Constructionism (learning theory)

<h2 id="instructional-principles">Instructional principles</h2>
Constructionist learning involves students drawing their own conclusions through creative experimentation and the making of social objects. The constructionist teacher takes on a mediational role rather than adopting an instructional role. Teaching "at" students is replaced by assisting them to understand—and help one another to understand—problems in a hands-on way.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7">7</a> The teacher's role is not to be a lecturer but a facilitator who coaches students to attaining their own goals.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a>

<h3>Problem-based learning</h3>
<a href="/facts/Problem-based_learning/sP5vI1p3">Problem-based learning</a> is a constructionist method which allows students to learn about a subject by exposing them to multiple problems and asking them to construct their understanding of the subject through these problems. This kind of learning can be very effective in mathematics classes because students try to solve the problems in many different ways, stimulating their minds.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a>
The following five strategies make problem-based learning more effective:

<ol><li>The learning activities should be related to a larger task. The larger task is important because it allows students to see that the activities can be applied to many aspects of life and, as a result, students are more likely to find the activities they are doing useful.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a></li>
<li>The learner needs to be supported to feel that they are beginning to have ownership of the overall problem.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a></li>
<li>An authentic task should be designed for the learner. This means that the task and the learner's cognitive ability have to match the problems to make learning valuable.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a></li>
<li>Reflection on the content being learned should occur so that learners can think through the process of what they have learned.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a></li>
<li>Allow and encourage the learners to test ideas against different views in different contexts.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a></li></ol>
<h3>Constructionism in social sciences</h3>
Not only can constructionism be applied to mathematics but to the social sciences as well. For example, instead of having students memorize geography facts, a teacher could give students blank maps that show unlabeled rivers, lakes, and mountains, and then ask the students to decipher where major cities might be located without the help of books or maps. This would require students to locate these areas without using prepared resources, but their prior knowledge and reasoning ability instead.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a>
<a href="/facts/Digital_storytelling/VoW3yxWP">Digital storytelling</a> is another application of constructionism to the social sciences. Students can visit institutions in the local community, to understand and document their histories, develop local maps using tools like <a href="/facts/OpenStreetMap/Hd3yejum">OpenStreetMap</a> to enrich digital maps and debate the purpose and activities of local public institutions to build an understanding of political science (civics). Digital storytelling has been used by <a href="https://youtube.com/watch?v=558_E_nzCuc&list=PLWUrlh2K8RdSbG5234CsmHm0pVaq-6SYn&index=6&t=0s">government schools</a> in <a href="/facts/Bengaluru/LoufLHv4">Bengaluru</a> to develop students understanding in the social sciences.

<h2 id="constructionism-and-technology">Constructionism and technology</h2>
Papert was a huge proponent of bringing technology to classrooms, beginning with his early uses of the <a href="/facts/Logo_programming_language/Wh4sdwAh">Logo</a> language to teach mathematics to children. While constructionism has, due to its impetus, been primarily used in science and mathematics teaching (in the form of <a href="/facts/Inquiry-based_science/M7wGswXs">inquiry-based science</a>), it is arguable that it developed in a different form in the field of <a href="/facts/Media_studies/u4dgw2G8">media studies</a> in which students often engage with media theory and practice simultaneously in a complementary <a href="/facts/Praxis_(process)/Lrb2zfEe">praxis</a>. More recently it has gained a foothold in <a href="/facts/Applied_linguistics/UYWLCecs">applied linguistics</a> in the field of <a href="/facts/Second_language_acquisition/lkMLQsur">second language acquisition</a> (SLA). One such application has been the use of the popular game <a href="/facts/SimCity/RFktXSbs">SimCity</a> as a means of teaching English using constructionist techniques.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a>
Beginning in the 1980s, <a href="/facts/LEGO/NW95SLjY">The LEGO Group</a> funded research of Papert's research group at the MIT Media Laboratory, which at the time was known as the "Epistemology and Learning Group." When LEGO launched its <a href="/facts/Lego_Mindstorms/WhKlrqE6">LEGO Mindstorms Robotics Invention System</a> in 1998, which was based on the work of his group, it received permission to use the moniker "Mindstorms" from Seymour's 1980 book title. In The LEGO Group's <a href="/facts/Lego_Serious_Play/fue4cbfe">LEGO Serious Play</a> project, business people learn to express corporate issues and identity through the medium of plastic bricks.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a>
From 2005 to 2014, there was the <a href="/facts/One_Laptop_Per_Child/5YMMxho2">One Laptop Per Child</a> initiative to put constructionist learning into practice in the developing world. The aim was to provide <a href="/facts/%24100_laptop/fD7rnkbb">$100 laptops</a> to every child in the developing world.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a>

<h2 id="computer-programming-languages">Computer programming languages</h2>
A number of <a href="/facts/Programming_language/cWTYbgWa">programming languages</a> have been created, wholly or in part, for <a href="/facts/Education/WIwsQKF9">educational</a> use, to support the constructionist approach to learning. These languages are <a href="/facts/Dynamic_typing/Tz0bAMS9">dynamically typed</a>, and are <a href="/facts/Reflection_(computer_science)/Nj8stFfp">reflective</a>. They include:

<ul><li><a href="/facts/Logo_programming_language/Wh4sdwAh">Logo</a> is a <a href="/facts/Multi-paradigm_programming_language/7LwgRpB3">multi-paradigm</a> language, which is an easier-to-read adaptation and dialect of <a href="/facts/Lisp_programming_language/xJHA3CrX">Lisp</a>, without the <a href="/facts/S-expression/TmCqHcln">parentheses</a>. Logo is known for its introduction of <a href="/facts/Turtle_graphics/3UBFgoIE">turtle graphics</a> to elementary schoolchildren in the 1980s. Its creators were <a href="/facts/Wally_Feurzeig/UMbwBbxU">Wally Feurzeig</a>, <a href="/facts/Cynthia_Solomon/J9nfqRzY">Cynthia Solomon</a>, and Papert.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Smalltalk/Ru2UPVDE">Smalltalk</a> is an <a href="/facts/Object-oriented_programming/TxNMEcao">object-oriented</a> language that was designed and created at <a href="/facts/Xerox_PARC/fh2Su0k9">Xerox PARC</a> by a team led by <a href="/facts/Alan_Kay/opDYqrcm">Alan Kay</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/AgentSheets/kYeIbWLQ">AgentSheets</a> is an early block-based programming environment for kids to create games and simulations. It is developed by <a href="/facts/Alexander_Repenning/qnI81TeA">Alexander Repenning</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Etoys_(programming_language)/7RnfTV37">Etoys</a> is being developed since the 1990s under the direction of <a href="/facts/Alan_Kay/opDYqrcm">Alan Kay</a>, most recently by the <a href="/facts/Viewpoints_Research_Institute/opDYqrcm">Viewpoints Research Institute</a>, based on <a href="/facts/Morphic_(software)/dxl39wWq">Morphic</a> tile scripting. Etoys was initially targeted at primary school math and science education.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Physical_Etoys/eUFWQ2MY">Physical Etoys</a> is an extension of Etoys that allows to control different devices such as Lego NXT, Arduino Board, Sphero, Kinect, Duinobot, Wiimote among others.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Scratch_(programming_language)/vNfuSb2L">Scratch</a> was developed in the early 21st century at <a href="/facts/MIT_Media_Lab/Vhgn9KFE">MIT Media Lab</a> Lifelong Kindergarten Group led by Papert's pupil <a href="/facts/Mitchel_Resnick/NUVMASFa">Mitchel Resnick</a>. Like Etoys, it is based on Morphic tile scripts. Scratch was initially designed specifically to enhance the development of technological fluency at after-school centers in economically disadvantaged communities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/StarLogo_TNG/MYRNycXd">StarLogo TNG</a> was developed by the MIT Scheller Teacher Education Program under <a href="/facts/Eric_Klopfer/AJBYvWpX">Eric Klopfer</a>. It combines a block programming interface with 3D graphics. It is targeted at programming games and game-like simulations in middle and secondary schools.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/NetLogo/3pzyYsKH">NetLogo</a> was developed by Uri Wilensky. It was developed to teach children computational reasoning and thinking, and extends the <a href="/facts/Logo_programming_language/Wh4sdwAh">Logo</a> language by enabling the existence of many, many turtles at the same time. NetLogo is widely used not only in the K–12 environment, but also by researchers interested in the concept of <a href="/facts/Agent-based_modeling/C3C1vR8s">agent-based modeling</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/AgentCubes/PLMWVt6W">AgentCubes</a> is a block-based programming environment for kids to create 3D games and simulation. It is developed by <a href="/facts/Alexander_Repenning/qnI81TeA">Alexander Repenning</a></li>
<li>Easy Java Simulations or Ejs or EJS was developed by <a href="/facts/Open_Source_Physics/vq4QMhJK">Open Source Physics</a> under Francisco Esquembre. The user is working at a higher conceptual level, declaring and organizing the equations and other mathematical expressions that operate the simulation. It is targeted at programming physics simulations in secondary schools and universities.</li>
<li>LEGO WeDo is a graphical programming language for children of age 7 years and up, used with the LEGO WeDo power function hub.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Lego_Mindstorms_EV3/BleozTrz">LEGO MINDSTORMS EV3</a> is a <a href="/facts/Dataflow/jea04eH2">dataflow</a> graphical programming language for children age 10+.</li>
<li>Robot Emil is a constructionist educational tool for children. It is targeted at primary schools and teaches programming step by step.</li></ul>

<h2 id="external-links">External links</h2>
<ul><li><a href="http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/media-arts-and-sciences/mas-962-the-nature-of-constructionist-learning-spring-2003/">The Nature of Constructionist learning</a> – MIT open-to-all online reading list on constructionism</li>
<li><a href="http://llk.media.mit.edu/">Lifelong Kindergarten Group</a> – MIT Lifelong Kindergarten research group</li>
<li><a href="http://ccl.northwestern.edu/">Center for Connected Learning and Computer-Based Modeling</a> – Northwestern University's Constructionist learning and agent-based modeling research group</li>
<li><a href="http://learning.media.mit.edu/content/publications/EA.Piaget%20_%20Papert.pdf">Ackerman on Constructivism vs Constructionism</a> – <a href="/facts/Edith_Ackermann/0gf0rII2">Edith Ackermann</a> draws out the differences between Piaget's Constructivism, Vygotsky's Socio-Constructivism and Papert's ConstructioNism</li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">Alesandrini, K. & Larson, L. (2002). Teachers bridge to constructivism. The Clearing House, 119–121. <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">Alesandrini, K. & Larson, L. (2002). Teachers bridge to constructivism. The Clearing House, 119–121. <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">Cakir, M. (2008). Constructivist Approaches to Learning in Science and Their Implications for Science Pedagogy: A Literature Review. International Journal of Environmental & Science Education, 3(4), 193–206. <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">Sabelli, N. (2008). Constructionism: A New Opportunity for Elementary Science Education. DRL Division of Research on Learning in Formal and Informal Settings. pp. 193–206. Retrieved September 20, 2017. <a href="http://nsf.gov/awardsearch/showAward.do?AwardNumber=8751190" target="_blank">http://nsf.gov/awardsearch/showAward.do?AwardNumber=8751190</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">Papert, S.; Harel, I (1991). "Constructionism". Ablex Publishing Corporation: 193–206. Retrieved September 20, 2017. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) <a href="http://www.papert.org/articles/SituatingConstructionism.html" target="_blank">http://www.papert.org/articles/SituatingConstructionism.html</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">Papert, S.; Harel, I (1991). "Constructionism". Ablex Publishing Corporation: 193–206. Retrieved September 20, 2017. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) <a href="http://www.papert.org/articles/SituatingConstructionism.html" target="_blank">http://www.papert.org/articles/SituatingConstructionism.html</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">Papert, S.; Harel, I (1991). "Constructionism". Ablex Publishing Corporation: 193–206. Retrieved September 20, 2017. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) <a href="http://www.papert.org/articles/SituatingConstructionism.html" target="_blank">http://www.papert.org/articles/SituatingConstructionism.html</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">Alesandrini, K. & Larson, L. (2002). Teachers bridge to constructivism. The Clearing House, 119–121. <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">Hmelo-Silver, C. E. & Barrows, H. S. (2006). Goals and strategies of a problem-based learning facilitator. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning, 1. 21–39. <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">Wilson, B. (Ed.) Constructivist learning environments: Case studies in instrumental design. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">Wilson, B. (Ed.) Constructivist learning environments: Case studies in instrumental design. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">Wilson, B. (Ed.) Constructivist learning environments: Case studies in instrumental design. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">Wilson, B. (Ed.) Constructivist learning environments: Case studies in instrumental design. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">Wilson, B. (Ed.) Constructivist learning environments: Case studies in instrumental design. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications. <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">Biehler, R., Snowman, J., D'Amico, M., Schmid, R. (1999). The nature of meaningful learning. Psychology applied to teaching, 387–403. <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">Gromik, N. (2004). Sim City and English Teaching. <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">Papert, S.; Harel, I (1991). "Constructionism". Ablex Publishing Corporation: 193–206. Retrieved September 20, 2017. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) <a href="http://www.papert.org/articles/SituatingConstructionism.html" target="_blank">http://www.papert.org/articles/SituatingConstructionism.html</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">Papert, S.; Harel, I (1991). "Constructionism". Ablex Publishing Corporation: 193–206. Retrieved September 20, 2017. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) <a href="http://www.papert.org/articles/SituatingConstructionism.html" target="_blank">http://www.papert.org/articles/SituatingConstructionism.html</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">NSF's grant A Networked, Media-Rich Programming Environment to Enhance Informal Learning and Technological Fluency at Community Technology Centers, National Science Foundation, Sep 2003. <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/awardsearch/showAward?AWD_ID=0325828" target="_blank">https://www.nsf.gov/awardsearch/showAward?AWD_ID=0325828</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
</ol>

Constructionism (learning theory) open-in-new

Constructionism (learning theory)