, produced by <a href="/facts/Coagulating/vnfEevM0">coagulating</a> milk, separating <a href="/facts/Curds/yqRzqk51">curds</a> from <a href="/facts/Whey/sTKcoxRq">whey</a>, and letting it ripen, generally with <a href="/facts/Bacteria/wC8xSCsU">bacteria</a>, and sometimes also with certain <a href="/facts/Mold_(fungus)/7nHqptM7">molds</a>. </p> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Rennet/VJgHPk2M">Rennet</a>-coagulated cheeses <ul><li><a href="/facts/Blue_cheese/dbF3KE0p">Blue cheese</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Brined_cheese/eYyVse0L">Brined cheese</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Washed-rind_cheese/xL2WMaKg">Washed-rind cheese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/facts/Sour_milk_cheese/s7REeUo1">Acid-set or sour milk cheeses</a> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Fresh_cheese/0DhPpLRb">Fresh cheeses</a> and <a href="/facts/Curd/yqRzqk51">curds</a>, the soft, curdled part of milk (or skim milk) used to make cheese</li> <li><a href="/facts/Chhena/5wuopj7M">Chhena</a> and <a href="/facts/Paneer/GQtPBS2e">paneer</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Cream_cheese/SdxgPq1j">Cream cheese</a>, produced by the addition of cream to milk and then curdled to form a rich curd or cheese</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/facts/Whey_cheese/Ul4pn3go">Whey cheese</a> is a dairy product made from whey and thus technically not cheese. <ul><li>Heat and acid coagulation <ul><li><a href="/facts/Ricotta/mKJUY5z5">Ricotta</a>, acidified whey cheese</li> <li><a href="/facts/Manouri/xSa98stu">Manouri</a>, <a href="/facts/Anthotyros/b1aahnnV">anthotyros</a>, <a href="/facts/Mizithra/UGh0pf9v">mizithra</a> from Greece.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/facts/Brunost/UnoFd3Fa">Brown cheese</a> made of boiled-down whey</li></ul></li></ul> <h3>Custard</h3> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Custard/EI3GcECM">Custard</a>, thickened with eggs</li> <li><a href="/facts/Bird%2527s_custard/7paPXCnJ">Imitation custard</a>, thickened with starch</li></ul> <h3>Frozen</h3> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Ice_cream/jVhC4nwR">Ice cream</a>, slowly frozen cream, milk, flavors and emulsifying additives (dairy ice cream)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Gelato/5RtQoWh1">Gelato</a>, slowly frozen milk and water, lesser fat than ice cream</li> <li><a href="/facts/Ice_milk/T7AbgsXP">Ice milk</a>, low-fat version of ice cream</li> <li><a href="/facts/Frozen_custard/WHzHu1Ye">Frozen custard</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Frozen_yogurt/mnpQQ8bn">Frozen yogurt</a>, yogurt with emulsifiers</li></ul> <h3>Casein</h3> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Casein/Udl5k8sx">Casein</a>, milk proteins</li> <li>Caseinates, sodium or calcium salts of casein</li> <li>Milk protein concentrates and isolates</li> <li><a href="/facts/Whey/sTKcoxRq">Whey</a> protein concentrates and isolates, reduced lactose whey</li> <li>Hydrolysates, milk treated with proteolytic enzymes to alter functionality</li> <li><a href="/facts/Mineral/LkUFbNmv">Mineral</a> concentrates, byproduct of demineralizing whey</li></ul> <h2 id="consumption-patterns-worldwide">Consumption patterns worldwide</h2> <p>Rates of dairy consumption vary widely worldwide. High-consumption countries consume more than 150 kilograms (330 lb) <a href="/facts/Per_capita/eX6nLpcA">per capita</a> per year. These countries are: Argentina, Armenia, Australia, Costa Rica, most European countries, Israel, Kyrgyzstan, Canada, the United States and Pakistan. Medium-consumption countries consume 30 kilograms (66 lb) to 150 kg per capita per year. These countries are: India, Iran, Japan, Kenya, Mexico, Mongolia, New Zealand, North and Southern Africa, most of the Middle East, and most of Latin America and the Caribbean. Low-consumption countries consume under 30 kg per capita per year. These countries are: Senegal, most of Central Africa, and most of East and Southeast Asia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="lactose-levels">Lactose levels</h2> <p>For those with some degree of <a href="/facts/Lactose_intolerance/sD6q8shx">lactose intolerance</a>, considering the amount of <a href="/facts/Lactose/lBa5ozYk">lactose</a> in dairy products can be important to health. </p> <table><tbody><tr><th>Dairy product</th><th>Amount of lactose</th></tr><tr><td>Milk</td><td>Highest</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Butter/FqydR0dC">Butter</a></td><td>Minimal (made from <a href="/facts/Milk_fat/enmcgMcH">milk fat</a>)</td></tr><tr><td>Hard <a href="/facts/Cheese/JrG8nGCm">cheese</a></td><td>Very low</td></tr><tr><td>Soft cheese</td><td>More than hard cheese</td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="intolerance-and-health-research">Intolerance and health research</h2> <p>Dairy products may upset the <a href="/facts/Digestive_system/SdpF0sWq">digestive system</a> in individuals with <a href="/facts/Lactose_intolerance/sD6q8shx">lactose intolerance</a> or a <a href="/facts/Milk_allergy/6j0NuSyt">milk allergy</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> People who experience lactose intolerance usually avoid milk and other lactose-containing dairy products, which may cause mild <a href="/facts/Side_effect/PhuX2haY">side effects</a>, such as abdominal pain, bloating, diarrhea, gas, and nausea.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> Such individuals may use non-dairy <a href="/facts/Milk_substitute/Gnr1VJfX">milk substitutes</a>. </p> <h3>Cancer</h3> <p>There is no scientific evidence that consuming dairy products causes cancer.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/British_Dietetic_Association/WGIPD5se">British Dietetic Association</a> have described the idea that milk promotes hormone related cancerous tumour growth as a myth, stating "no link between dairy containing diets and risk of cancer or promoting cancer growth as a result of hormones".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> In 2024, <a href="/facts/Cancer_Research_UK/BUEAPqy9">Cancer Research UK</a> stated "there is no reliable evidence that casein or hormones in dairy causes cancer in people".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/American_Cancer_Society/LvXxqke6">American Cancer Society</a> (ACS) does not make specific recommendations on dairy food consumption for cancer prevention.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> Higher-quality research is needed to characterise valid associations between dairy consumption and risk of and/or cancer-related mortality.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> </p><p>A 2023 review found no association between consumption of dairy products and <a href="/facts/Breast_cancer/6hME580v">breast cancer</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> Other recent reviews have found that low-fat dairy intake is associated with a decreased risk of breast cancer.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> </p> <h4>Colorectal cancer</h4> <p>The <a href="/facts/American_Institute_for_Cancer_Research/0uQy9KBX">American Institute for Cancer Research</a> (AICR), <a href="/facts/World_Cancer_Research_Fund_International/MuhUqaKd">World Cancer Research Fund International</a> (WCRF), <a href="/facts/Cancer_Council_Australia/nHsFPbLQ">Cancer Council Australia</a> (CCA) and <a href="/facts/Cancer_Research_UK/BUEAPqy9">Cancer Research UK</a> have stated that there is strong evidence that consumption of dairy products decreases risk of <a href="/facts/Colorectal_cancer/nV592sW7">colorectal cancer</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> A 2021 <a href="/facts/Umbrella_review/cow7EkCp">umbrella review</a> found strong evidence that consumption of dairy products decreases risk of colorectal cancer.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Fermented_milk_products/hdvoA3r6">Fermented dairy</a> is associated with significantly decreased bladder cancer and colorectal cancer risk.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> A scoping review for Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2023 found a reduced risk of colorectal cancer from dairy intake.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> </p> <h4>Prostate cancer</h4> <p>The AICR, WCRF, CCA and <a href="/facts/Prostate_Cancer_UK/WkhnWfAp">Prostate Cancer UK</a> have stated that there is limited but suggestive evidence that dairy products increase risk of <a href="/facts/Prostate_cancer/Mx7XuDhm">prostate cancer</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> Cancer Research UK have stated that "research has not proven that milk or dairy increases the risk of prostate cancer" and that high-quality research is needed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> </p><p>It has been suggested that consumption of <a href="/facts/Insulin-like_growth_factor_1/2n0nPvtD">insulin-like growth factor 1</a> (IGF-1) in dairy products could increase cancer risk, particularly prostate cancer.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> However, a 2018 review by the Committee on Carcinogenicity of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Products and the Environment (COC) concluded that there is "insufficient evidence to draw any firm conclusions as to whether exposure to dietary IGF-1 is associated with an increased incidence of cancer in consumers".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> The COC also stated it is unlikely that there would be absorption of intact IGF-1 from food by most consumers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> </p> <h3>Cardiovascular disease</h3> <p>The <a href="/facts/American_Medical_Association/Wmfxy2xV">American Medical Association</a> (AMA) recommends that people replace full-fat dairy products with nonfat and low-fat dairy products.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> In 2017, the AMA stated that there is no <a href="/facts/Evidence-based_medicine/InK1lB9l">high-quality clinical evidence</a> that cheese consumption lowers the risk of cardiovascular disease.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> In 2021, they stated that "taken together, replacing full-fat dairy products with nonfat and low-fat dairy products and other sources of unsaturated fat shifts the composition of dietary patterns toward higher unsaturated to saturated fat ratios that are associated with better cardiovascular health".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> </p><p>In 2017, the <a href="/facts/National_Heart_Foundation_of_New_Zealand/Kwjptm0x">National Heart Foundation of New Zealand</a> published an <a href="/facts/Umbrella_review/cow7EkCp">umbrella review</a> which found an "overall neutral effect of dairy on cardiovascular risk for the general population".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> Their position paper stated that "the evidence overall suggests dairy products can be included in a heart-healthy eating pattern and choosing reduced-fat dairy over full-fat dairy reduces risk for some, but not all, cardiovascular risk factors".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> </p><p>In 2019 the <a href="/facts/National_Heart_Foundation_of_Australia/LxLtE2VE">National Heart Foundation of Australia</a> published a position statement on full fat dairy products, "Based on current evidence, there is not enough evidence to recommend full fat over reduced fat products or reduced fat over full fat products for the general population. For people with elevated cholesterol and those with existing coronary heart disease, reduced fat products are recommended."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> The position statement also noted that the "evidence for milk, yoghurt and cheese does not extend to butter, cream, ice-cream and dairy-based desserts; these products should be avoided in a heart healthy eating pattern".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> </p><p>Recent reviews of <a href="/facts/Randomized_controlled_trial/LG9lkyVx">randomized controlled trials</a> have found that dairy intake from cheese, milk and yogurt does not have detrimental effects on markers of cardiometabolic health.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> A 2025 global analysis found that that total dairy consumption is associated with a 3.7% reduced risk of cardiovascular disease and a 6% reduced risk of stroke.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a> </p> <h3>Other</h3> <p>Consumption of dairy products such as low-fat and whole milk have been associated with an increased <a href="/facts/Acne/TKJxhHSd">acne</a> risk, however, as of 2022 there is no conclusive evidence.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a> Fermented and low-fat dairy products are associated with a decreased risk of <a href="/facts/Diabetes/2xeHXbsI">diabetes</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a> Consumption of dairy products are also associated with a decreased risk of <a href="/facts/Gout/ktWD69YP">gout</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a> </p><p>A 2023 review found that higher intake of dairy products is significantly associated with a lower risk of <a href="/facts/Inflammatory_bowel_disease/RuxcPW5A">inflammatory bowel disease</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a> A 2025 review found that dairy product intake is associated with a lower incidence of <a href="/facts/Tinnitus/QNjx4EJp">tinnitus</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="avoidance-on-principle">Avoidance on principle</h2> <p>Some groups avoid dairy products for non-health-related reasons. Some religions restrict or do not allow the consumption of dairy products. For example, some scholars of <a href="/facts/Jain_vegetarianism/YIPwtun8">Jainism</a> advocate not consuming any dairy products because dairy is perceived to involve violence against cows.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a> Orthodox <a href="/facts/Kosher/vA7yLY7x">Judaism</a> requires that meat and dairy products not be served at the same meal, served or cooked in the same utensils, or stored together, as prescribed in Deuteronomy 14:21.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Veganism/ENrKFBzz">Veganism</a> is the avoidance of all animal products, including dairy products, most often due to the ethics regarding how dairy products are produced. The <a href="/facts/Ethics_of_eating_meat/WISmqCM0">ethical reasons for avoiding meat</a> and dairy products include how dairy is produced, how the animals are handled, and the environmental effect of dairy production.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a> According to a report of the United Nations' <a href="/facts/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization/13WV8JJK">Food and Agriculture Organization</a> in 2010 the dairy sector accounted for 4 percent of global human-made greenhouse gas emissions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a> </p><p>Growing awareness of dairy products' environmental impact, specifically greenhouse gas emissions, has led to many people reducing or avoiding dairy. In the EU, dairy is responsible for 27% of all diet related emissions, on average, while <a href="/facts/Plant_milk/Q7L1zqPY">plant-based milks</a> cause 2.5–4.5 times fewer emissions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/List_of_dairy_products/uCr1zPN5">List of dairy products</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/List_of_dairy_product_companies_in_the_United_States/UGW2wN16">List of dairy product companies in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Dairy_industry_in_the_United_States/w2dVlAE7">Dairy industry in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Dairy_industry_in_the_United_Kingdom/353uLc43">Dairy industry in the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Swiss_cheeses_and_dairy_products/S166ylxo">Swiss cheeses and dairy products</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references-and-notes">References and notes</h2> <h3>Notes</h3> <h3>References</h3> <h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2> <ul><li>Fuquay, John W. ed. <i>Encyclopedia of Dairy Sciences</i> (2nd Edition, 4 vol 2011), comprehensive coverage.</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Humayun Kober, A. K. M. (2024). Milk and Dairy Foods: Nutrition, Processing and Healthy Aging. CRC Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-1040042151. <a href="978-1040042151" target="_blank">978-1040042151</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Historically, dairy products were referred to as lacticinia and were known as white meats in Early Modern English.[2][3] <a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_English" target="_blank">/wiki/Early_Modern_English</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>"Dairy | Clemson University, South Carolina". clemson.edu. Archived from the original on 31 December 2016. Retrieved 11 November 2016. <a href="http://www.clemson.edu/centers-institutes/sullivan/ourservices/patients/nutrition101/Dairy/" target="_blank">http://www.clemson.edu/centers-institutes/sullivan/ourservices/patients/nutrition101/Dairy/</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>"Is Butter a Dairy Product, and Does it Contain Lactose?". Authority Nutrition. 1 July 2016. Archived from the original on 28 January 2017. Retrieved 11 November 2016. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170128171255/https://authoritynutrition.com/is-butter-dairy/" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20170128171255/https://authoritynutrition.com/is-butter-dairy/</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>or dairy factory <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>"Definition of DAIRY". Merriam-Webster. Archived from the original on 30 October 2016. Retrieved 29 October 2016. <a href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dairy" target="_blank">http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dairy</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>"Dairy production and products: Milk and milk products". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Archived from the original on 27 October 2016. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161027154749/http://www.fao.org/agriculture/dairy-gateway/milk-and-milk-products/en/#.WBTleuErLdQ" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20161027154749/http://www.fao.org/agriculture/dairy-gateway/milk-and-milk-products/en/#.WBTleuErLdQ</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>"Dairy production and products: Milk and milk products". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Archived from the original on 27 October 2016. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161027154749/http://www.fao.org/agriculture/dairy-gateway/milk-and-milk-products/en/#.WBTleuErLdQ" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20161027154749/http://www.fao.org/agriculture/dairy-gateway/milk-and-milk-products/en/#.WBTleuErLdQ</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>"WHO | 3. Global and regional food consumption patterns and trends". World Health Organization. Archived from the original on 12 March 2019. Retrieved 18 March 2019. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190312153655/https://www.who.int/nutrition/topics/3_foodconsumption/en/index4.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20190312153655/https://www.who.int/nutrition/topics/3_foodconsumption/en/index4.html</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>"Lactose Intolerance". National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, US National Institutes of Health. 2021. Retrieved 5 April 2021. <a href="https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/digestive-diseases/lactose-intolerance" target="_blank">https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/digestive-diseases/lactose-intolerance</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>"Lactose intolerance". Genetics Home Reference. 8 February 2016. Archived from the original on 25 January 2016. Retrieved 12 February 2016. <a href="http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/lactose-intolerance" target="_blank">http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/lactose-intolerance</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>"Milk Allergy – Food Allergy Research & Education". foodallergy.org. Archived from the original on 8 February 2016. Retrieved 12 February 2016. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160208163510/http://www.foodallergy.org/allergens/milk-allergy" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20160208163510/http://www.foodallergy.org/allergens/milk-allergy</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>"Lactose Intolerance". National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, US National Institutes of Health. 2021. Retrieved 5 April 2021. <a href="https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/digestive-diseases/lactose-intolerance" target="_blank">https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/digestive-diseases/lactose-intolerance</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>"Lactose intolerance". Genetics Home Reference. 8 February 2016. Archived from the original on 25 January 2016. Retrieved 12 February 2016. <a href="http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/lactose-intolerance" target="_blank">http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/lactose-intolerance</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>"Milk, dairy and cancer risk". Cancer Research UK. 2024. Archived from the original on 1 June 2025. <a href="https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/diet-and-cancer/dairy-and-cancer-risk" target="_blank">https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/diet-and-cancer/dairy-and-cancer-risk</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>"Cancer Diets: Myths and More". British Dietetic Association. 2024. Archived from the original on 26 July 2024. <a href="https://www.bda.uk.com/resource/cancer-diets-myths-and-more.html" target="_blank">https://www.bda.uk.com/resource/cancer-diets-myths-and-more.html</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>"Milk, dairy and cancer risk". Cancer Research UK. 2024. Archived from the original on 1 June 2025. <a href="https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/diet-and-cancer/dairy-and-cancer-risk" target="_blank">https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/diet-and-cancer/dairy-and-cancer-risk</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>"American Cancer Society Guideline for Diet and Physical Activity". cancer.org. Retrieved 24 January 2023. <a href="https://www.cancer.org/healthy/eat-healthy-get-active/acs-guidelines-nutrition-physical-activity-cancer-prevention/guidelines.html" target="_blank">https://www.cancer.org/healthy/eat-healthy-get-active/acs-guidelines-nutrition-physical-activity-cancer-prevention/guidelines.html</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Jeyaraman, Maya M; Abou-Setta, Ahmed M; Grant, Laurel; Farshidfar, Farnaz; Copstein, Leslie; Lys, Justin; Gottschalk, Tania; Desautels, Danielle; Czaykowski, Piotr; Pitz, Marshall; Zarychanski, Ryan (2019). "Dairy product consumption and development of cancer: an overview of reviews". BMJ Open. 9 (1): e023625. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-023625. ISSN 2044-6055. PMC 6352799. PMID 30782711. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6352799" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6352799</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Arafat HM, Omar J, Shafii N, Naser IA, Al Laham NA, Muhamad R, Al-Astani TA, Shaqaliah AJ, Shamallakh OM, Shamallakh KM, Abusalah MA (2023). "The association between breast cancer and consumption of dairy products: a systematic review". Ann Med. 55 (1): 2198256. doi:10.1080/07853890.2023.2198256. PMC 10120447. PMID 37078247. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10120447" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10120447</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>He Y, Tao Q, Zhou F, Si Y, Fu R, Xu B, Xu J, Li X, Chen B (2021). "The relationship between dairy products intake and breast cancer incidence: a meta-analysis of observational studies". BMC Cancer. 21 (1): 1109. doi:10.1186/s12885-021-08854-w. PMC 8520314. PMID 34654387. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8520314" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8520314</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>An S, Gunathilake M, Kim J (2025). "Dairy consumption is associated with breast cancer risk: a comprehensive meta-analysis stratified by hormone receptor and menopausal status, and age". Nutrition Research. 138: 68–75. doi:10.1016/j.nutres.2025.02.003. PMID 40311535. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0271531725000259" target="_blank">https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0271531725000259</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>"Milk, dairy and cancer risk". Cancer Research UK. 2024. Archived from the original on 1 June 2025. <a href="https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/diet-and-cancer/dairy-and-cancer-risk" target="_blank">https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/diet-and-cancer/dairy-and-cancer-risk</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Clinton SK, Giovannucci EL, Hursting SD (2020). "The World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research Third Expert Report on Diet, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Cancer: Impact and Future Directions". The Journal of Nutrition. 150 (4): 663–671. doi:10.1093/jn/nxz268. PMC 7317613. PMID 31758189. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7317613" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7317613</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>"Meat, fish and dairy products and the risk of cancer". wcrf.org. Retrieved 24 January 2023. <a href="https://www.wcrf.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Meat-fish-and-dairy-products.pdf" target="_blank">https://www.wcrf.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Meat-fish-and-dairy-products.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>"Information sheet: Dairy foods and cancer". cancer.org.au. Retrieved 24 January 2023. <a href="https://www.cancer.org.au/about-us/policy-and-advocacy/prevention-policy/national-cancer-prevention-policy/obesity/related-resources/dairy-foods-and-cancer" target="_blank">https://www.cancer.org.au/about-us/policy-and-advocacy/prevention-policy/national-cancer-prevention-policy/obesity/related-resources/dairy-foods-and-cancer</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Papadimitriou N, Markozannes G, Kanellopoulou A, Critselis E, Alhardan S, Karafousia V, Kasimis JC, Katsaraki C, Papadopoulou A, Zografou M, Lopez DS, Chan DS, Kyrgiou M, Ntzani E, Cross AJ, Marrone MT, Platz EA, Gunter MJ, Tsilidis KK (2021). "An umbrella review of the evidence associating diet and cancer risk at 11 anatomical sites". Nature Communications. 12 (1): 4579. Bibcode:2021NatCo..12.4579P. doi:10.1038/s41467-021-24861-8. PMC 8319326. PMID 34321471. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8319326" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8319326</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>Zhang K, Dai H, Liang W, Zhang L, Deng Z (2019). "Fermented dairy foods intake and risk of cancer". Int J Cancer. 144 (9): 2099–2108. doi:10.1002/ijc.31959. PMID 30374967. S2CID 53114731. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fijc.31959" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fijc.31959</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>Bjørklund Holven K, Sonestedt E (2024). "Milk and dairy products - a scoping review for Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2023". Food & Nutrition Research. 30: 68. doi:10.29219/fnr.v68.10486. PMC 11708500. PMID 39781268. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11708500" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11708500</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>Clinton SK, Giovannucci EL, Hursting SD (2020). "The World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research Third Expert Report on Diet, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Cancer: Impact and Future Directions". The Journal of Nutrition. 150 (4): 663–671. doi:10.1093/jn/nxz268. PMC 7317613. PMID 31758189. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7317613" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7317613</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>"Meat, fish and dairy products and the risk of cancer". wcrf.org. Retrieved 24 January 2023. <a href="https://www.wcrf.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Meat-fish-and-dairy-products.pdf" target="_blank">https://www.wcrf.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Meat-fish-and-dairy-products.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:32"><p>"Information sheet: Dairy foods and cancer". cancer.org.au. Retrieved 24 January 2023. <a href="https://www.cancer.org.au/about-us/policy-and-advocacy/prevention-policy/national-cancer-prevention-policy/obesity/related-resources/dairy-foods-and-cancer" target="_blank">https://www.cancer.org.au/about-us/policy-and-advocacy/prevention-policy/national-cancer-prevention-policy/obesity/related-resources/dairy-foods-and-cancer</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:33"><p>"Diet, nutrition, physical activity and prostate cancer". wcrf.org. Retrieved 24 January 2023. <a href="https://www.wcrf.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/prostate-cancer-report.pdf" target="_blank">https://www.wcrf.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/prostate-cancer-report.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:34"><p>"Which foods might increase my risk of prostate cancer?". prostatecanceruk.org. Retrieved 24 January 2023. <a href="https://prostatecanceruk.org/prostate-information/are-you-at-risk/can-i-reduce-my-risk" target="_blank">https://prostatecanceruk.org/prostate-information/are-you-at-risk/can-i-reduce-my-risk</a> <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:35"><p>"Milk, dairy and cancer risk". Cancer Research UK. 2024. Archived from the original on 1 June 2025. <a href="https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/diet-and-cancer/dairy-and-cancer-risk" target="_blank">https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/diet-and-cancer/dairy-and-cancer-risk</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:36"><p>Harrison S, Lennon R, Holly J, Higgins JP, Gardner M, Perks C, Gaunt T, Tan V, Borwick C, Emmet P, Jeffreys M, Northstone K, Rinaldi S, Thomas S, Turner SD, Pease A, Vilenchick V, Martin RM, Lewis SJ (2017). "Does milk intake promote prostate cancer initiation or progression via effects on insulin-like growth factors (IGFs)? A systematic review and meta-analysis". Cancer Causes Control. 28 (6): 497–528. doi:10.1007/s10552-017-0883-1. PMC 5400803. PMID 28361446. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5400803" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5400803</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:37"><p>"Statement on possible carcinogenic hazard to consumers from insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) in the diet. assets.publishing.service.gov.uk. Retrieved 4 February 2023. <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/803090/COC_2018_S01_IGF-1_COC_Statement.pdf" target="_blank">https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/803090/COC_2018_S01_IGF-1_COC_Statement.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:38"><p>"Statement on possible carcinogenic hazard to consumers from insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) in the diet. assets.publishing.service.gov.uk. Retrieved 4 February 2023. <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/803090/COC_2018_S01_IGF-1_COC_Statement.pdf" target="_blank">https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/803090/COC_2018_S01_IGF-1_COC_Statement.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:39"><p>"Non-Technical Summary of Statement on possible carcinogenic hazard to consumers from insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) in the diet". assets.publishing.service.gov.uk. Retrieved 4 February 2023. <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/803092/COC_2018_S01_IGF-1_Non-technical_summary.pdf" target="_blank">https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/803092/COC_2018_S01_IGF-1_Non-technical_summary.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:40"><p>Lichtenstein AH, Appel LJ, Vadiveloo M, Hu FB, Kris-Etherton PM, et al. (December 2021). "2021 Dietary Guidance to Improve Cardiovascular Health: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association". Circulation (Review). 144 (23): e472 – e487. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000001031. PMID 34724806. S2CID 240422142. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1161%2FCIR.0000000000001031" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1161%2FCIR.0000000000001031</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:41"><p>Sacks, Frank M.; Lichtenstein, Alice H.; Wu, Jason H.Y.; Appel, Lawrence J.; Creager, Mark A.; Kris-Etherton, Penny M.; Miller, Michael; Rimm, Eric B.; Rudel, Lawrence L.; Robinson, Jennifer G.; Stone, Neil J.; Van Horn, Linda V. (15 June 2017). "Dietary Fats and Cardiovascular Disease: A Presidential Advisory From the American Heart Association". Circulation. 136 (3): e1 – e23. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000510. PMID 28620111. S2CID 367602. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1161%2FCIR.0000000000000510" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1161%2FCIR.0000000000000510</a> <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:42"><p>Lichtenstein AH, Appel LJ, Vadiveloo M, Hu FB, Kris-Etherton PM, et al. (December 2021). "2021 Dietary Guidance to Improve Cardiovascular Health: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association". Circulation (Review). 144 (23): e472 – e487. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000001031. PMID 34724806. S2CID 240422142. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1161%2FCIR.0000000000001031" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1161%2FCIR.0000000000001031</a> <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:43"><p>"Dairy and Heart Health". heartfoundation.org.nz. Retrieved 3 November 2023. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231103201245/https://assets.heartfoundation.org.nz/documents/shop/nutrition/docs/dairy-and-heart-health-evidence-paper.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20231103201245/https://assets.heartfoundation.org.nz/documents/shop/nutrition/docs/dairy-and-heart-health-evidence-paper.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:44"><p>Dairy and the heart - Position statement. heartfoundation.org.nz. Retrieved 3 November 2023. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231103201119/https://assets.heartfoundation.org.nz/documents/shop/nutrition/docs/dairy-position-statement.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20231103201119/https://assets.heartfoundation.org.nz/documents/shop/nutrition/docs/dairy-position-statement.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:45"><p>"Dairy & Heart Healthy Eating". heartfoundation.org.au. Retrieved 25 October 2023. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230809193626/https://www.heartfoundation.org.au/getmedia/54b5c4af-d1ba-40aa-ab08-b7c7ac41b8e9/Nutrition_Position_Statement_-_DAIRY.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20230809193626/https://www.heartfoundation.org.au/getmedia/54b5c4af-d1ba-40aa-ab08-b7c7ac41b8e9/Nutrition_Position_Statement_-_DAIRY.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:46"><p>"Dairy & Heart Healthy Eating". heartfoundation.org.au. Retrieved 25 October 2023. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230809193626/https://www.heartfoundation.org.au/getmedia/54b5c4af-d1ba-40aa-ab08-b7c7ac41b8e9/Nutrition_Position_Statement_-_DAIRY.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20230809193626/https://www.heartfoundation.org.au/getmedia/54b5c4af-d1ba-40aa-ab08-b7c7ac41b8e9/Nutrition_Position_Statement_-_DAIRY.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:47"><p>Derakhshandeh-Rishehri SM, Ghobadi S, Akhlaghi M, Faghih S (2021). "No adverse effects of dairy products on lipid profile: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials". Diabetes Metab Syndr. 15 (6): 102279. doi:10.1016/j.dsx.2021.102279. PMID 34562868. S2CID 237636239. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S187140212100299X" target="_blank">https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S187140212100299X</a> <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:48"><p>Kiesswetter E, Stadelmaier J, Petropoulou M, Morze J, Grummich K, Roux I, Lay R, Himmelsbach L, Kussmann M, Roeger C, Rubach M, Hauner H, Schwingshackl L (2023). "Effects of Dairy Intake on Markers of Cardiometabolic Health in Adults: A Systematic Review with Network Meta-Analysis". Advances in Nutrition. 14 (3): 438–450. doi:10.1016/j.advnut.2023.03.004. PMC 10201829. PMID 36914032. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10201829" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10201829</a> <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:49"><p>Zhuang P, Liu X, Li Y, Ao Y, Wu Y, Ye H, Wan X, Zhang L, Meng D, Tian Y, Yu X, Zhang F, Wang A, Zhang Y, Jiao J (2025). "A global analysis of dairy consumption and incident cardiovascular disease". Nature Communications. 16 (1): 437. Bibcode:2025NatCo..16..437Z. doi:10.1038/s41467-024-55585-0. PMC 11704150. PMID 39762253. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11704150" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11704150</a> <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:50"><p>Aghasi M, Golzarand M, Shab-Bidar S, Aminianfar A, Omidian M, Taheri F (2018). "Dairy intake and acne development: A meta-analysis of observational studies". Clinical Nutrition. 38 (3): 1067–1075. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2018.04.015. PMID 29778512. S2CID 29167833. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:51"><p>Dall'Oglio F, Nasca MR, Fiorentini F, Micali G (2021). "Diet and acne: review of the evidence from 2009 to 2020". International Journal of Dermatology. 60 (6): 672–685. doi:10.1111/ijd.15390. PMID 33462816. S2CID 231643205. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:52"><p>Meixiong J, Ricco C, Vasavda C, Ho BK (2022). "Diet and acne: A systematic review". JAAD International. 29 (7): 95–112. doi:10.1016/j.jdin.2022.02.012. PMC 8971946. PMID 35373155. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8971946" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8971946</a> <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:53"><p>Gao D, Ning N, Wang C, Wang Y, Li Q, Meng Z, Liu Y, Li Q (2013). "Dairy products consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes: systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis". PLOS ONE. 8 (9): e73965. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...873965G. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0073965. PMC 3785489. PMID 24086304. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3785489" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3785489</a> <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:54"><p>Zhang K, Bai P, Deng Z (2022). "Dose-Dependent Effect of Intake of Fermented Dairy Foods on the Risk of Diabetes: Results From a Meta-analysis". Can J Diabetes. 46 (3): 307–312. doi:10.1016/j.jcjd.2021.09.003. PMID 35568432. S2CID 239148132. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:55"><p>Singh JA, Reddy SG, Kundukulam J (2011). "Risk factors for gout and prevention: a systematic review of the literature". Curr Opin Rheumatol. 23 (2): 192–202. doi:10.1097/BOR.0b013e3283438e13. PMC 4104583. PMID 21285714. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4104583" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4104583</a> <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:56"><p>Talebi S, Zeraattalab-Motlagh S, Rahimlou M, Naeini F, Ranjbar M, Talebi A, Mohammadi H (2023). "The Association between Total Protein, Animal Protein, and Animal Protein Sources with Risk of Inflammatory Bowel Diseases: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Cohort Studies". Advances in Nutrition. 14 (4): 752–761. doi:10.1016/j.advnut.2023.05.008. PMC 10334156. PMID 37187455. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10334156" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10334156</a> <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:57"><p>Zhang M, Wang X, Zhang S (2025). "Association of 15 common dietary factors with tinnitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies". BMJ Open. 15 (3): e091507. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2024-091507. PMC 12010292. PMID 40101973. <a href="https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/15/3/e091507" target="_blank">https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/15/3/e091507</a> <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:58"><p>Wiley, K.L. (2004). Historical Dictionary of Jainism. Historical Dictionaries of Religions, Philosophies, and Movements Series. Scarecrow Press. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-8108-6558-7. Retrieved 15 April 2019. In recent times, out of concern for the treatment of cows in commercial dairy farming, some Jains in the diaspora and in India now observe a vegan diet and discourage the use of dairy products in temple rituals. <a href="978-0-8108-6558-7" target="_blank">978-0-8108-6558-7</a> <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:59"><p>"Kosher and Halal". Archived from the original on 17 March 2018. <a href="https://meat.tamu.edu/ansc-307-honors/kosher-halal/" target="_blank">https://meat.tamu.edu/ansc-307-honors/kosher-halal/</a> <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:60"><p>"Ethical Reasons to Give Up Dairy Products – dummies". dummies. Archived from the original on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 21 January 2017. <a href="http://www.dummies.com/food-drink/special-diets/dairy-free/ethical-reasons-to-give-up-dairy-products/" target="_blank">http://www.dummies.com/food-drink/special-diets/dairy-free/ethical-reasons-to-give-up-dairy-products/</a> <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:61"><p>"My year of eating ethically". The Independent. 30 June 2010. Archived from the original on 29 September 2017. Retrieved 21 January 2017. <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/food-and-drink/features/my-year-of-eating-ethically-2013871.html" target="_blank">https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/food-and-drink/features/my-year-of-eating-ethically-2013871.html</a> <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:62"><p>"Dairy sector adds 4 percent to man-made emissions: FAO". Reuters. 20 April 2010. Retrieved 9 May 2019. <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-dairy-emissions-fao-idUSTRE63J2KG20100420" target="_blank">https://www.reuters.com/article/us-dairy-emissions-fao-idUSTRE63J2KG20100420</a> <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:63"><p>Moskin, Julia; Plumer, Brad; Lieberman, Rebecca; Weingart, Eden; Popovich, Nadja (30 April 2019). "Your Questions About Food and Climate Change, Answered". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 10 May 2019. <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/04/30/dining/climate-change-food-eating-habits.html" target="_blank">https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/04/30/dining/climate-change-food-eating-habits.html</a> <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:64"><p>Ritchie, Hannah; Roser, Max (1 March 2024). "Dairy vs. plant-based milk: what are the environmental impacts?". Our World in Data. <a href="/wiki/Hannah_Ritchie" target="_blank">/wiki/Hannah_Ritchie</a> <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:65"><p>Sandström, Vilma; Valin, Hugo; Krisztin, Tamás; Havlík, Petr; Herrero, Mario; Kastner, Thomas (December 2018). "The role of trade in the greenhouse gas footprints of EU diets". Global Food Security. 19: 48–55. Bibcode:2018GlFS...19...48S. doi:10.1016/j.gfs.2018.08.007. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211912418300361" target="_blank">https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211912418300361</a> <a href="#fnref:65" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>