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Polymer stabilizer
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<h2 id="antioxidants">Antioxidants</h2> <p>Antioxidants inhibit <a href="/facts/Autoxidation/2mY5fjvj">autoxidation</a> that occurs when polymers reacts with atmospheric oxygen.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> Aerobic degradation occurs gradually at room temperature, but almost all polymers are at risk of thermal-oxidation when they are processed at high temperatures. The molding or casting of plastics (e.g. <a href="/facts/Injection_molding/tKdYE8Wb">injection molding</a>) require them to be above their melting point or <a href="/facts/Glass_transition_temperature/yVl3QzsT">glass transition temperature</a> (~200-300 °C). Under these conditions reactions with oxygen occur much more rapidly. Once initiated, autoxidation can be <a href="/facts/Autocatalysis/2eGCpunY">autocatalytic</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> As such, even though efforts are usually made to reduce oxygen levels, total exclusion is often not achievable and even exceedingly low concentrations of oxygen can be sufficient to initiate degradation. Sensitivity to oxidation varies significantly depending on the polymer in question; without stabilizers <a href="/facts/Polypropylene/HM9PvoCz">polypropylene</a> and unsaturated polymers such as <a href="/facts/Rubber/CbsjJxhY">rubber</a> will slowly degrade at room temperature where as <a href="/facts/Polystyrene/dfIVntty">polystyrene</a> can be stable even at high temperatures.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> Antioxidants are of great importance during the process stage, with long-term stability at ambient temperature increasingly being supplied by hindered amine light stabilizers (HALs). Antioxidants are often referred to as being primary or secondary depending on their mechanism of action. </p> <h3>Primary antioxidants (radical scavengers)</h3> <p>Primary antioxidants (also known as chain-breaking antioxidants) act as <a href="/facts/Radical_scavenger/DqKCmI8Q">radical scavengers</a> and remove peroxy radicals (ROO•), as well as to a lesser extent alkoxy radicals (RO•), <a href="/facts/Hydroxyl_radical/XafpvqK5">hydroxyl radicals</a> (HO•) and alkyl radicals (R•). Oxidation begins with the formation of alkyl radicals, which are formed when the high temperatures and high <a href="/facts/Shear_stress/aWWnzIhE">shear stress</a> experienced during processing snaps the polymer chains in a <a href="/facts/Homolysis_(chemistry)/vTbWWBjh">homolytic</a> manner. These alkyl radicals react very rapidly with molecular oxygen (rate constants ≈ 107–109 mol–1 s–1) to give peroxy radicals,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> which in turn <a href="/facts/Hydrogen_atom_abstraction/mqaVtjJA">abstract hydrogen</a> from a fresh section of polymer in a <a href="/facts/Chain_propagation/rEm6kfvL">chain propagation</a> step to give new alkyl radicals.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> The overall process is exceedingly complex and will vary between polymers<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> but the first few steps are shown below in general: </p> R-R → 2 R• R• + O2 → ROO• ROO• + RH → ROOH + R• <p>Due to its rapid reaction with oxygen the scavenging of the initial alkyl radical (R•) is difficult and can only be achieved using specialised antioxidants<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> the majority of primary antioxidants react instead with the longer lasting peroxy radicals (ROO•). Hydrogen abstraction is usually the <a href="/facts/Rate_determining_step/UC0TNxtX">rate determining step</a> in the polymer degradation and the peroxy radicals can be scavenged by hydrogen donation from an alternative source, namely the primary antioxidant. This converts them into an organic <a href="/facts/Hydroperoxide/w7hdgtVF">hydroperoxide</a> (ROOH). The most important commercial stabilizers for this are hindered <a href="/facts/Phenols/xs1CtNTa">phenols</a> such as <a href="/facts/Butylated_hydroxytoluene/Td6ctev7">BHT</a> or <a href="/facts/Irganox_1098/GsAshTRK">analogues thereof</a> and secondary aromatic amines such as alkylated-<a href="/facts/Diphenylamine/CH92mQoC">diphenylamine</a>. Amines are typically more effective, but cause pronounced discoloration, which is often undesirable (i.e., in food packaging, clothing). The overall reaction with phenols is shown below: </p> ROO• + ArOH → ROOH + ArO• ArO• → nonradical products <p>The end products of these reactions are typically <a href="/facts/Quinone_methide/oEjWDqGK">quinone methides</a>, which may also impart unwanted colour.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> Modern phenolic antioxidants have complex molecular structures, often including a propionate-group at the para position of the phenol (i.e. they are ortho-alkylated analogues of <a href="/facts/Phloretic_acid/oLewaKcl">phloretic acid</a>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> The quinone methides of these can rearrange once to give a <a href="/facts/Hydroxycinnamate/QjLLj3NE">hydroxycinnamate</a>, regenerating the phenolic antioxidant group and allowing further radicals to be scavenged.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> Ultimately however, primary antioxidants are sacrificial and once they are fully consumed the polymer will begin to degrade. </p> <h3>Secondary antioxidants (hydroperoxides scavengers)</h3> <p>Secondary antioxidants act to remove <a href="/facts/Organic_hydroperoxide/UAyyVaDU">organic hydroperoxides</a> (ROOH) formed by the action of primary antioxidants. Hydroperoxides are less reactive than radical species but can initiate fresh radical reactions:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> </p> ROOH + RH → RO• + R• + H2O <p>As they are less chemically active they require a more reactive antioxidant. The most commonly employed class are <a href="/facts/Phosphite/Uq54qjld">phosphite</a> esters, often of hindered phenols e.g. <a href="/facts/Tris(2,4-di-tert-butylphenyl)phosphite/gdEy1vdo">Tris(2,4-di-tert-butylphenyl)phosphite</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> These will convert polymer hydroperoxides to alcohols, becoming oxidized to <a href="/facts/Organophosphate/u4U9GS4z">organophosphates</a> in the process:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> </p> ROOH + P(OR')3 → OP(OR')3 + ROH <p>Transesterification can then take place, in which the hydroxylated polymer is exchanged for a phenol:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> </p> ROH + OP(OR')3 → R'OH + OP(OR')2OR <p>This exchange further stabilizes the polymer by releasing a primary antioxidant, because of this phosphites are sometimes considered multi-functional antioxidants as they can combine both types of activity. <a href="/facts/Organosulfur_compounds/sUxSSXwD">Organosulfur compounds</a> are also efficient <a href="/facts/Hydroperoxide/w7hdgtVF">hydroperoxide</a> decomposers, with <a href="/facts/Thioether/GdyEz43f">thioethers</a> being particularly effective against long-term thermal aging, they are ultimately oxidise up to <a href="/facts/Sulfoxide/Stk3Vnj9">sulfoxides</a> and <a href="/facts/Sulfone/LJLP1RcT">sulfones</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> </p> <h3>Antiozonant</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Antiozonant/yCVLULsr">Antiozonant</a></p> <p>Antiozonants prevent or slow down the degradation of material caused by <a href="/facts/Ozone/o0E5gn2p">ozone</a>. This is naturally present in the air at very low concentrations but is exceedingly reactive, particularly towards unsaturated polymers such as rubber, where it causes <a href="/facts/Ozone_cracking/QseF7UVJ">ozone cracking</a>. The mechanism of <a href="/facts/Ozonolysis/WEwBID8x">ozonolysis</a> is different from other forms of oxidation and hence requires its own class of antioxidant stabilizers. These are primarily derivatives of <a href="/facts/P-phenylenediamine/HuftxnqJ">p-phenylenediamine</a> (PPD) and work by reacting with <a href="/facts/Ozone/o0E5gn2p">ozone</a> faster than it can react with vulnerable functional groups in the polymer (typically <a href="/facts/Alkene/RtYcS6kU">alkene</a> groups). They achieve this by having a low <a href="/facts/Ionization_energy/lezUajfA">ionization energy</a> which allows them to react with ozone via electron transfer, this converts them into radical cations that are stabilized by <a href="/facts/Aromaticity/wK0DzRY6">aromaticity</a>. Such species remain reactive and will react further, giving products such as <a href="/facts/1,4-benzoquinone/Ypl2FyMU">1,4-benzoquinone</a>, phenylenediamine-dimers and <a href="/facts/Aminoxyl_radical/yXccq8Iq">aminoxyl radicals</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> Some of these products can then be scavenged by antioxidants. </p> <h2 id="light-stabilizers">Light stabilizers</h2> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Photo-oxidation_of_polymers/JD3bkFtL">Photo-oxidation of polymers</a></p> <p>Light stabilizer are used to inhibit polymer photo-oxidation, which is the combined result of the action of light and oxygen. Like <a href="/facts/Autoxidation/2mY5fjvj">autoxidation</a> this is a free radical process, hence the antioxidants described above are effective inhibiting agents, however additional classes of additives are also beneficial, such as UV absorbers, quenchers of excited states and HALS.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> </p> <h3>UV absorbers</h3> <p><a href="/facts/UV/kncBUqn5">UV</a> susceptibility varies significantly between different polymers. Certain <a href="/facts/Polycarbonate/QU8sH1c6">polycarbonates</a>, <a href="/facts/Polyester/Ivp9CHpl">polyesters</a> and <a href="/facts/Polyurethane/qNo2KSXA">polyurethanes</a> are highly susceptible, degrading via a <a href="/facts/Photo-Fries_rearrangement/7YeUle47">Photo-Fries rearrangement</a>. UV stabilisers absorb and dissipate the energy from UV rays as heat, typically by reversible intramolecular proton transfer. This reduces the absorption of UV rays by the polymer matrix and hence reduces the rate of weathering. <a href="/facts/Phenolic_benzotriazoles/AnJwFdY9">Phenolic benzotriazoles</a> (e.g. <a href="/facts/UV-360/zQvxFFf0">UV-360</a>, <a href="/facts/UV-328/8ycsjDVK">UV-328</a>) and hydroxyphenyl-triazines (e.g. <a href="/facts/Bemotrizinol/H29PPrMF">Bemotrizinol</a>) are used to stabilise <a href="/facts/Polycarbonate/QU8sH1c6">polycarbonates</a> and <a href="/facts/Acrylate_polymer/3z6dXElL">acrylics</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> oxanilides are used for <a href="/facts/Polyamide/8AmQgTFa">polyamides</a> and polyurethanes, while <a href="/facts/Benzophenone/U1dDfM9k">benzophenones</a> are used for <a href="/facts/PVC/9VkegJvr">PVC</a>. </p><p>Strongly light-absorbing <a href="/facts/Poly(p-phenylene_sulfide)/51HrCWXV">PPS</a> is difficult to stabilize. Even antioxidants fail in this electron-rich polymer. The acids or bases in the PPS matrix can disrupt the performance of the conventional UV absorbers such as HPBT. PTHPBT, which is a modification of HPBT are shown to be effective, even in these conditions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> </p> <h3>Quenchers</h3> <p>Photo-oxidation can begin with the absorption of light by a <a href="/facts/Chromophore/9RykVkek">chromophore</a> within the polymer (which may be a dye or impurity) causing it to enter an <a href="/facts/Excited_state/czcLYNnr">excited state</a>. This can then react with ambient oxygen, converting it into highly reactive <a href="/facts/Singlet_oxygen/db0PsrYh">singlet oxygen</a>. <a href="/facts/Quenching_(fluorescence)/3xRv4yIQ">Quenchers</a> are able to absorb energy from excited molecules via a <a href="/facts/F%C3%B6rster_resonance_energy_transfer/6dJTdAC6">Förster</a> mechanism and then dissipate it harmlessly as either heat or lower frequency fluorescent light. Singlet oxygen can be quenched by metal chelates, with nickel phenolates being a common example.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> Nickel quenchers tend to be used in <a href="/facts/Plasticulture/3KP1BVIp">agricultural plastics</a> such as <a href="/facts/Plastic_mulch/x1n8sa15">plastic mulch</a>. </p> <h3>Hindered amine light stabilizers</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Hindered_amine_light_stabilizers/F5ylmXvT">hindered amine light stabilizers</a></p> <p>The ability of hindered amine light stabilizers (HALS or HAS) to scavenge radicals produced by weathering, may be explained by the formation of <a href="/facts/Aminoxyl_radical/yXccq8Iq">aminoxyl radicals</a> through a process known as the Denisov Cycle. The aminoxyl radical (N-O•) combines with free radicals in polymers: </p><p>N-O• + R• → N-O-R </p><p>Although they are traditionally considered as light stabilizers, they can also stabilize thermal degradation. </p><p>Even though HALS are extremely effective in <a href="/facts/Polyolefin/hWl2j3r0">polyolefins</a>, <a href="/facts/Polyethylene/LaaAf4cn">polyethylene</a> and <a href="/facts/Polyurethane/qNo2KSXA">polyurethane</a>, they are ineffective in <a href="/facts/Polyvinyl_chloride/9VkegJvr">polyvinyl chloride</a> (PVC). It is thought that their ability to form nitroxyl radicals is disrupted. HALS act as a base and become neutralized by <a href="/facts/Hydrochloric_acid/HqItJlUT">hydrochloric acid</a> (HCl) that is released by photooxidation of PVC. The exception is the recently developed NOR HALS, which is not a strong base and is not deactivated by HCl.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="other-classes">Other Classes</h2> <p>Polymers are susceptible to degradation by a variety of pathways beyond oxygen and light. </p> <h3>Acid Scavengers</h3> <p>Acid scavengers, also referred to as antacids, neutralize acidic impurities,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> especially those that release <a href="/facts/HCl/7Wzkhomd">HCl</a>. <a href="/facts/PVC/9VkegJvr">PVC</a> is susceptible to acid-catalyzed degradation, the HCl being derived from the polymer itself. <a href="/facts/Ziegler%E2%80%93Natta_catalyst/bkDSDf9d">Ziegler–Natta catalysts</a> and halogenated flame retardants also serve as sources of acids. Common acid scavengers include <a href="/facts/Metallic_soap/TjGGJ4RS">metallic soaps</a>, such as <a href="/facts/Calcium_stearate/phdADnKN">calcium stearate</a> and <a href="/facts/Zinc_stearate/MqasHNzl">zinc stearate</a>, mineral agents, such as <a href="/facts/Hydrotalcite/5q2x88zy">hydrotalcite</a> and hydrocalumite, and basic metal oxides, such as <a href="/facts/Calcium_oxide/Wh9C8l7j">calcium oxide</a>, <a href="/facts/Zinc_oxide/P7sTyDez">zinc oxide</a> or <a href="/facts/Magnesium_oxide/0GfLn47t">magnesium oxide</a>. </p> <h3>Metal deactivators</h3> <p>Metal ions, such as those of <a href="/facts/Titanium/53ArnDoy">Ti</a>, <a href="/facts/Aluminium/7wmR8jYE">Al</a> and <a href="/facts/Copper/I8PEE8oX">Cu</a>, can accelerate the degradation of polymers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> This is of particular concern where polymers are in direct contact with metal, such as in wiring and cable. More generally, the metal catalysts used to form the polymer may simply become encapsulated within it during production, this is typically true of <a href="/facts/Ziegler-Natta_catalysts/bkDSDf9d">Ziegler-Natta catalysts</a> in <a href="/facts/Polypropylene/HM9PvoCz">polypropylene</a>. In these instances <a href="/facts/Metal_deactivator/y2G3KSHr">metal deactivators</a> may be added to improve stability. Deactivators work by <a href="/facts/Chelation/4G79sXBB">chelation</a> to form an inactive <a href="/facts/Coordination_complex/1tCyeQUm">coordination complex</a> with the metal ion. <a href="/facts/Salen_ligand/nsKjSvmq">Salen-type</a> compounds are common. </p> <h3>Thermal stabilizers</h3> <p>Thermal (or heat) stabilizers are used almost exclusively in <a href="/facts/PVC/9VkegJvr">PVC</a>. At temperatures above 70 °C the unstabilized material is susceptible to degradation with loss of HCl. Once this dehydrochlorination starts it is <a href="/facts/Autocatalytic/2eGCpunY">autocatalytic</a>, with rising acidity accelerating degradation. A wide range of agents have been used to prevent this, with many of the early agents such as <a href="/facts/Lead_stearate/LQL6qU4T">lead stearate</a>, <a href="/facts/Organotin/B4aDa9Lq">organotins</a> and <a href="/facts/Cadmium/wXkV2eIX">cadmium</a> complexes being highly toxic. Safer modern alternatives include <a href="/facts/Metallic_soap/TjGGJ4RS">metallic soaps</a> such as <a href="/facts/Calcium_stearate/phdADnKN">calcium stearate</a>, as well as barium and zinc compounds, along with various synergists.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> Addition levels vary typically from 2% to 4%. </p> <h3>Flame retardants</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Flame_retardant/0dpdUCYh">Flame retardant</a></p> <p>Flame retardants are a broad range of compounds that improve fire resistance of polymers. Examples include <a href="/facts/Brominated_flame_retardant/829eRlVp">brominated compounds</a> along with <a href="/facts/Aluminium_hydroxide/e0pXvDGr">aluminium hydroxide</a>, <a href="/facts/Antimony_trioxide/b3LraQvL">antimony trioxide</a>, and various <a href="/facts/Organophosphate/u4U9GS4z">organophosphates</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> Flame retardants are known to reduce the effectiveness of antioxidants.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> </p> <h3>Biocides</h3> <p>Degradation resulting from microorganisms (<a href="/facts/Biodegradation/d1UW4dfR">biodegradation</a>) involves its own class of special bio-stabilizers and <a href="/facts/Biocide/VwIWkeJE">biocides</a> (e.g. <a href="/facts/Isothiazolinone/CVKmgMl4">isothiazolinones</a>). </p> <h3>Voltage stabilizers</h3> <p>These additives are added to polymers used as sheathing for <a href="/facts/Electrical_cable/Dhzlz5hn">electrical cables</a>, most commonly <a href="/facts/PEX/ayxYuITl">PEX</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> Compounds include <a href="/facts/Benzil/FlPLSI9u">benzil</a> and <a href="/facts/Thioxanthone/7NScFQHg">thioxanthone</a> derivatives.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> These possess high electron affinities, which allow them to trap and neutralize <a href="/facts/Charge_carrier/wpjjql4x">charge carriers</a> that can cause <a href="/facts/Dielectric_breakdown/btrl0FPI">dielectric breakdown</a> of the insulation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Oil_additive/m123DFeK">Oil additives</a> and <a href="/facts/Fuel_additive/oqYFx3H3">fuel additives</a> often include antioxidant stabilizers related to the ones discussed in this article</li> <li><a href="/facts/Polymer_degradation/AMv6yVkK">Polymer degradation</a>, <a href="/facts/Factors_of_polymer_weathering/JD3bkFtL">polymer weathering</a> and <a href="/facts/Environmental_stress_cracking/eWAfwEbR">environmental stress cracking</a> - discuss the natural degradation of polymers</li> <li><a href="/facts/Chemically_Assisted_Degradation_of_Polymers/AMv6yVkK">Chemically Assisted Degradation of Polymers</a> and <a href="/facts/Weather_testing_of_polymers/91fuhyhu">weather testing of polymers</a> - discuss the accelerated degradation of polymers</li> <li><a href="/facts/Biodegradable_additives/3ldVp2yc">Biodegradable additives</a> - are additives that enhance the biodegradation of polymers</li></ul> Other additives <ul><li><a href="/facts/Plasticizer/RjzuplRY">Plasticizer</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Filler_(materials)/wMmIePGc">Filler (materials)</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Plastic_colorant/Q2RMlptw">Plastic colorants</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Mold_release_agent/tuhXHNll">Mold release agents</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Zweifel, Hans; Maier, Ralph D.; Schiller, Michael (2009). Plastics additives handbook (6th ed.). Munich: Hanser. ISBN 978-3-446-40801-2. <a href="978-3-446-40801-2" target="_blank">978-3-446-40801-2</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Zweifel, Hans; Maier, Ralph D.; Schiller, Michael (2009). Plastics additives handbook (6th ed.). Munich: Hanser. ISBN 978-3-446-40801-2. <a href="978-3-446-40801-2" target="_blank">978-3-446-40801-2</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Singh, Baljit; Sharma, Nisha (March 2008). "Mechanistic implications of plastic degradation". Polymer Degradation and Stability. 93 (3): 561–584. doi:10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2007.11.008. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Zweifel, Hans; Maier, Ralph D.; Schiller, Michael (2009). Plastics additives handbook (6th ed.). Munich: Hanser. ISBN 978-3-446-40801-2. <a href="978-3-446-40801-2" target="_blank">978-3-446-40801-2</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>"Plastic antioxidants market projected to reach US$2.11 billion by 2022". Additives for Polymers. 2018 (2): 10. February 2018. doi:10.1016/S0306-3747(18)30046-0. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>"Stabilizers Market Report: Industry Analysis, Forecast 2022-2031". Ceresana Market Research. Retrieved 2024-10-28. <a href="https://ceresana.com/en/produkt/stabilizers-market-report-world" target="_blank">https://ceresana.com/en/produkt/stabilizers-market-report-world</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Pelzl, Bernhard; Wolf, Rainer; Kaul, Bansi Lal (2018). "Plastics, Additives". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. 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