Posthumous execution

<h2 id="dissection-as-a-punishment-in-england">Dissection as a punishment in England</h2>
Some <a href="/facts/Christians/15hE11VR">Christians</a> believed that the <a href="/facts/Resurrection_of_the_dead/FqLYv2mT">resurrection of the dead</a> on <a href="/facts/Judgment_Day/x5dW2R4x">Judgment Day</a> requires that the body be buried whole facing east so that the body could rise facing <a href="/facts/God/EITpdL9t">God</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1">1</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2">2</a> If dismemberment stopped the possibility of the resurrection of an intact body, then a posthumous execution was an effective way of punishing a criminal.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3">3</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4">4</a>

<blockquote>In England Henry VIII granted the annual right to the bodies of four hanged felons. Charles II later increased this to six ... Dissection was now a recognised punishment, a fate worse than death to be added to hanging for the worst offenders.
The dissections performed on hanged felons were public: indeed part of the punishment was the delivery from hangman to surgeons at the gallows following public execution, and later public exhibition of the open body itself ... <a href="/facts/Murder_Act_1751/NIMgG1Wq">In 1752 an act</a> was passed allowing dissection of all murderers as an alternative to <a href="/facts/Gibbeting/njUEe7XU">hanging in chains</a>. This was a grisly fate, the tarred body being suspended in a cage until it fell to pieces. The object of this and dissection was to deny a grave ... Dissection was described as "a further terror and peculiar Mark of Infamy" and "in no case whatsoever shall the body of any murderer be suffered to be buried". The rescue, or attempted rescue of the corpse was punishable by <a href="/facts/Penal_transportation/uDQVe8v2">transportation</a> for seven years.— Dr D. R. Johnson, Introductory Anatomy.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5">5</a></blockquote>
<h2 id="examples">Examples</h2>

<ul><li>When the Persian king <a href="/facts/Cambyses_II/x87DlYw6">Cambyses</a> <a href="/facts/First_Achaemenid_conquest_of_Egypt/poNrAG2j">conquered Egypt</a> in 525 BC and ended the 26th (Saite) Dynasty, <a href="/facts/Herodotus/hTgRSAnv">Herodotus</a> recorded the desecration of the mummy of <a href="/facts/Amasis_II/95wo5e8F">Amasis II</a> (who died the year before) by Cambyses:</li></ul>
<blockquote>No sooner did [Cambyses] enter the palace of Amasis that he gave orders for his [Amasis's] body to be taken from the tomb where it lay. This done, he proceeded to have it treated with every possible indignity, such as beating it with whips, sticking it with goads, and plucking its hairs... As the body had been embalmed and would not fall to pieces under the blows, Cambyses had it burned.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6">6</a></blockquote>
<ul><li>In 897, <a href="/facts/Pope_Stephen_VI/9qzD85dt">Pope Stephen VI</a> had the corpse of <a href="/facts/Pope_Formosus/ja1EdfmB">Pope Formosus</a> disinterred and put on trial during the <a href="/facts/Cadaver_Synod/7t1KfPyD">Cadaver Synod</a>. Found guilty, the corpse had three of its fingers cut off and was later thrown into the <a href="/facts/Tiber/zbk9Wajq">Tiber</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Harold_Harefoot/3lNQMsaM">Harold I Harefoot</a>, king of the <a href="/facts/Anglo-Saxons/qWLes0LP">Anglo-Saxons</a> (1035–1040), illegitimate son of <a href="/facts/Cnut/A2CpnI6o">Cnut</a>, died in 1040 and his half-brother, <a href="/facts/Harthacanute/Pk8cMofx">Harthacanute</a>, on succeeding him, had his body taken from its tomb and cast in a pen with animals.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7">7</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Simon_de_Montfort%2c_6th_Earl_of_Leicester/97zdcpns">Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester</a>, died of wounds suffered at the <a href="/facts/Battle_of_Evesham/xp2CzHII">Battle of Evesham</a> in 1265; his corpse was <a href="/facts/Decapitation/Mbe8UAeF">beheaded</a>, <a href="/facts/Castration/QdBkfLCK">castrated</a> and <a href="/facts/Hanged%2c_drawn_and_quartered/zYgsNN17">quartered</a> by the <a href="/facts/Knights/q6oIppem">knights</a> of <a href="/facts/Henry_III_of_England/yRC7X3ge">Henry III of England</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Roger_d%2527Amory/Q0bzPwpR">Roger d'Amory</a> (c. 1290 – before 14 March 1321/1322) died following the <a href="/facts/Battle_of_Burton_Bridge_(1322)/w58uCJhX">Battle of Burton Bridge</a> and was then posthumously executed for treason by <a href="/facts/Edward_II_of_England/fu3bqQhq">Edward II</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/John_Wycliffe/wGXUKvBP">John Wycliffe</a> (1328–1384) was <a href="/facts/Death_by_burning/EB2Cx1sJ">burned</a> as a <a href="/facts/Christian_heresy/BzrI9laX">heretic</a> forty-five years after his death.</li>
<li>Sir <a href="/facts/Henry_Percy_(Hotspur)/HA4Hk9zJ">Henry Percy</a> (d. 1404) after he was <a href="/facts/Killed_in_action/REgutspw">killed in action</a> while leading his troops at the <a href="/facts/Battle_of_Shrewsbury/1YlW8Xzy">Battle of Shrewsbury</a>, King <a href="/facts/Henry_IV_of_England/NsngWtGu">Henry IV of England</a> ordered Percy's body posthumously beheaded, quartered, and <a href="/facts/Attainder/otklyvm9">attainted</a> for <a href="/facts/High_treason_in_the_United_Kingdom/FDzSDSkN">high treason</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Vlad_the_Impaler/LX2vjcqg">Vlad the Impaler</a> (1431–1476) was beheaded following his <a href="/facts/Assassination/hgoazwWn">assassination</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Jacopo_Bonfadio/ujNp9QgU">Jacopo Bonfadio</a> (1508–1550) was beheaded for <a href="/facts/Sodomy/37Jgb7mr">sodomy</a> and then his corpse was burned at the stake for <a href="/facts/Heresy_in_Christianity/BzrI9laX">heresy</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Nils_Dacke/zbRU6GLt">Nils Dacke</a>, leader of a 16th-century peasant revolt in southern <a href="/facts/Sweden/u3qC7lyj">Sweden</a>, was decapitated and dismembered after his death in combat.</li>
<li>In 1538, during the <a href="/facts/Dissolution_of_the_Monasteries/SSxJkzch">Dissolution of the Monasteries</a> on orders from King <a href="/facts/Henry_VIII_of_England/LFgGAjh0">Henry VIII</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a> He had the bones of <a href="/facts/Thomas_Becket/oj2kwUMv">Thomas Becket</a> (1119–1170) destroyed, his shrine destroyed, and ordered all mention of his name obliterated.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a></li>
<li>By order of <a href="/facts/Mary_I_of_England/smBAdhhD">Mary I</a>, the body of <a href="/facts/Martin_Bucer/Uuf8CKFH">Martin Bucer</a> (1491–1551) was exhumed and burned at the Market Square in Cambridge, England.</li>
<li>In 1600, after the failure of the <a href="/facts/Gowrie_conspiracy/LTcWlrkt">Gowrie conspiracy</a>, the corpses of <a href="/facts/John_Ruthven%2c_3rd_Earl_of_Gowrie/LTcWlrkt">John, Earl of Gowrie</a> and his brother <a href="/facts/Alexander_Ruthven/10r5qPEG">Alexander Ruthven</a> were hanged and quartered at the <a href="/facts/Mercat_Cross%2c_Edinburgh/TP0gvn7q">Mercat Cross, Edinburgh</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a> Their heads were put on spikes at <a href="/facts/Old_Tolbooth%2c_Edinburgh/gpX5uP1P">Edinburgh's Old Tolbooth</a> and their limbs upon spikes at various locations around <a href="/facts/Perth%2c_Scotland/uuoWRCAa">Perth, Scotland</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="/facts/Gilles_van_Ledenberg/5JMUH2dc">Gilles van Ledenberg</a>, whose <a href="/facts/Embalming/Mrk79Ku2">embalmed</a> corpse was hanged from a <a href="/facts/Gibbeting/njUEe7XU">gibbet</a> in 1619, after his conviction of treason in the trial of <a href="/facts/Johan_van_Oldenbarnevelt/yBS6LeVm">Johan van Oldenbarnevelt</a>.</li>
<li>A number of the <a href="/facts/List_of_regicides_of_Charles_I/CTleWXql">59 regicides</a> of <a href="/facts/Charles_I_of_England/r7IEjNGh">Charles I of England</a>, including the most prominent of the regicides, the former <a href="/facts/Lord_Protector/tfTw1Fwp">Lord Protector</a> <a href="/facts/Oliver_Cromwell/pyCDY3vk">Oliver Cromwell</a>, died before the <a href="/facts/English_Restoration/xdp8JnEc">Restoration</a> of his son <a href="/facts/Charles_II_of_England/Acc7cFtF">Charles II</a> in 1660. <a href="/facts/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom/7bFbPI9g">Parliament</a> passed an <a href="/facts/Bill_of_attainder/MW7FtoDP">order of attainder</a> for <a href="/facts/High_treason_in_the_United_Kingdom/FDzSDSkN">High Treason</a> on the four most prominent deceased regicides: <a href="/facts/John_Bradshaw_(Judge)/2s4e7r8B">John Bradshaw</a> the court president; Oliver Cromwell; <a href="/facts/Henry_Ireton/yU5QAI4K">Henry Ireton</a>; and <a href="/facts/Thomas_Pride/UJPUGsKA">Thomas Pride</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a> The bodies were exhumed and three were hanged for a day at <a href="/facts/Tyburn%2c_London/kYeWqkJn">Tyburn</a> and then beheaded. The three bodies were then thrown into a pit close to the gallows, while the heads were placed, with Bradshaw's in the middle, at the end of <a href="/facts/Westminster_Hall/HCUIhwQR">Westminster Hall</a> (the symbolism was lost on no one as that was the building where the <a href="/facts/Trial_of_Charles_I/TW28uwSt">trial of Charles I</a> had taken place). <a href="/facts/Oliver_Cromwell%2527s_head/b4qWewa2">Oliver Cromwell's head</a> was finally buried in 1960. The body of Pride was not "punished", perhaps because it had decayed too much.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Blackbeard/ReRkM2WQ">Edward Teach</a> (1680–1718), better known as "Blackbeard", was killed by the sailors of <a href="/facts/HMS_Pearl_(1708)/a7Qtmdmh">HMS Pearl</a> who boarded on his ship, the Adventure. British First Lieutenant <a href="/facts/Robert_Maynard/0Rv3SzDd">Robert Maynard</a> examined Edward Teach's body, <a href="/facts/Decapitation/Mbe8UAeF">decapitated</a> and tied his head to the bowsprit of his ship for the trip back to <a href="/facts/Colony_of_Virginia/l8uHy7Rc">Virginia</a>. Upon returning to his home port of <a href="/facts/Hampton%2c_Virginia/RHY9xDIC">Hampton</a>, the head was placed on a stake near the mouth of the <a href="/facts/Hampton_River/v45SvDBJ">Hampton River</a> as a warning to other pirates.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Joseph_Warren/Jg37je3k">Joseph Warren</a> (1741–1775), a <a href="/facts/Physician/qJ3woFvG">physician</a> and <a href="/facts/Major_general/4v4nzpy7">major general</a> of American <a href="/facts/Minutemen/CbW89lAP">colonial militias</a>, was stripped of his clothing, bayoneted until unrecognizable, and then he was shoved into a shallow ditch, after he was killed at the <a href="/facts/Battle_of_Bunker_Hill/AgT23lvk">Battle of Bunker and Breed's Hill</a>. Days later, British Lieutenant James Drew had Joseph Warren's body exhumed again; his body was stomped on, beaten, decapitated and humiliated on the area, according to eyewitness testimonies.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a></li>
<li>In 1793, following the <a href="/facts/Girondins/eQ4BzIN5">death sentence of 22 Girondin leaders</a>, Charles Éléonor Dufriche de Valazé committed suicide, but his corpse was still <a href="/facts/Guillotine/E6SUBNJF">guillotined</a> along with his 21 fellows.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a></li>
<li>In 1917, the body of <a href="/facts/Rasputin/6P31H8gd">Rasputin</a>, the <a href="/facts/Russian_Empire/hg1g5SpV">Russian</a> mystic, was exhumed from the ground by a mob and burned.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a></li>
<li>In 1918, the secret grave of <a href="/facts/Lavr_Kornilov/k16uW4qz">Lavr Kornilov</a>, the <a href="/facts/White_movement/lAGgYPBE">White</a> Russian general, was found by the <a href="/facts/Bolsheviks/UAHzalnN">Bolsheviks</a> by accident. The body was then exhumed and disfigured before being burned.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a></li>
<li>In 1966, during the <a href="/facts/Cultural_Revolution/1EAQGgYk">Cultural Revolution</a>, <a href="/facts/Red_Guards_(China)/aSc6fI2F">Red Guards</a> stormed the <a href="/facts/Dingling_(Ming)/PCX2tm2h">Dingling Mausoleum</a>, destroyed thousands of artifacts, and dragged the remains of the <a href="/facts/Wanli_Emperor/932CKEHQ">Wanli Emperor</a> and his two empresses to the front of the tomb where they were posthumously denounced and burned after photographs were taken of their skulls.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a></li>
<li>The body of General Gracia Jacques, a supporter of <a href="/facts/Fran%25C3%25A7ois_Duvalier/vR6oEJ6G">François Duvalier</a> ("Papa Doc") (1907–1971), the <a href="/facts/Haiti/yjgyeK9w">Haitian</a> dictator, was exhumed and ritually beaten to "death" in 1986.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a></li></ul>
<h2 id="notes">Notes</h2>

<ul><li>Henderson, Thomas Finlayson (1897). <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography,_1885-1900/Ruthven,_John">"Ruthven, John" </a>. In <a href="/facts/Sidney_Lee/gEfT2SfJ">Lee, Sidney</a> (ed.). <a href="/facts/Dictionary_of_National_Biography/QCm9t1Sn">Dictionary of National Biography</a>. Vol. 50. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 15–20.</li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">Barbara Yorke (2006), The Conversion of Britain Pearson Education, ISBN 978-0-582-77292-2. p. 215 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">Fiona Haslam (1996), From Hogarth to Rowlandson: Medicine in Art in Eighteenth-century Britain, Liverpool University Press, ISBN 978-0-85323-640-5 p. 280 (Thomas Rowlandson, "The Resurrection or an Internal View of the Museum in W-D M-LL street on the last day) Archived 26 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine", 1782) <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">Staff. "Resurrection of the Body". Archived from the original on 23 October 2008. Retrieved 17 November 2008. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081023202216/http://www.catholic.com/library/Resurrection_of_the_Body.asp" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20081023202216/http://www.catholic.com/library/Resurrection_of_the_Body.asp</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">Mary Abbott (1996). Life Cycles in England, 1560–1720: Cradle to Grave, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415108423. p. 33 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">Dr D.R.Johnson, Introductory Anatomy Archived 4 November 2008 at the Wayback Machine, Centre for Human Biology, (now renamed Faculty of Biological Sciences Archived 2 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine, Leeds University), Retrieved 2008-11-17 <a href="http://www.leeds.ac.uk/chb/lectures/anatomy1.html" target="_blank">http://www.leeds.ac.uk/chb/lectures/anatomy1.html</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">Herodotus, The Histories, Book III, Chapter 16 <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">Encyclopædia Britannica <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" target="_blank">/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">Frusher, J. (2010). "Hanging, Drawing and Quartering: the Anatomy of an Execution". Archived from the original on 12 July 2011. Retrieved 30 June 2010. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110712230617/http://www.hughdespenser.com/everydaylife/hanging_drawing_quartering.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20110712230617/http://www.hughdespenser.com/everydaylife/hanging_drawing_quartering.html</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">Juhala, Amy L. (2004). "Ruthven, John, third earl of Gowrie (1577/8–1600)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/24371. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography" target="_blank">/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">"The Origins of Canterbury Cathedral". Dean and Chapter of Canterbury Cathedral. Retrieved 10 November 2011. <a href="http://www.canterbury-cathedral.org/conservation/history/" target="_blank">http://www.canterbury-cathedral.org/conservation/history/</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">"The Origins of Canterbury Cathedral". Dean and Chapter of Canterbury Cathedral. Retrieved 10 November 2011. <a href="http://www.canterbury-cathedral.org/conservation/history/" target="_blank">http://www.canterbury-cathedral.org/conservation/history/</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">"The Martyrdom of Saint Thomas Becket (Getty Museum)". The J. Paul Getty in Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 9 July 2007. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070709071459/http://www.getty.edu/art/gettyguide/artObjectDetails?artobj=3927" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20070709071459/http://www.getty.edu/art/gettyguide/artObjectDetails?artobj=3927</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">Henderson 1897, p. 19. - Henderson, Thomas Finlayson (1897). "Ruthven, John" . In Lee, Sidney (ed.). Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 50. London: Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 15–20. <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography,_1885-1900/Ruthven,_John" target="_blank">https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography,_1885-1900/Ruthven,_John</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">Juhala 2004. - Juhala, Amy L. (2004). "Ruthven, John, third earl of Gowrie (1577/8–1600)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/24371. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F24371" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F24371</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">Journal of the House of Commons: volume 8: 1660–1667 (1802), pp. 26–7 Archived 27 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine House of Commons The attainder was predated to 1 January 1649 (1648 old style year). <a href="http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.asp?compid=26189#s10" target="_blank">http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.asp?compid=26189#s10</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">Lee, Robert E. (1974). Blackbeard the Pirate (2002 ed.). North Carolina: John F. Blair. ISBN 0-89587-032-0. <a href="0-89587-032-0" target="_blank">0-89587-032-0</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">"To John Adams from Benjamin Hichborn, 25 November 1775". National Archives. Archived from the original on 8 August 2014. Retrieved 1 August 2014. <a href="https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/06-03-02-0172" target="_blank">https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Adams/06-03-02-0172</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">Tourtellot, Arthur Bernon (1959). Lexington and Concord: The Beginning of the War of the American Revolution. Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-393-32056-5. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) <a href="978-0-393-32056-5" target="_blank">978-0-393-32056-5</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">Schama, Simon (1989). Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 803–805. ISBN 0-394-55948-7. <a href="0-394-55948-7" target="_blank">0-394-55948-7</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:20">Rollins, Patrick J. (1976). Wieczynski, Joseph L. (ed.). Rasputin, Grigorii Efimovich. Academic International Press. ISBN 0-87569-064-5. OCLC 2114860. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help) <a href="0-87569-064-5" target="_blank">0-87569-064-5</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:21">Levchenko, I.E.; Merenkov, A.V. (21 January 2021). "Exhumation: Past and Present". KnE Social Sciences: 267. doi:10.18502/kss.v5i2.8361. <a href="https://doi.org/10.18502%2Fkss.v5i2.8361" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.18502%2Fkss.v5i2.8361</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:22">Becker, Jasper (2008). City of Heavenly Tranquility: Beijing in the History of China. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530997-3, pp 77–79. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:23">Melvin, Sheila (7 September 2011). ""China's reluctant Emperor"". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 6 October 2016. Retrieved 28 December 2019. <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/08/arts/08iht-wanli08.html?_r=0" target="_blank">https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/08/arts/08iht-wanli08.html?_r=0</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:24">Brooke, James; Times, Special to the New York (9 February 1986). "Haitisns Take Out 28 Years of Anger on Crypt". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 18 October 2017. Retrieved 17 October 2017. <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1986/02/09/world/haitians-take-out-28-years-of-anger-on-crypt.html" target="_blank">https://www.nytimes.com/1986/02/09/world/haitians-take-out-28-years-of-anger-on-crypt.html</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
</ol>

Posthumous execution open-in-new

Posthumous execution