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Timeline of glaciation
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<h2 id="known-ice-ages">Known ice ages</h2> <table><tbody><tr><th>Name of ice age</th><th>Years BP (<a href="/facts/Year/51V242hh">Ma</a>)</th><th>Geological period</th><th>Era</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Pongola_glaciation/jsK450vc">Pongola</a></td><td>2900–2780<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Mesoarchean/jsK450vc">Mesoarchean</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Huronian_glaciation/SxGpeQ1p">Huronian</a></td><td>2400–2100</td><td><a href="/facts/Siderian/7aspCrFn">Siderian</a><a href="/facts/Rhyacian/3IYRSHxd">Rhyacian</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Paleoproterozoic/gMS69p5r">Paleoproterozoic</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Sturtian_glaciation/38JkGbBY">Sturtian</a><a href="/facts/Marinoan_glaciation/Vr4j9X1w">Marinoan</a><a href="/facts/Gaskiers_glaciation/2LFS3cU2">Gaskiers</a><a href="/facts/Baykonurian_glaciation/sVXMwYnU">Baykonur</a></td><td>715–680650–635580547</td><td><a href="/facts/Cryogenian/5NxvCx4r">Cryogenian</a><a href="/facts/Ediacaran/z8jSUITT">Ediacaran</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Neoproterozoic/89NsnsM1">Neoproterozoic</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Andean-Saharan_glaciation/7WkBoxUt">Andean-Saharan</a>(incl. <a href="/facts/Hirnantian/gnAHw02z">Hirnantian</a> and<a href="/facts/Late_Ordovician_glaciation/UvMU1RUh">Late Ordovician glaciation</a>)</td><td>450–420</td><td>Late <a href="/facts/Ordovician/BjMrLIEA">Ordovician</a><a href="/facts/Silurian/1qx4epPg">Silurian</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Paleozoic/5qe2wz7U">Paleozoic</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Karoo_Ice_Age/jhEJ7pHA">Karoo</a></td><td>360–289</td><td><a href="/facts/Carboniferous/BRKlkYyd">Carboniferous</a><a href="/facts/Permian/CYgLgu5u">Permian</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Paleozoic/5qe2wz7U">Paleozoic</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Late_Cenozoic_Ice_Age/KlTTICdq">Late Cenozoic Ice Age</a> (incl. <a href="/facts/Quaternary_glaciation/5H9xbBTt">Quaternary glaciation</a>)</td><td>34–present</td><td>Late <a href="/facts/Paleogene/CNsEpdA4">Paleogene</a><a href="/facts/Neogene/zUJxvjuH">Neogene</a><a href="/facts/Quaternary/3cEgHAqc">Quaternary</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Cenozoic/yFslcz6n">Cenozoic</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="descriptions">Descriptions</h2> <p>The third ice age, and possibly most severe, is estimated to have occurred from 720 to 635 <a href="/facts/Year/51V242hh">Ma</a> (million years) ago,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> in the <a href="/facts/Neoproterozoic/89NsnsM1">Neoproterozoic</a> Era, and it has been suggested that it produced a second<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> "<a href="/facts/Snowball_Earth/A9yP3khz">Snowball Earth</a>", i.e. a period during which Earth was completely covered in ice. It has also been suggested that the end of that second cold period<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> was responsible for the subsequent <a href="/facts/Cambrian_explosion/Wg29M7PN">Cambrian explosion</a>, a time of rapid diversification of multi-cellular life during the <a href="/facts/Cambrian/jIfzKtod">Cambrian</a> Period. The hypothesis is still controversial,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> though is gaining credence among researchers, as evidence in its favour has mounted.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> </p><p>A minor series of glaciations occurred from 460 to 430 Ma, and there were extensive glaciations from 350 to 289 Ma. </p><p>The <a href="/facts/Late_Cenozoic_Ice_Age/KlTTICdq">Late Cenozoic Ice Age</a> has seen extensive ice sheets in <a href="/facts/Antarctica/bEM5Lem5">Antarctica</a> for the last 34 Ma. During the last 3 Ma, ice sheets have also developed on the northern hemisphere. That phase is known as the <a href="/facts/Quaternary_glaciation/5H9xbBTt">Quaternary glaciation</a>, and was marked by more or less extensive glaciation. They first appeared with a dominant frequency of 41,000 years, but after the <a href="/facts/Mid-Pleistocene_Transition/2SGkbWLy">Mid-Pleistocene Transition</a> that changed to high-amplitude cycles, with an average period of <a href="/facts/100%2c000-year_problem/0axR63w4">100,000 years</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="nomenclature-of-quaternary-glacial-cycles">Nomenclature of Quaternary glacial cycles</h2> <p>Whereas the first 30 million years of the Late Cenozoic Ice Age mostly involved Antarctica, the <a href="/facts/Quaternary_glaciation/5H9xbBTt">Quaternary</a> has seen numerous ice sheets extending over parts of Europe and North America that are currently populated and easily accessible. Early geologists therefore named apparent sequences of glacial and interglacial periods of the Quaternary Ice Age after characteristic geological features, and these names varied from region to region. The marine record preserves all the past glaciations; the land-based evidence is less complete because successive glaciations may wipe out evidence of their predecessors. <a href="/facts/Ice_cores/QnzraAoN">Ice cores</a> from continental ice accumulations also provide a complete record, but do not go as far back in time as marine data. <a href="/facts/Pollen/eqRP052I">Pollen</a> data from lakes and bogs as well as <a href="/facts/Loess/VpFUed3E">loess</a> profiles provided important land-based correlation data.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> The <i>names</i> system has mostly been phased out by professionals. It is now more common for researchers to refer to the periods by their <a href="/facts/Marine_isotopic_stage/FeVxhIJ3">marine isotopic stage</a> number.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> For example, there are five Pleistocene glacial/interglacial cycles recorded in marine sediments during the last half million years, but only three classic glacials were originally recognized on land during that period (<a href="/facts/Kansan_glaciation/4d6yFFIT">Mindel</a>, <a href="/facts/Wolstonian_Stage/5WaXMFH5">Riss</a> and <a href="/facts/Wisconsin_glaciation/PJMWjkBh">Würm</a>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> </p><p>Land-based evidence works acceptably well back as far as MIS 6 (see <a href="/facts/Marine_isotope_stages/FeVxhIJ3">Marine isotope stages</a>, Stages), but it has been difficult to coordinate stages using just land-based evidence before that. Hence, the "names" system is incomplete and the land-based identifications of ice ages previous to that are somewhat conjectural. Nonetheless, land based data is essentially useful in discussing landforms, and correlating the known marine isotopic stage with them.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> </p> <h3>Historical nomenclature in the Alps</h3> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Biber_glaciation/QcBuEdnD">Biber</a> (2.6–1.8 Ma, <a href="/facts/Gelasian/ebbRUeYv">Gelasian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Biber-Danube_interglacial/bUs4jxMj">Biber-Danube interglacial</a> (not in use)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Danube_glaciation/UlAa6bLC">Danube</a> (1.8–1.0 Ma, <a href="/facts/Calabrian_(stage)/rpYU6Eed">Calabrian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Danube-Gunz_interglacial/qz4vqjoH">Danube-Gunz interglacial</a> (not in use)</li> <li><a href="/facts/G%25C3%25BCnz_glaciation/NfgYVeJ4">Günz</a> (1.0–0.4 Ma, MIS 21 – MIS 11 ?)</li> <li><a href="/facts/G%25C3%25BCnz-Haslach_interglacial/5wTmGIDl">Günz-Haslach interglacial</a> (not in use)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Haslach_glaciation/7ckEutQd">Haslach</a> (seldom used)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Haslach-Mindel_interglacial/E7cBdNA4">Haslach-Mindel interglacial</a> (not in use)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Mindel_glaciation/UuIbrdr1">Mindel</a> (MIS 12?, MIS 10)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Holstein_interglacial/7k5NKMt1">Mindel-Riss interglacial</a> (MIS 9)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Riss_glaciation/aoJKTCUa">Riss</a> (MIS 8-6)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Eemian/BV8sxf5m">Riss-Würm interglacial</a> (MIS 5e)</li> <li><a href="/facts/W%25C3%25BCrm_glaciation/LDGIqHnp">Würm</a> (MIS 5d-2)</li></ul> <h3>Historical nomenclature in Great Britain and Ireland</h3> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Bramertonian_Stage/L0l7xTcF">Bramertonian Stage</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Baventian_Stage/5xyeI411">Baventian Stage</a>/Pre-Pastonian</li> <li><a href="/facts/Pastonian_Stage/0UY0taUk">Pastonian Stage</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Beestonian_stage/lmuqzVJn">Beestonian stage</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Cromerian_Stage/bM3zfB0X">Cromerian Stage</a> (MIS 21-13 ?)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Anglian_Stage/7v6bu8Hd">Anglian Stage</a> (MIS 12, perhaps also MIS 10 ?)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Hoxnian_Stage/IJxdqhdm">Hoxnian Stage</a> (MIS 11, perhaps also MIS 9 ?)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Wolstonian_Stage/5WaXMFH5">Wolstonian Stage</a> (MIS 8–6, perhaps also MIS 10–9 ?)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Eemian/BV8sxf5m">Ipswichian interglacial</a> (MIS 5e)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Devensian_glaciation/mIYwj8e9">Devensian glaciation</a> (MIS 5d-2)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Flandrian_interglacial/gSw5WBme">Flandrian interglacial</a> (MIS 1)</li></ul> <h3>Historical nomenclature in Northern Europe</h3> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Pre-Tiglian/Wz8fe7B7">Pre-Tiglian</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Tiglian/Wz8fe7B7">Tiglian interglacial</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Eburonian/FX7uAhYm">Eburonian</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Waalian_interglacial/BYj5Bp0X">Waalian interglacial</a></li> <li>Menapian glacial stage<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a></li> <li>Bavelian</li> <li><a href="/facts/Cromerian_complex/bM3zfB0X">Cromerian complex</a> (MIS 21-13 ?)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Elster_glaciation/AGpBtpUs">Elster glaciation</a> (MIS 10, perhaps also MIS 12 ?)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Holstein_interglacial/7k5NKMt1">Holstein interglacial</a> (MIS 9 ?)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Saale_glaciation/TdGpIEac">Saale glaciation</a> (ended with MIS 6)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Eemian/BV8sxf5m">Eem interglacial</a> (MIS 5e)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Weichsel_glaciation/gnQ5KqEd">Weichsel glaciation</a> (MIS 5d-2)</li></ul> <h3>Historical nomenclature in North America</h3> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Nebraskan_glaciation/lh773xoI">Nebraskan glaciation</a> (replaced by <a href="/facts/Pre-Illinoian/lh773xoI">Pre-Illinoian</a> in modern scientific literature)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Aftonian_interglacial/lh773xoI">Aftonian interglacial</a> (replaced by <a href="/facts/Pre-Illinoian/lh773xoI">Pre-Illinoian</a> in modern scientific literature)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Kansan_glaciation/4d6yFFIT">Kansan glaciation</a> (replaced by <a href="/facts/Pre-Illinoian/lh773xoI">Pre-Illinoian</a> in modern scientific literature)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Yarmouthian_(stage)/7YM8zTmT">Yarmouthian (stage)</a> (replaced by <a href="/facts/Pre-Illinoian/lh773xoI">Pre-Illinoian</a> in modern scientific literature)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Illinoian_(stage)/lL6L6mDh">Illinoian stage</a> (MIS 6)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Sangamonian/PG3eBCbu">Sangamonian</a> (MIS 5e, sometimes also 5d-5a)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Wisconsin_glaciation/PJMWjkBh">Wisconsin glaciation</a> (MIS 4-2, sometimes also 5d-5a)</li></ul> <h3>Historical nomenclature in South America</h3> <ul><li>Caracoles (Río Frío) glaciation<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a></li> <li>Río Llico (Colegual) glaciation<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a></li> <li>Santa María (Casma) glaciation<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Eemian/BV8sxf5m">Valdivia interglacial</a> (MIS 5e)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Llanquihue_glaciation/YFFgM0qf">Llanquihue glaciation</a> (at least MIS 4-2)</li></ul> <h3>Uncertain correlations</h3> <p>It has proved difficult to correlate the traditional regional names with the global marine and ice core sequences. The indexes of <a href="/facts/Marine_isotope_stage/FeVxhIJ3">MIS</a> often identify several distinct glaciations that overlap in time with a single traditional regional glaciation. Some modern authors use the traditional regional glacial names to identify such a sequence of glaciations, whereas others replace the word "glaciation" with "complex" to refer to a continuous period of time that also includes warmer stages. As shown in the table below, it is only during the last 200-300 thousand years that the time resolution of the traditional nomenclature allow for clear correspondence with MIS indexes. In particular there has been a lot of controversy regarding the glaciations MIS 10 and MIS 12, and their correspondence to the <a href="/facts/Elster_glaciation/AGpBtpUs">Elster</a> and <a href="/facts/Mindel_glaciation/UuIbrdr1">Mindel glaciations</a> of Europe.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> </p> <table><tbody><tr><th rowspan="2"><a href="/facts/Marine_isotope_stage/FeVxhIJ3">Marineisotopestage</a></th><th rowspan="2">Time ago(<a href="/facts/Year/51V242hh">ka</a>)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a></th><th colspan="6">Regional names</th><th rowspan="2">Globalage /epoch</th></tr><tr><th>Alpine region</th><th>Great Britain</th><th>N. Europe</th><th>E. Europe</th><th>N. America</th><th>S. America</th></tr><tr><td>MIS 103-64</td><td>2600–1800</td><td><a href="/facts/Biber_(geology)/QcBuEdnD">Biber</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a></td><td>Pre-Ludham<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a>Ludham<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a>Thurnian<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a><a href="/facts/Bramertonian_Stage/L0l7xTcF">Bramerton</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a><a href="/facts/Baventian/5xyeI411">Bavents</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a><a href="/facts/Pastonian_Stage/0UY0taUk">Paston</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Pre-Tiglian/Wz8fe7B7">Pre-Tiglian</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a><a href="/facts/Tiglian/Wz8fe7B7">Tiglian</a> A<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a><a href="/facts/Tiglian/Wz8fe7B7">Tiglian</a> B<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a><a href="/facts/Tiglian/Wz8fe7B7">Tiglian</a> C3<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a><a href="/facts/Tiglian/Wz8fe7B7">Tiglian</a> C4<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a><a href="/facts/Tiglian/Wz8fe7B7">Tiglian</a> C5<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a></td><td>Verkhodon<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a>Khapry<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Pre-Illinoian/lh773xoI">Pre-illinois</a> K<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a><a href="/facts/Pre-Illinoian/lh773xoI">Pre-illinois</a> J<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Gelasian/ebbRUeYv">Gelasian</a></td></tr><tr><td>MIS 63-23</td><td>1800–900</td><td><a href="/facts/Danube_(geology)/UlAa6bLC">Danube</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Beestonian_stage/lmuqzVJn">Beeston</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Eburonian/FX7uAhYm">Eburon</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a><a href="/facts/Waalian_interglacial/BYj5Bp0X">Waal</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a><a href="/facts/Menapian/4dk4YURE">Menap</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a>Bavel<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a></td><td>Tolucheevka<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a>Krinitsa<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Pre-Illinoian/lh773xoI">Pre-illinois</a> I<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a><a href="/facts/Pre-Illinoian/lh773xoI">Pre-illinois</a> H<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a><a href="/facts/Pre-Illinoian/lh773xoI">Pre-illinois</a> G<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a></td><td></td><td rowspan="4"><a href="/facts/Calabrian_(stage)/rpYU6Eed">Calabrian</a></td></tr><tr><td>MIS 22</td><td>900–866</td><td><a href="/facts/Gunz_glaciation/NfgYVeJ4">Günz</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Cromerian_Stage/bM3zfB0X">Cromer</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Cromerian_Stage/bM3zfB0X">Cromer</a></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Pre-Illinoian/lh773xoI">Pre-illinois</a> F<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>MIS 21</td><td>866–814</td><td><a href="/facts/Gunz_glaciation/NfgYVeJ4">Günz</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Cromerian_Stage/bM3zfB0X">Cromer</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Cromerian_Stage/bM3zfB0X">Cromer</a></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Pre-Illinoian/lh773xoI">Pre-illinois</a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>MIS 20</td><td>814–790</td><td><a href="/facts/Gunz_glaciation/NfgYVeJ4">Günz</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Cromerian_Stage/bM3zfB0X">Cromer</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Cromerian_Stage/bM3zfB0X">Cromer</a></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Pre-Illinoian/lh773xoI">Pre-illinois</a> E ?</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>MIS 19</td><td>790–761</td><td><a href="/facts/Gunz_glaciation/NfgYVeJ4">Günz</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Cromerian_Stage/bM3zfB0X">Cromer</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Cromerian_Stage/bM3zfB0X">Cromer</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Pre-Illinoian/lh773xoI">Pre-illinois</a></td><td></td><td rowspan="14"><a href="/facts/Chibanian/UIH3W1Uk">Chibanian</a></td></tr><tr><td>MIS 18</td><td>761-712</td><td><a href="/facts/Gunz_glaciation/NfgYVeJ4">Günz</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Cromerian_Stage/bM3zfB0X">Cromer</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Cromerian_Stage/bM3zfB0X">Cromer</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Pre-Illinoian/lh773xoI">Pre-illinois</a> E ?</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>MIS 17</td><td>712-676</td><td><a href="/facts/Gunz_glaciation/NfgYVeJ4">Günz</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Cromerian_Stage/bM3zfB0X">Cromer</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Cromerian_Stage/bM3zfB0X">Cromer</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a></td><td></td><td><a href="/facts/Pre-Illinoian/lh773xoI">Pre-illinois</a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>MIS 16</td><td>676–621</td><td><a href="/facts/Gunz_glaciation/NfgYVeJ4">Günz</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Cromerian_Stage/bM3zfB0X">Cromer</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Cromerian_Stage/bM3zfB0X">Cromer</a>/<a href="/facts/Don_Glaciation/4AqNEFAy">Don</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Don_Glaciation/4AqNEFAy">Don</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Pre-Illinoian/lh773xoI">Pre-illinois</a> D<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>MIS 15</td><td>621–563</td><td><a href="/facts/Gunz_glaciation/NfgYVeJ4">Günz</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Cromerian_Stage/bM3zfB0X">Cromer</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Cromerian_Stage/bM3zfB0X">Cromer</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a></td><td>Muchkap<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Pre-Illinoian/lh773xoI">Pre-illinois</a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>MIS 14</td><td>563–533</td><td><a href="/facts/Gunz_glaciation/NfgYVeJ4">Günz</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Cromerian_Stage/bM3zfB0X">Cromer</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Cromerian_Stage/bM3zfB0X">Cromer</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72"><sup>72</sup></a></td><td>Oka?<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73"><sup>73</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Pre-Illinoian/lh773xoI">Pre-illinois</a> C<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74"><sup>74</sup></a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>MIS 13</td><td>533–478</td><td><a href="/facts/Gunz_glaciation/NfgYVeJ4">Günz</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75"><sup>75</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Cromerian_Stage/bM3zfB0X">Cromer</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76"><sup>76</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Cromerian_Stage/bM3zfB0X">Cromer</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77"><sup>77</sup></a></td><td>Oka?<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78"><sup>78</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Pre-Illinoian/lh773xoI">Pre-illinois</a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>MIS 12</td><td>478–424</td><td><a href="/facts/Gunz_glaciation/NfgYVeJ4">Günz</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79"><sup>79</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Mindel_glaciation/UuIbrdr1">Mindel</a>?<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80"><sup>80</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Anglian_Stage/7v6bu8Hd">Anglia</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81"><sup>81</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Elster_glaciation/AGpBtpUs">Elster</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82"><sup>82</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Cromerian_Stage/bM3zfB0X">Cromer</a>?<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83"><sup>83</sup></a></td><td>Oka<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84"><sup>84</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Pre-Illinoian/lh773xoI">Pre-illinois</a> B<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85"><sup>85</sup></a></td><td>Caracoles<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86"><sup>86</sup></a> Río Frío?<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87"><sup>87</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>MIS 11</td><td>424–374</td><td><a href="/facts/Gunz_glaciation/NfgYVeJ4">Günz</a>?<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88"><sup>88</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Hoxnian_Stage/IJxdqhdm">Hoxne</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89"><sup>89</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Holstein_interglacial/7k5NKMt1">Holstein</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90"><sup>90</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Cromerian_Stage/bM3zfB0X">Cromer</a>/Rhume?<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91"><sup>91</sup></a></td><td>Likhvin<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92"><sup>92</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Pre-Illinoian/lh773xoI">Pre-illinois</a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>MIS 10</td><td>374–337</td><td><a href="/facts/Mindel_glaciation/UuIbrdr1">Mindel</a>?<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93"><sup>93</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Wolstonian_Stage/5WaXMFH5">Wolston</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94"><sup>94</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Elster_glaciation/AGpBtpUs">Elster</a>?<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95"><sup>95</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96"><sup>96</sup></a></td><td>Likhvin?<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97"><sup>97</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Pre-Illinoian/lh773xoI">Pre-illinois</a> A ?</td><td>Río Llico<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98"><sup>98</sup></a> Colegual?<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99"><sup>99</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>MIS 9</td><td>337–300</td><td><a href="/facts/Holstein_interglacial/7k5NKMt1">Mindel-Riss</a>?<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100"><sup>100</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Wolstonian_Stage/5WaXMFH5">Wolston</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101"><sup>101</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Purfleet_Interglacial/6kDXj2XQ">Purfleet</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102"><sup>102</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Holstein_interglacial/7k5NKMt1">Holstein</a>?<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103"><sup>103</sup></a></td><td>Likhvin<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104"><sup>104</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Pre-Illinoian/lh773xoI">Pre-illinois</a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>MIS 8</td><td>300–243</td><td><a href="/facts/Riss_glaciation/aoJKTCUa">Riss</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105"><sup>105</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Wolstonian_Stage/5WaXMFH5">Wolston</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106"><sup>106</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Saale_glaciation/TdGpIEac">Saale</a>/Fuhne<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107"><sup>107</sup></a></td><td>AC</td><td><a href="/facts/Pre-Illinoian/lh773xoI">Pre-illinois</a> A ?</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>MIS 7</td><td>243–191</td><td><a href="/facts/Riss_glaciation/aoJKTCUa">Riss</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108"><sup>108</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Wolstonian_Stage/5WaXMFH5">Wolston</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109"><sup>109</sup></a> Aveley<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:110" href="#fn:110"><sup>110</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Saale_glaciation/TdGpIEac">Saale</a>/Dömnitz<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:111" href="#fn:111"><sup>111</sup></a> Belvedere<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:112" href="#fn:112"><sup>112</sup></a></td><td>AC</td><td><a href="/facts/Pre-Illinoian/lh773xoI">Pre-illinois</a></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>MIS 6</td><td>191–130</td><td><a href="/facts/Riss_glaciation/aoJKTCUa">Riss</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:113" href="#fn:113"><sup>113</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Wolstonian_Stage/5WaXMFH5">Wolston</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:114" href="#fn:114"><sup>114</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Saale_glaciation/TdGpIEac">Saale</a>/Drenthe, Warthe<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:115" href="#fn:115"><sup>115</sup></a></td><td>Dnieper/Moscow<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:116" href="#fn:116"><sup>116</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Illinoian_(stage)/lL6L6mDh">Illinois</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:117" href="#fn:117"><sup>117</sup></a></td><td>Santa María<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:118" href="#fn:118"><sup>118</sup></a> Casma?<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:119" href="#fn:119"><sup>119</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>MIS 5e</td><td>123 (peak)</td><td><a href="/facts/Eemian/BV8sxf5m">Riss-Würm</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:120" href="#fn:120"><sup>120</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Eemian/BV8sxf5m">Ipswich</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:121" href="#fn:121"><sup>121</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Eemian/BV8sxf5m">Eem</a></td><td>Mikulino<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:122" href="#fn:122"><sup>122</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Sangamonian/PG3eBCbu">Sangamonian</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Eemian/BV8sxf5m">Valdivia</a></td><td rowspan="8"><a href="/facts/Late_Pleistocene/jKVh7yXL">LatePleistocene</a>('Tarantian')</td></tr><tr><td>MIS 5d</td><td>109 (peak)</td><td><a href="/facts/W%25C3%25BCrm_glaciation/LDGIqHnp">Würm</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:123" href="#fn:123"><sup>123</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Devensian_glaciation/mIYwj8e9">Devens</a>/Early D.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:124" href="#fn:124"><sup>124</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Weichsel_glaciation/gnQ5KqEd">Weichsel</a>/Herning<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:125" href="#fn:125"><sup>125</sup></a></td><td>Valdai<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:126" href="#fn:126"><sup>126</sup></a></td><td>AC</td><td>AC</td></tr><tr><td>MIS 5c</td><td>96 (peak)</td><td><a href="/facts/W%25C3%25BCrm_glaciation/LDGIqHnp">Würm</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:127" href="#fn:127"><sup>127</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Devensian_glaciation/mIYwj8e9">Devens</a>/Early D.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:128" href="#fn:128"><sup>128</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Weichsel_glaciation/gnQ5KqEd">Weichsel</a>/Brørup<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:129" href="#fn:129"><sup>129</sup></a></td><td>Valdai<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:130" href="#fn:130"><sup>130</sup></a></td><td>AC</td><td>AC</td></tr><tr><td>MIS 5b</td><td>87 (peak)</td><td><a href="/facts/W%25C3%25BCrm_glaciation/LDGIqHnp">Würm</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:131" href="#fn:131"><sup>131</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Devensian_glaciation/mIYwj8e9">Devens</a>/Early D.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:132" href="#fn:132"><sup>132</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Weichsel_glaciation/gnQ5KqEd">Weichsel</a>/Rederstall<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:133" href="#fn:133"><sup>133</sup></a></td><td>Valdai<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:134" href="#fn:134"><sup>134</sup></a></td><td>AC</td><td>AC</td></tr><tr><td>MIS 5a</td><td>82 (peak)</td><td><a href="/facts/W%25C3%25BCrm_glaciation/LDGIqHnp">Würm</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:135" href="#fn:135"><sup>135</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Devensian_glaciation/mIYwj8e9">Devens</a>/Early D.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:136" href="#fn:136"><sup>136</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Weichsel_glaciation/gnQ5KqEd">Weichsel</a>/Odderade<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:137" href="#fn:137"><sup>137</sup></a></td><td>Valdai<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:138" href="#fn:138"><sup>138</sup></a></td><td>AC</td><td>AC</td></tr><tr><td>MIS 4</td><td>71–57</td><td><a href="/facts/W%25C3%25BCrm_glaciation/LDGIqHnp">Würm</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:139" href="#fn:139"><sup>139</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Devensian_glaciation/mIYwj8e9">Devens</a>/Middle D.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:140" href="#fn:140"><sup>140</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Weichsel_glaciation/gnQ5KqEd">Weichsel</a>/Middle W.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:141" href="#fn:141"><sup>141</sup></a></td><td>Valdai<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:142" href="#fn:142"><sup>142</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Wisconsin_glaciation/PJMWjkBh">Wisconsin</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Llanquihue_glaciation/YFFgM0qf">Llanquihue</a></td></tr><tr><td>MIS 3</td><td>57–29</td><td><a href="/facts/W%25C3%25BCrm_glaciation/LDGIqHnp">Würm</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:143" href="#fn:143"><sup>143</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Devensian_glaciation/mIYwj8e9">Devens</a>/Middle D.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:144" href="#fn:144"><sup>144</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Weichsel_glaciation/gnQ5KqEd">Weichsel</a>/Middle W.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:145" href="#fn:145"><sup>145</sup></a></td><td>Valdai<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:146" href="#fn:146"><sup>146</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Wisconsin_glaciation/PJMWjkBh">Wisconsin</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Llanquihue_glaciation/YFFgM0qf">Llanquihue</a></td></tr><tr><td>MIS 2</td><td>29–14</td><td><a href="/facts/W%25C3%25BCrm_glaciation/LDGIqHnp">Würm</a>/<a href="/facts/Last_Glacial_Maximum/BXQyc9IP">LGM</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Devensian_glaciation/mIYwj8e9">Devens</a>/<a href="/facts/Last_Glacial_Maximum/BXQyc9IP">Dimlington</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Weichsel_glaciation/gnQ5KqEd">Weichsel</a>/<a href="/facts/Last_Glacial_Maximum/BXQyc9IP">LGM</a></td><td>Valdai<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:147" href="#fn:147"><sup>147</sup></a></td><td><a href="/facts/Wisconsin_glaciation/PJMWjkBh">Wisconsin</a>/<a href="/facts/Vashon_Glaciation/Bjuqt51x">Vashon</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Llanquihue_glaciation/YFFgM0qf">Llanquihue</a>/<a href="/facts/Last_Glacial_Maximum/BXQyc9IP">LGM</a></td></tr><tr><td>MIS 1</td><td>14–present</td><td>(<a href="/facts/Holocene/sppPgwW5">Holocene</a>)</td><td><a href="/facts/Flandrian_interglacial/gSw5WBme">Flandria</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Flandrian_interglacial/gSw5WBme">Flandria</a> (Holocene)</td><td></td><td>(<a href="/facts/Holocene/sppPgwW5">Holocene</a>)</td><td>(<a href="/facts/Holocene/sppPgwW5">Holocene</a>)</td><td rowspan="1"><a href="/facts/Holocene/sppPgwW5">Holocene</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <table><tbody><tr><th>Table explanation</th></tr><tr><td>Extensive interglacial (similar to <a href="/facts/Holocene/sppPgwW5">Holocene</a>)</td></tr><tr><td>Moderate interglacial</td></tr><tr><td>Intermediate climate</td></tr><tr><td>Moderate glaciation</td></tr><tr><td>Extensive glaciation (similar to <a href="/facts/Last_Glacial_Maximum/BXQyc9IP">LGM</a>)</td></tr><tr><td>AC = Ambiguous correlation</td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="sources">Sources</h2> <p>For sources to the tables, see the individual linked articles. </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Brunhes%25E2%2580%2593Matuyama_reversal/SBxXAjlF">Brunhes–Matuyama reversal</a> – Most recent geomagnetic reversal event (about 780,000 years ago)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Geologic_time_scale/vBAm0D8Q">Geologic time scale</a> – System that relates geologic strata to time</li> <li><a href="/facts/Glacial_history_of_Minnesota/7BMYAIyN">Glacial history of Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Glacial_period/alIAm38r">Glacial period</a> – Interval of time within an ice age that is marked by colder temperatures and glacier advances</li> <li><a href="/facts/Ice_age/agSMvAgX">Ice age</a> – Period of long-term reduction in temperature of Earth's surface and atmosphere</li> <li><a href="/facts/Last_Glacial_Period/mIYwj8e9">Last Glacial Period</a> – Period of major glaciations of the Northern Hemisphere (115,000–12,000 years ago)</li> <li><a href="/facts/Thermal_history_of_Earth/8mFPP0Ao">Thermal history of Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Geologic_temperature_record/XEa9ufdV">Geologic temperature record</a> – Very long term changes in Earth's temperature</li> <li><a href="/facts/List_of_periods_and_events_in_climate_history/0zPpAdQh">List of periods and events in climate history</a></li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <p> The dictionary definition of glaciation at Wiktionary </p> <ul><li>Aber, J.S. (2006). <a href="http://academic.emporia.edu/aberjame/ice/lec17/lec17.htm">"Regional Glaciation of Kansas and Nebraska"</a>. Emporia KS: Emporia State University.</li> <li>Work Group on Geospatial Analysis of Glaciated Environments (GAGE) (2000). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080513181655/http://www.emporia.edu/earthsci/gage/pre-wisc/pre-wisc.htm">"Pre-Wisconsin Glaciation of Central North America"</a>. Emporia KS: INQUA Commission on Glaciation, Emporia State University. Archived from <a href="http://www.emporia.edu/earthsci/gage/pre-wisc/pre-wisc.htm">the original</a> on May 13, 2008.</li> <li>Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy (2011). <a href="http://quaternary.stratigraphy.org/charts/">"Global correlation tables for the Quaternary"</a>. Cambridge UK: Department of Geography, University of Cambridge.</li> <li>Gibbard, P.L.; Boreham, S.; Cohen, K.M.; Moscariello, A. (2011). <a href="https://www.academia.edu/3557337">"Global chronostratigraphical correlation table for the last 2.7 million years v. 2011"</a>. Cambridge UK: Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy, Department of Geography, University of Cambridge.</li> <li>Hambrey, M.J.; Harland, W.B., eds. (1981). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061011144504/http://www.aber.ac.uk/~glawww/epgr.htm"><i>Earth's pre-Pleistocene glacial record</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. Archived from <a href="https://www.aber.ac.uk/~glawww/epgr.htm">the original</a> on October 11, 2006. 1004 + xv pp. (book downloadable as series of PDF files)</li> <li>Silva, P.G.; Zazo, C; Bardají, T.; Baena, J.; Lario, J.; Rosas, A.; Van der Made (2009). <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120626140850/http://tierra.rediris.es/aequa/doc/tabla_aequav2_2009.pdf">"Tabla Cronoestratigráfica del Cuaternario AEQUA V.2"</a> (PDF). Departamento de Geología, Universidad de Salamanca, Spain: Asociación Española para el Estudio del Cuaternario (AEQUA). Archived from <a href="http://tierra.rediris.es/aequa/doc/tabla_aequav2_2009.pdf/.">the original</a> (PDF 3.6 <a href="/facts/Megabyte/RBF4XpWb">Mb</a>) on 2012-06-26. (Correlation Chart of European Quaternary and cultural stages and fossils)</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Walker, M., Johnsen, S., Rasmussen, S. O., Popp, T., Steffensen, J.-P., Gibbard, P., Hoek, W., Lowe, J., Andrews, J., Bjo¨ rck, S., Cwynar, L. C., Hughen, K., Kershaw, P., Kromer, B., Litt, T., Lowe, D. J., Nakagawa, T., Newnham, R., and Schwander, J. 2009. Formal definition and dating of the GSSP (Global Stratotype Section and Point) for the base of the Holocene using the Greenland NGRIP ice core, and selected auxiliary records. J. Quaternary Sci., Vol. 24 pp. 3–17. ISSN 0267-8179. <a href="http://www.stratigraphy.org/GSSP/Holocene.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.stratigraphy.org/GSSP/Holocene.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Robert E. Kopp; Joseph L. Kirschvink; Isaac A. Hilburn & Cody Z. Nash (2005). "The Paleoproterozoic snowball Earth: A climate disaster triggered by the evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 102 (32): 11131–6. Bibcode:2005PNAS..10211131K. doi:10.1073/pnas.0504878102. PMC 1183582. PMID 16061801. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1183582" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1183582</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>"Chart". International Commission on Stratigraphy. Archived from the original on 2017-01-13. Retrieved 2017-02-14. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170113013553/http://www.stratigraphy.org/index.php/ics-chart-timescale" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20170113013553/http://www.stratigraphy.org/index.php/ics-chart-timescale</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Miracle Planet: Snowball Earth, (2005) documentary, Canadian Film Board, rebroadcast 25 April 2009 on the Science Channel (HD). <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Miracle Planet: Snowball Earth, (2005) documentary, Canadian Film Board, rebroadcast 25 April 2009 on the Science Channel (HD). <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>van Andel, Tjeerd H. (1994). New Views on an Old Planet: A History of Global Change (2nd ed.). Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press. 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(1981). "Pleistocene glaciation in the southern Lake District of Chile". Quaternary Research. 16 (3): 263–292. Bibcode:1981QuRes..16..263P. doi:10.1016/0033-5894(81)90013-2. S2CID 140544020. <a href="/wiki/Quaternary_Research" target="_blank">/wiki/Quaternary_Research</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Porter, S.C. (1981). "Pleistocene glaciation in the southern Lake District of Chile". Quaternary Research. 16 (3): 263–292. Bibcode:1981QuRes..16..263P. doi:10.1016/0033-5894(81)90013-2. S2CID 140544020. <a href="/wiki/Quaternary_Research" target="_blank">/wiki/Quaternary_Research</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Böse; et al. (2012). "Quaternary Glaciations of Northern Europe". Quaternary Science Reviews (44): 17. 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S2CID 12788441. <a href="/wiki/Lorraine_Lisiecki" target="_blank">/wiki/Lorraine_Lisiecki</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>German Stratigraphic Commission: Stratigraphische Tabelle von Deutschland 2016 <a href="http://www.stratigraphie.de/std/Bilder/5_2.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.stratigraphie.de/std/Bilder/5_2.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy, Global chronostratigraphical correlation table for the last 2.7 million years, v. 2011 <a href="http://quaternary.stratigraphy.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/POSTERSTRAT_v2011.jpg" target="_blank">http://quaternary.stratigraphy.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/POSTERSTRAT_v2011.jpg</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy, Global chronostratigraphical correlation table for the last 2.7 million years, v. 2011 <a href="http://quaternary.stratigraphy.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/POSTERSTRAT_v2011.jpg" target="_blank">http://quaternary.stratigraphy.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/POSTERSTRAT_v2011.jpg</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy, Global chronostratigraphical correlation table for the last 2.7 million years, v. 2011 <a href="http://quaternary.stratigraphy.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/POSTERSTRAT_v2011.jpg" target="_blank">http://quaternary.stratigraphy.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/POSTERSTRAT_v2011.jpg</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy, Global chronostratigraphical correlation table for the last 2.7 million years, v. 2011 <a href="http://quaternary.stratigraphy.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/POSTERSTRAT_v2011.jpg" target="_blank">http://quaternary.stratigraphy.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/POSTERSTRAT_v2011.jpg</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy, Global chronostratigraphical correlation table for the last 2.7 million years, v. 2011 <a href="http://quaternary.stratigraphy.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/POSTERSTRAT_v2011.jpg" target="_blank">http://quaternary.stratigraphy.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/POSTERSTRAT_v2011.jpg</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy, Global chronostratigraphical correlation table for the last 2.7 million years, v. 2011 <a href="http://quaternary.stratigraphy.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/POSTERSTRAT_v2011.jpg" target="_blank">http://quaternary.stratigraphy.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/POSTERSTRAT_v2011.jpg</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Kasse (1993), Periglacial environments and climate development during Early Pleistocene Tiglian stage (Beerse Glacial) in northern Belgium, Geologie en Mijnbouw 72, 107–123, Kluwer <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Cornelis_Kees_Kasse/publication/293398429_Periglacial_environments_and_climatic_development_during_the_early_Pleistocene_Tiglian_stage_Beerse_Glacial_in_northern_Belgium/links/5769487e08ae2d7145ba7cb9/Periglacial-environments-and-climatic-development-during-the-early-Pleistocene-Tiglian-stage-Beerse-Glacial-in-northern-Belgium.pdf?origin=publication_detail" target="_blank">https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Cornelis_Kees_Kasse/publication/293398429_Periglacial_environments_and_climatic_development_during_the_early_Pleistocene_Tiglian_stage_Beerse_Glacial_in_northern_Belgium/links/5769487e08ae2d7145ba7cb9/Periglacial-environments-and-climatic-development-during-the-early-Pleistocene-Tiglian-stage-Beerse-Glacial-in-northern-Belgium.pdf?origin=publication_detail</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>Kasse (1993), Periglacial environments and climate development during Early Pleistocene Tiglian stage (Beerse Glacial) in northern Belgium, Geologie en Mijnbouw 72, 107–123, Kluwer <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Cornelis_Kees_Kasse/publication/293398429_Periglacial_environments_and_climatic_development_during_the_early_Pleistocene_Tiglian_stage_Beerse_Glacial_in_northern_Belgium/links/5769487e08ae2d7145ba7cb9/Periglacial-environments-and-climatic-development-during-the-early-Pleistocene-Tiglian-stage-Beerse-Glacial-in-northern-Belgium.pdf?origin=publication_detail" target="_blank">https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Cornelis_Kees_Kasse/publication/293398429_Periglacial_environments_and_climatic_development_during_the_early_Pleistocene_Tiglian_stage_Beerse_Glacial_in_northern_Belgium/links/5769487e08ae2d7145ba7cb9/Periglacial-environments-and-climatic-development-during-the-early-Pleistocene-Tiglian-stage-Beerse-Glacial-in-northern-Belgium.pdf?origin=publication_detail</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>Kasse (1993), Periglacial environments and climate development during Early Pleistocene Tiglian stage (Beerse Glacial) in northern Belgium, Geologie en Mijnbouw 72, 107–123, Kluwer <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Cornelis_Kees_Kasse/publication/293398429_Periglacial_environments_and_climatic_development_during_the_early_Pleistocene_Tiglian_stage_Beerse_Glacial_in_northern_Belgium/links/5769487e08ae2d7145ba7cb9/Periglacial-environments-and-climatic-development-during-the-early-Pleistocene-Tiglian-stage-Beerse-Glacial-in-northern-Belgium.pdf?origin=publication_detail" target="_blank">https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Cornelis_Kees_Kasse/publication/293398429_Periglacial_environments_and_climatic_development_during_the_early_Pleistocene_Tiglian_stage_Beerse_Glacial_in_northern_Belgium/links/5769487e08ae2d7145ba7cb9/Periglacial-environments-and-climatic-development-during-the-early-Pleistocene-Tiglian-stage-Beerse-Glacial-in-northern-Belgium.pdf?origin=publication_detail</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>Kasse (1993), Periglacial environments and climate development during Early Pleistocene Tiglian stage (Beerse Glacial) in northern Belgium, Geologie en Mijnbouw 72, 107–123, Kluwer <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Cornelis_Kees_Kasse/publication/293398429_Periglacial_environments_and_climatic_development_during_the_early_Pleistocene_Tiglian_stage_Beerse_Glacial_in_northern_Belgium/links/5769487e08ae2d7145ba7cb9/Periglacial-environments-and-climatic-development-during-the-early-Pleistocene-Tiglian-stage-Beerse-Glacial-in-northern-Belgium.pdf?origin=publication_detail" target="_blank">https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Cornelis_Kees_Kasse/publication/293398429_Periglacial_environments_and_climatic_development_during_the_early_Pleistocene_Tiglian_stage_Beerse_Glacial_in_northern_Belgium/links/5769487e08ae2d7145ba7cb9/Periglacial-environments-and-climatic-development-during-the-early-Pleistocene-Tiglian-stage-Beerse-Glacial-in-northern-Belgium.pdf?origin=publication_detail</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>Kasse (1993), Periglacial environments and climate development during Early Pleistocene Tiglian stage (Beerse Glacial) in northern Belgium, Geologie en Mijnbouw 72, 107–123, Kluwer <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Cornelis_Kees_Kasse/publication/293398429_Periglacial_environments_and_climatic_development_during_the_early_Pleistocene_Tiglian_stage_Beerse_Glacial_in_northern_Belgium/links/5769487e08ae2d7145ba7cb9/Periglacial-environments-and-climatic-development-during-the-early-Pleistocene-Tiglian-stage-Beerse-Glacial-in-northern-Belgium.pdf?origin=publication_detail" target="_blank">https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Cornelis_Kees_Kasse/publication/293398429_Periglacial_environments_and_climatic_development_during_the_early_Pleistocene_Tiglian_stage_Beerse_Glacial_in_northern_Belgium/links/5769487e08ae2d7145ba7cb9/Periglacial-environments-and-climatic-development-during-the-early-Pleistocene-Tiglian-stage-Beerse-Glacial-in-northern-Belgium.pdf?origin=publication_detail</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:32"><p>Kasse (1993), Periglacial environments and climate development during Early Pleistocene Tiglian stage (Beerse Glacial) in northern Belgium, Geologie en Mijnbouw 72, 107–123, Kluwer <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Cornelis_Kees_Kasse/publication/293398429_Periglacial_environments_and_climatic_development_during_the_early_Pleistocene_Tiglian_stage_Beerse_Glacial_in_northern_Belgium/links/5769487e08ae2d7145ba7cb9/Periglacial-environments-and-climatic-development-during-the-early-Pleistocene-Tiglian-stage-Beerse-Glacial-in-northern-Belgium.pdf?origin=publication_detail" target="_blank">https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Cornelis_Kees_Kasse/publication/293398429_Periglacial_environments_and_climatic_development_during_the_early_Pleistocene_Tiglian_stage_Beerse_Glacial_in_northern_Belgium/links/5769487e08ae2d7145ba7cb9/Periglacial-environments-and-climatic-development-during-the-early-Pleistocene-Tiglian-stage-Beerse-Glacial-in-northern-Belgium.pdf?origin=publication_detail</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:33"><p>Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy, Global chronostratigraphical correlation table for the last 2.7 million years, v. 2011 <a href="http://quaternary.stratigraphy.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/POSTERSTRAT_v2011.jpg" target="_blank">http://quaternary.stratigraphy.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/POSTERSTRAT_v2011.jpg</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:34"><p>Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy, Global chronostratigraphical correlation table for the last 2.7 million years, v. 2011 <a href="http://quaternary.stratigraphy.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/POSTERSTRAT_v2011.jpg" target="_blank">http://quaternary.stratigraphy.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/POSTERSTRAT_v2011.jpg</a> <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:35"><p>Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy, Global chronostratigraphical correlation table for the last 2.7 million years, v. 2011 <a href="http://quaternary.stratigraphy.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/POSTERSTRAT_v2011.jpg" target="_blank">http://quaternary.stratigraphy.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/POSTERSTRAT_v2011.jpg</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:36"><p>Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy, Global chronostratigraphical correlation table for the last 2.7 million years, v. 2011 <a href="http://quaternary.stratigraphy.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/POSTERSTRAT_v2011.jpg" 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