Neo-Stalinism

<h2 id="definitions">Definitions</h2>
The American <a href="/facts/Trotskyism/vFTI0SKS">Trotskyist</a> <a href="/facts/Hal_Draper/6nHlBQ0F">Hal Draper</a> used "neo-Stalinism" in 1948 to refer to a new political ideology—new development in Soviet policy, which he defined as a reactionary trend whose beginning was associated with the <a href="/facts/Popular_front/vvEknxa1">Popular front</a> period of the mid-1930s, writing: "The ideologists of neo-Stalinism are merely the tendrils shot ahead by the phenomena – fascism and Stalinism – which outline the social and political form of a neo-barbarism".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4">4</a>
During the 1960s, the <a href="/facts/Central_Intelligence_Agency/U7urmQYL">Central Intelligence Agency</a> (CIA) distinguished between Stalinism and neo-Stalinism in that "[t]he Soviet leaders have not reverted to two extremes of Stalin's rule – one-man dictatorship and mass terror. For this reason, their policy deserves the label "neo-Stalinist" rather than "Stalinist".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5">5</a>
<a href="/facts/Katerina_Clark/fbWbAsMd">Katerina Clark</a>, describing an anti-Khrushchev, pro-Stalin current in Soviet literary world during the 1960s, described the work of "neo-Stalinist" writers as harking back to "the Stalin era and its leaders ... as a time of unity, strong rule and national honor".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6">6</a> According to historian <a href="/facts/Roy_Medvedev/T9L2pJHg">Roy Medvedev</a>, writing in 1975, the term describes the <a href="/facts/Political_rehabilitation/aS0hRjUG">rehabilitation</a> of Joseph Stalin, identification with him and the associated political system, nostalgia for the Stalinist period in Russia's history, restoration of Stalinist policies and a return to the administrative <a href="/facts/Great_Purge/KSu23l0v">terror</a> of the Stalinist period while avoiding some of the worst excesses.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7">7</a> Clark defines Neo-Stalinism as praising "the Stalin era and its leaders ... as a time of unity, strong rule and national honor".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a>
Political geographer Denis J. B. Shaw, writing in 1999, considered the Soviet Union as neo-Stalinist until the post-1985 period of transition to capitalism. He identified neo-Stalinism as a political system with <a href="/facts/Planned_economy/TCMJrC5M">planned economy</a> and highly developed <a href="/facts/Military%E2%80%93industrial_complex/kII2vzyQ">military–industrial complex</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a> Philosopher <a href="/facts/Frederick_Copleston/6y2pSsf1">Frederick Copleston</a>, writing in 1986, portrays neo-Stalinism as a "<a href="/facts/Slavophilia/GU6TQsMR">Slavophile</a> emphasis on Russia and her history", saying that "what is called neo-Stalinism is not exclusively an expression of a desire to control, dominate, repress and dragoon; it is also the expression of a desire that Russia, while making use of western science and technology, should avoid contamination by western 'degenerate' attitudes and pursue her own path".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a> According to former <a href="/facts/General_Secretary_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union/jJD3malu">General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union</a> <a href="/facts/Mikhail_Gorbachev/tKxQRaeP">Mikhail Gorbachev</a>, using the term in 2006, it more broadly refers to a moderated Stalinist state without large-scale <a href="/facts/Political_repression/aFzYy3S4">repressions</a>, but with persecution of political opponents and total control of all political activities in the country.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a>

<h3>Stalinism and anti-Stalinism</h3>
In his monograph Reconsidering Stalinism, historian Henry Reichman discusses differing and evolving perspectives on the use of the term Stalinism, saying that "in scholarly usage 'Stalinism' describes here a movement, there an economic, political, or social system, elsewhere a type of political practice or belief-system". He references historian Stephen Cohen's work reassessing Soviet history after Stalin as a "continuing tension between <a href="/facts/Anti-Stalinist_left/8n9s6UFS">anti-Stalinist</a> reformism and neo-Stalinist conservatism", observing that such a characterization requires a "coherent" definition of Stalinism—whose essential features Cohen leaves undefined.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a>

<h2 id="alleged-neo-stalinist-regimes">Alleged neo-Stalinist regimes</h2>
Some historians and <a href="/facts/Political_science/Gqy5EoRX">political scientists</a> have classified the <a href="/facts/Socialist_Republic_of_Romania/sIqLNfBy">régime of Romania</a> under <a href="/facts/Nicolae_Ceau%C8%99escu/TE0TLTtC">Nicolae Ceaușescu</a> (1965–1989) as "neo-Stalinist".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a> <a href="/facts/People%27s_Socialist_Republic_of_Albania/P0M3yl47">Albanian</a> <a href="/facts/Leader/37hL95TH">leader</a> <a href="/facts/Enver_Hoxha/nEuYw1g3">Enver Hoxha</a> (in power 1943 to 1985) described himself as neo-Stalinist, and his ideology – <a href="/facts/Hoxhaism/pJRwUGBm">Hoxhaism</a> – features some Stalinist elements.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a>[need quotation to verify] After Stalin's death (1953), Hoxha denounced Stalin's successor <a href="/facts/Nikita_Khrushchev/SBySdWPf">Nikita Khrushchev</a> and accused him of revisionism in the mid-1950s – the differences eventually caused Albania to withdraw from the <a href="/facts/Warsaw_Pact/SLEsUSAS">Warsaw Pact</a> in 1968.
The <a href="/facts/Khalq/r0v7tl0y">Khalq</a> regime in <a href="/facts/Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan/XU07Fy3R">Afghanistan</a> (April 1978 – December 1979) has been described as neo-Stalinist with its leader <a href="/facts/Hafizullah_Amin/BYYkIuMT">Hafizullah Amin</a>, who kept a portrait of <a href="/facts/Joseph_Stalin/SHtxGyQn">Joseph Stalin</a> on his desk. When Soviet officials criticized him for his brutality, Amin replied "Comrade Stalin showed us how to build socialism in a backward country."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a> Its policies shocked the country and contributed to starting the <a href="/facts/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War/nBl7TvtD">Soviet–Afghan War</a> of 1979–1989 and subsequent <a href="/facts/Afghan_Civil_War_(1989%E2%80%931992)/bvNvHRwX">Afghan Civil War</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a>
Some Western sources have characterised <a href="/facts/North_Korea/Q41laakP">North Korea</a> as a neo-Stalinist state;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a> North Korea adopted a modified <a href="/facts/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism/bXD3yf3m">Marxism–Leninism</a> into <a href="/facts/Juche/NHYQ2Cdu">Juche</a> as its official ideology in the 1970s, with references to Marxism–Leninism altogether scrapped from the revised state <a href="/facts/Constitution_of_North_Korea/8zlb03hN">constitution</a> in 1992, following by references to communism in 2009.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a>
<a href="/facts/Ba%27athist_Syria/7pDXGzq8">Ba'athist Syria</a> has long been considered to be a neo-Stalinist state (by who?); when Hafez al-Assad established a <a href="/facts/Police_state/75Lmsg0n">police state</a> modelled after Stalin's rule during 1970s. Assad's <a href="/facts/Military_dictatorship/HxqRW7Jr">military dictatorship</a> borrowed many features of <a href="/facts/Stalinism/rrkfMruT">Stalinism</a>; such as a brutal security apparatus operating extrajudicially, <a href="/facts/Mass_surveillance/GgAEJtso">mass-surveillance</a> in the society through an invasive secret police and a pervasive state-sponsored <a href="/facts/Personality_cult/ghjjeoYI">personality cult</a> centred around the ruling family.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a> <a href="/facts/Assad_dynasty/dAzcBYn8">Assad dynasty</a> ruled Syria by vicious methods of violence throughout its reign, characterized by <a href="/facts/State_terrorism/lyK1BrFm">state terror</a>, massacres, <a href="/facts/Aerial_bombing_of_cities/vD8KVwQv">aerial bombing of cities</a>, military clampdowns, etc.; which has resulted in hundreds of thousands of deaths.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a>
In the <a href="/facts/History_of_the_Soviet_Union_(1953%E2%80%931964)/ynVgMJEu">Soviet Union after Stalin's death</a>, <a href="/facts/Georgy_Malenkov/HKBzfyK5">Georgi Malenkov</a>, one of the new leadership group (<a href="/facts/Premier_of_the_Soviet_Union/uMhIFtVf">Premier of the Soviet Union</a> from 1953 to 1955), also headlined new ideologies. He publicly began to advocate for peace and wanted to reduce tensions by negotiating Cold-War issues, and expressing a desire to get along with the West. He called for meetings between the East and West in hopes of reducing forces in Europe, while also advocating for a settlement of the <a href="/facts/Korean_War/Qo93pNhE">Korean situation</a> and for <a href="/facts/German_reunification/1c7F6WoR">German reunification</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a>
Some <a href="/facts/Socialist/U2kVoPaA">socialist</a> groups like the Trotskyist <a href="/facts/Alliance_for_Workers%27_Liberty/cl9X2L7F">Alliance for Workers' Liberty</a> characterise <a href="/facts/History_of_China/TNqRSvQ4">modern China</a> as "neo-Stalinist".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a> By the end of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st century, <a href="/facts/Turkmenistan/YqJ4NvjU">Turkmenistan</a>'s <a href="/facts/Saparmurat_Niyazov/5o4Qp0Hj">Saparmurat Niyazov</a> non-communist regime was sometimes considered a neo-Stalinist one,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a> especially in respect of Niyazov's <a href="/facts/Cult_of_personality/ghjjeoYI">cult of personality</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a> <a href="/facts/Islam_Karimov/aaIaKxGd">Islam Karimov</a>'s non-communist authoritarian regime in <a href="/facts/Uzbekistan/o8wfw2xR">Uzbekistan</a> from 1989 to 2016 has also been described as "neo-Stalinist".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a>

<h2 id="history">History</h2>
<h3>Soviet Union</h3>
In February 1956, <a href="/facts/Soviet_leader/mWxqh3SJ">Soviet leader</a> Nikita Khrushchev denounced the <a href="/facts/Stalin%27s_cult_of_personality/5cPKRnaY">cult of personality</a> surrounding his predecessor Joseph Stalin and condemned crimes committed during the <a href="/facts/Great_Purge/KSu23l0v">Great Purge</a>. Khrushchev gave his four-hour speech, "<a href="/facts/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences/JjSUJTEl">On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences</a>", condemning the Stalin regime. Historian Robert V. Daniels holds that "neo-Stalinism prevailed politically for more than a quarter of a century after Stalin himself left the scene".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a> Following the Trotskyist comprehension of Stalin's policies as a deviation from the path of Marxism–Leninism, <a href="/facts/George_Novack/cX10KMqU">George Novack</a> described Khrushchev's politics as guided by a "neo-Stalinist line", its principle being that "the socialist forces can conquer all opposition even in the imperialist centers, not by the example of internal class power, but by the external power of Soviet example",<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31">31</a> explaining as such: "Khrushchev's innovations at the <a href="/facts/20th_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union/hbXK8G78">Twentieth Congress</a> ... made official doctrine of Stalin's revisionist practices [as] the new program discards the Leninist conception of imperialism and its corresponding revolutionary class struggle policies."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32">32</a> American broadcasts into Europe during the late 1950s described a political struggle between the "old Stalinists" and "the neo-Stalinist Khrushchev".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33">33</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34">34</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35">35</a>
In October 1964, Khrushchev was replaced by <a href="/facts/Leonid_Brezhnev/sL5scf4N">Leonid Brezhnev</a>, who remained in office until <a href="/facts/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Leonid_Brezhnev/VYqP5eo7">his death</a> in November 1982. During his reign, Stalin's controversies were de-emphasized. Andres Laiapea connects this with "the exile of many <a href="/facts/Soviet_dissident/tLhlRYoT">dissidents</a>, especially <a href="/facts/Aleksandr_Solzhenitsyn/WVNdSPt0">Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn</a>",<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36">36</a> though whereas Laiapea writes that "[t]he rehabilitation of Stalin went hand in hand with the establishment of a personality cult around Brezhnev",<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37">37</a> political sociologist Viktor Zaslavsky characterizes Brezhnev's period as one of "neo-Stalinist compromise" as the essentials of the political atmosphere associated with Stalin were retained without a personality cult.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38">38</a> According to <a href="/facts/Alexander_Dub%C4%8Dek/Y5rA07g3">Alexander Dubček</a>, "[t]he advent of Brezhnev’s regime heralded the advent of neo-Stalinism, and the measures <a href="/facts/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia/BeRhWf5T">taken against Czechoslovakia in 1968</a> were the final consolidation of the neo-Stalinist forces in the Soviet Union, Poland, Hungary, and other countries".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39">39</a> American political scientist Seweryn Bialer has described Soviet policy as turning towards neo-Stalinism after Brezhnev's death.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40">40</a>
After Mikhail Gorbachev took over in March 1985, he introduced the policy of <a href="/facts/Glasnost/Pp0T5LG2">glasnost</a> in public discussions to <a href="/facts/Liberalization/0xuv5oaN">liberalize</a> the Soviet system. Within six years, the <a href="/facts/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union/Fyn5jw3n">Soviet Union fell apart</a>. Still, Gorbachev admitted in 2000 that "[e]ven now in Russia we have the same problem. It isn't so easy to give up the inheritance we received from Stalinism and Neo-Stalinism, when people were turned into cogs in the wheel, and those in power made all the decisions for them".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41">41</a> Gorbachev's domestic policies have been described as neo-Stalinist by some Western sources.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42">42</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43">43</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44">44</a>

<h3>Post-Soviet Russia</h3>
The most fervent proponents of neo-Stalinism and rehabilitation of Stalin in post-Soviet Russia include the <a href="/facts/Communist_Party_of_the_Russian_Federation/AtdtwxUP">Communist Party of the Russian Federation</a> (CPRF). With the approval of <a href="/facts/Russia_under_Vladimir_Putin/41DAqfXp">Putin government</a>, CPRF has installed hundreds of monuments glorifying Stalin all across <a href="/facts/Russia/jfkCwyxn">Russia</a> since the 2000s. CPRF has been organizing annual ceremonies at the grave of Stalin in <a href="/facts/Kremlin_Wall_Necropolis/nqjLvEae">Kremlin Wall Necropolis</a> to commemorate his birthday.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45">45</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46">46</a>

Formed in 1992 by anti-<a href="/facts/Mikhail_Gorbachev/tKxQRaeP">Gorbachev</a> hardliners of the <a href="/facts/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union/1PFHfjJE">CPSU</a>, CPRF became a vehement opponent of <a href="/facts/Privatization_in_Russia/oI3vJMeP">1990s privatization</a> policies and has denounced the current boundaries of <a href="/facts/Russian_Federation/jfkCwyxn">Russian Federation</a> as "unnatural". Blaming Russia's decline on Western capitalism, CPRF leader <a href="/facts/Gennady_Zyuganov/Ga5FS52S">Gennady Zyuganov</a> proposes the <a href="/facts/Neo-Sovietism/xtmYHt4k">revival of Soviet Union</a> to restore Russian prestige. The party advocates communist <a href="/facts/Eurasianism/SnUlXN6T">Eurasianism</a>, which believes in the construction of a new "<a href="/facts/Socialism/U2kVoPaA">socialist</a> <a href="/facts/Eurasia/KlLI9GDM">Eurasian</a> homeland" through re-incorporation of <a href="/facts/Post-Soviet_states/usrFwWTU">post-Soviet countries</a>; imagining the new state as the harbinger "for remaking history" and lead the <a href="/facts/Socialist_Bloc/12f32hA7">Socialist Bloc</a> once again. Through its embracal of <a href="/facts/Russian_nationalism/gu1BI8Iw">Russian nationalism</a>, the party portrays communism as an organic expression or communal soul ("<a href="/facts/Sobornost/8qSEbhAs">sobornost</a>") of "the age-old Russian traditions of community and <a href="/facts/Collectivism/J88lTIWB">collectivism</a>" which distinguishes <a href="/facts/Russian_world/qFwQnq6T">Russian World</a> from the Western world and its "<a href="/facts/Bourgeoisie/Ho3RUrlA">bourgeois values</a> and market <a href="/facts/Individualism/PR1JLI7c">individualism</a>". CPRF believes that the revival of Russia's "Derzhava" (<a href="/facts/Superpower/JNNkrRLt">super-power status</a>) is dependent on instilling <a href="/facts/Russians/RBG9H1Rj">Russians</a> with <a href="/facts/Soviet_patriotism/GmmEvQWE">Soviet patriotism</a> and neo-Stalinism; marked by glorification of <a href="/facts/October_Revolution/5q9GlMv9">Bolshevik Revolution</a> and <a href="/facts/Science_and_technology_in_the_Soviet_Union/M1TmaTPH">technological prowess of Soviet Union</a>, promotion of myths around "<a href="/facts/Great_Patriotic_War_(term)/zXJFw5rY">Great Patriotic War</a>" and adulation of the <a href="/facts/Stalinist_era/gfHSYlgL">Stalinist era</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47">47</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48">48</a>
<a href="/facts/Russia_under_Vladimir_Putin/41DAqfXp">Russia under Vladimir Putin</a> underwent an extensive state-backed programme of <a href="/facts/Stalinization/rrkfMruT">Re-Stalinization</a>; through <a href="/facts/Mass_media_in_Russia/yAJKkAxr">mass media</a>, cinema, academia, educational institutions, military propaganda and <a href="/facts/Historiography/NVMMC3FP">historiography</a>. Sociologist Dina Khapaeva asserts that a "social consensus" has emerged amongst the majority of Russian citizens, academics and authorities in rehabilitating Stalin.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49">49</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50">50</a> In 2014, <a href="/facts/Russian_Duma/vhYWnlqL">Russian Duma</a> passed a controversial "memory law" criminalizing discussions of atrocities committed during the <a href="/facts/Stalinist_era/gfHSYlgL">Stalinist era</a> or making <a href="/facts/Comparison_of_Nazism_and_Stalinism/mID0hyUf">comparisons between Nazism and Stalinism</a>, under the pretexts of combating <a href="/facts/Neo-Nazism/2HJmfQhR">Neo-Nazism</a> and defending the "historical memory of events which took place during the <a href="/facts/Second_World_War/2efV5L1U">Second World War</a>". Despite strong condemnation from <a href="/facts/Historical_society/btDqJJId">international historical societies</a> across the world, the bill was passed and inserted as an article into the <a href="/facts/Russian_Criminal_Code/flgRq3qb">Russian Criminal Code</a>. The bill was supported by the ruling <a href="/facts/United_Russia_Party/rEtXS4U1">United Russia Party</a> and allied <a href="/facts/Communist_Party_of_the_Russian_Federation/AtdtwxUP">Communist Party</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51">51</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52">52</a>
With the outbreak of <a href="/facts/Russo-Ukrainian_War/kE7cHvoQ">Russo-Ukrainian war</a> in 2014, neo-Stalinism underwent an explosive growth across the Russian society with the firm backing of the state. <a href="/facts/Vladimir_Putin/DcQdxqbj">Vladimir Putin</a> has personally endorsed the re-emergence of the Stalin cult, portraying the Soviet dictator as a visionary who saved the world from <a href="/facts/Fascism_in_Europe/0zpwlB3x">European fascism</a> and led Russians to victory during the <a href="/facts/World_War_II/2efV5L1U">Second World War</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53">53</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54">54</a> Various busts and portraits of Stalin have been installed in territories controlled by Russian-backed separatists in <a href="/facts/Eastern_Ukraine/GHMjnAsW">Eastern Ukraine</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55">55</a>
<a href="/facts/Communist_Party_of_the_Russian_Federation/AtdtwxUP">Russian Communist Party</a> has been one of the biggest backers of <a href="/facts/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine/kE7cHvoQ">invasion of Ukraine</a> ordered by Putin in 2022, viewing the invasion as being aligned with their neo-Stalinist world-view.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56">56</a>

<h4>Public views</h4>

Polling by the <a href="/facts/Levada_Center/x7stwrwn">Levada Center</a> suggest Stalin's popularity has grown since 2015, with 46% of Russians expressing a favourable view of him in 2017 and 51% in 2019.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57">57</a> In a 2021 poll, a record 70% of Russians indicated they had a mostly/very favourable view of Stalin.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58">58</a> The same year, a survey by the Center showed that Joseph Stalin was named by 39% of Russians as the "most outstanding national figure of all time" and, while nobody received an absolute majority, Stalin was very clearly in first place, followed by another Soviet leader <a href="/facts/Vladimir_Lenin/Mrwq2Xs4">Vladimir Lenin</a> with 30% and Russian poet <a href="/facts/Alexander_Pushkin/nJ5WQ7MV">Alexander Pushkin</a> with 23%.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59">59</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60">60</a> At the same time, there was a growth in pro-Stalinist literature in Russia, much relying upon the misrepresentation or fabrication of source material.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61">61</a> In this literature, Stalin's repressions are regarded either as a necessary measure to defeat "<a href="/facts/Enemies_of_the_people/LdBl7ySQ">enemies of the people</a>" or the result of lower-level officials acting without Stalin's knowledge.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62">62</a>
The only other part of the former Soviet Union other than Russia where admiration for Stalin has remained consistently widespread is <a href="/facts/Georgia_(country)/ccBF8bBE">Georgia</a>, although Georgian attitudes have been very divided.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63">63</a> A number of Georgians resent criticism of Stalin, the most famous figure from their nation's modern history.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64">64</a> A 2013 survey by <a href="/facts/Tbilisi_State_University/IGU39xKJ">Tbilisi State University</a> found 45% of Georgians expressing "a positive attitude" to him.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65">65</a> A 2017 <a href="/facts/Pew_Research/082PuVBq">Pew Research</a> survey had 57% of Georgians saying he played a positive role in history, compared to 18% of those expressing the same for Gorbachev.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66">66</a>
Some positive sentiment can also be found elsewhere in the former Soviet Union. A 2012 survey commissioned by the <a href="/facts/Carnegie_Endowment/LwJPhLCj">Carnegie Endowment</a> found 38% of Armenians concurring that their country "will always have need of a leader like Stalin".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67">67</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68">68</a> In early 2010, a new monument to Stalin was erected in <a href="/facts/Zaporizhzhia/eExFrp7w">Zaporizhzhia</a>, Ukraine.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69">69</a> In December 2010, unknown persons decapitated it and it was destroyed in a bomb attack in 2011.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70">70</a> In a 2016 <a href="/facts/Kyiv_International_Institute_of_Sociology/3xoKH8sq">Kyiv International Institute of Sociology</a> poll, 38% of respondents had a negative attitude to Stalin, 26% a neutral one and 17% a positive, with 19% refusing to answer.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71">71</a>

<h4>School education</h4>

In June 2007, Russian President Vladimir Putin organized a conference for history teachers to promote a high school teachers manual called A Modern History of Russia: 1945–2006: A Manual for History Teachers, which according to Irina Flige (office director of human rights organization <a href="/facts/Memorial_(society)/HkWD6q6R">Memorial</a>) portrays Stalin as a cruel yet successful leader who "acted rationally". She claims it justifies Stalin's terror as an "instrument of development".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72">72</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73">73</a> Putin said at the conference that the new manual will "help instill young people with a sense of pride in Russia", and he posited that Stalin's purges pale in comparison to the United States' <a href="/facts/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki/fRpj8aJA">atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a>. At a memorial for Stalin's victims, Putin said that while Russians should "keep alive the memory of tragedies of the past, we should focus on all that is best in the country".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74">74</a>
The official policy of the Russian Federation is that teachers and schools are free to choose history textbooks from the list of the admitted ones, which includes a total of forty-eight history text books for grade school and twenty-four history textbooks by various authors for high school.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75">75</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76">76</a>
In September 2009, the Education Ministry of Russia announced that Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn's <a href="/facts/The_Gulag_Archipelago/SlYd5rGh">The Gulag Archipelago</a>, a book once banned in the Soviet Union for the detailed account on the system of prison camps, became required reading for Russian high-school students. Prior to that, Russian students studied Solzhenitsyn's short story Matryonin dvor and his novella <a href="/facts/One_Day_in_the_Life_of_Ivan_Denisovich/9mlr4E8h">One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich</a>, an account of a single day in the life of a gulag prisoner.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77">77</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78">78</a>

<h4>History studies</h4>
In 2009, it was reported that the Russian government was drawing up plans to criminalize statements and acts that deny the Soviet Union's victory over <a href="/facts/Fascism/EhQWcPsE">fascism</a> in World War II or its role in <a href="/facts/End_of_World_War_II_in_Europe/QakawVUH">liberating Eastern Europe</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79">79</a> In May 2009, President <a href="/facts/Dmitry_Medvedev/0FsqCSfm">Dmitry Medvedev</a> described the Soviet Union during the war as "our country" and set up the <a href="/facts/Presidential_Commission_of_the_Russian_Federation_to_Counter_Attempts_to_Falsify_History_to_the_Detriment_of_Russia%27s_Interests/Q3HABxm1">Historical Truth Commission</a> to act against what the Kremlin terms falsifications of Russian history.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80">80</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81">81</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82">82</a>
On 3 July 2009, Russia's delegation at the <a href="/facts/Organization_for_Security_and_Co-operation_in_Europe/Lo5lUrA6">Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe</a>'s (OSCE) annual parliamentary meeting stormed out after a resolution was passed equating the roles of <a href="/facts/Nazi_Germany/8kRbqRpo">Nazi Germany</a> and the Soviet Union in starting World War II, drafted by delegates from <a href="/facts/Lithuania/dApVjLWW">Lithuania</a> and <a href="/facts/Slovenia/EcYU22W4">Slovenia</a>. The resolution called for a day of remembrance for victims of both Stalinism and <a href="/facts/Nazism/JjsMI4lE">Nazism</a> to be marked every 23 August, the date in 1939 when Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union signed the <a href="/facts/Molotov%E2%80%93Ribbentrop_Pact/QG7eP42a">Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact</a> of neutrality with a secret protocol that divided parts of <a href="/facts/Central_Europe/VdxzSbJz">Central</a> and Eastern Europe between their spheres of influence.
<a href="/facts/Konstantin_Kosachev/UEpe02cW">Konstantin Kosachev</a>, head of the foreign relations committee of Russia's <a href="/facts/State_Duma/vhYWnlqL">lower house of parliament</a>, called the resolution "nothing but an attempt to rewrite the history of World War II". <a href="/facts/Alexander_Kozlovsky_(politician,_born_1944)/DeVtKgru">Alexander Kozlovsky</a>, the head of the Russian delegation, called the resolution an "insulting anti-Russian attack" and added that "[t]hose who place Nazism and Stalinism on the same level forget that it is the Stalin-era Soviet Union that made the biggest sacrifices and the biggest contribution to liberating Europe from fascism".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83">83</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84">84</a> Only eight out of 385 assembly members voted against the resolution.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85">85</a>

<h4>Kurskaya station controversy</h4>
At the end of August 2009 a gilded slogan, a fragment of the <a href="/facts/State_Anthem_of_the_Soviet_Union/L3j35GJ4">Soviet national anthem</a> was re-inscribed at the <a href="/facts/Moscow_Metro/9HzRtAmo">Moscow Metro</a>'s <a href="/facts/Kurskaya_(Koltsevaya_line)/0y87jX5x">Kursky station</a> beneath eight <a href="/facts/Socialist_realism/w4CBE8dd">socialist realist</a> statues, reading: "Stalin reared us on loyalty to the people. He inspired us to labour and heroism". The slogan had been removed in the 1950s during Nikita Khrushchev's period of <a href="/facts/De-Stalinization/8TKutdRn">de-Stalinization</a>. Another restored slogan reads: "For the Motherland! For Stalin!".
Restoring the slogans was ordered by the head of the metro <a href="/facts/Dmitry_Gayev/tFgmv6gy">Dmitry Gayev</a>. He explained his decision with restoring the historic view of the station: "My attitude towards this story is simple: this inscription was at the station Kurskaya since its foundation, and it will stay there".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86">86</a>
The chairman of a human rights group Memorial <a href="/facts/Arseny_Roginsky/gHGmMFog">Arseny Roginsky</a> stated: "This is the fruit of creeping re-Stalinization and ... they [the authorities] want to use his name as a symbol of a powerful authoritarian state which the whole world is afraid of". Other human rights organizations and survivors of Stalin's repressions called for the decorations to be removed in a letter to Moscow Mayor <a href="/facts/Yury_Luzhkov/NyN3Qlch">Yury Luzhkov</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87">87</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88">88</a>
<a href="/facts/Mikhail_Shvydkoy/6vICg5hP">Mikhail Shvydkoy</a>, the special representative of the President of Russia for the international cultural exchange, responded to the controversy: "In my opinion, the question whether such inscriptions should exist in the Moscow underground is not the question in the competence of neither the Mayor of Moscow, nor even the head of the Moscow underground. One can't take decisions that may break the society that's heated up and politicized even without that. It seems to me, that the presence of the lines about Stalin in the hall of the metro station Kurskaya is the question that should become the matter of discussion for the city denizens."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89">89</a> Shvydkoy commented that what Stalin did in respect of the Soviet and in particular Russian people cannot be justified and he does not even deserve a neutral attitude, much less praise. However, he said "it's necessary to remember your own butchers" and without that memory they can "grow among us again". Shvydkoy said that the question is that the society must remember that "Stalin is a tyrant". While the inscription in the Metro should merely be read correctly, "read with the certain attitude to Stalin's personality".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90">90</a> Shvydkoy also said that if the hall of the station Kurskaya is a monument of architecture and culture, the inscription must be left because "to knock down inscriptions is vandalism".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91">91</a>

<h4>Opinions</h4>
Scholar <a href="/facts/Dmitri_Furman/Al6E0zAw">Dmitri Furman</a>, director of the Commonwealth of Independent States Research Center at the Russian Academy's of Sciences Institute of Europe, sees the Russian regime's neo-Stalinism as a "non-ideological Stalinism" that "seeks control for the sake of control, not for the sake of world revolution".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92">92</a>
In 2005, <a href="/facts/Communist_Party_of_the_Russian_Federation/AtdtwxUP">Communist</a> politician <a href="/facts/Gennady_Zyuganov/Ga5FS52S">Gennady Zyuganov</a> said that Russia "should once again render honor to Stalin for his role in building socialism and saving human civilization from the Nazi plague".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93">93</a> Zyuganov has said "Great Stalin does not need rehabilitation" and has proposed changing the name of Volgograd back to Stalingrad.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94">94</a> In 2010, the Communist leader stated: "Today ... the greatness of Stalin's era is self-evident even to his most furious haters ... We liberated the whole world!".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95">95</a>
In 2008, <a href="/facts/Dmitry_Puchkov/7y0qStI5">Dmitry Puchkov</a> accused the authorities of raising a wave of anti-Stalin propaganda to distract the attention of the population from topical troubles. In a December 2008 interview, he was asked a question: "Dmitry Yurievich, what do you think, is the new wave of 'unveiling the horrors of Stalinism' on the TV related to the approaching consequences of the crisis or is it merely another [mental] exacerbation?". He replied: "The wave is being raised to distract opinion of the population from the up-to-date troubles. You don't have to think of your pension, you don't have to think of the education, what matters are the horrors of Stalinism".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96">96</a>
Russian writer <a href="/facts/Sergey_Kara-Murza/FQILQC33">Sergey Kara-Murza</a> believes that there is a trend to demonize Russia that is common not only in Poland, Ukraine and the Czech Republic, but in Russia as well. He contends that it is a good business and that it was a good business previously to demonize the Soviet Union: "Why do we need to take offense against Poles, if we in our country have the same (and for us – sufficiently more dangerous and hazardous) cohort of pundits, philosophers, historians who enjoy the maximal favourable regime set by the state and do the same things as Poles do?"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97">97</a>
In 2016, political scientist Thomas Sherlock claimed that Russia has pulled back somewhat on its neo-Stalinist policies, commenting: "The Kremlin is unwilling to develop and impose on society historical narratives which promote chauvinism, hypernationalism, and re-Stalinization. Although such an agenda has some support among incumbent elites and in society, it remains subordinate. ... Instead, the regime is now extending support to ... a critical assessment of the Soviet era, including Stalinism. This emerging criticism of the Soviet past serves a number of important goals of the leadership, including re-engagement with the West. To this end, the Kremlin recently approved new history textbooks critical of the Soviet past as well as a significant program that memorializes the victims of Soviet repressions."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98">98</a>

<h2 id="united-states">United States</h2>
<a href="/facts/Sameera_Khan/kw9366PQ">Sameera Khan</a>, a former Miss New Jersey and reporter for <a href="/facts/RT_(television_network)/9d48Xk8D">RT</a>, made a series of tweets glorifying Stalin and the gulag system and calling for his return. Khan was harshly criticized for expressing these views, including by RT itself, and the controversy led to her apologizing and being suspended from the network.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99">99</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100">100</a>
Star Wars <a href="/facts/Andor_(TV_series)/Nucp5AnN">Andor</a> series showrunner <a href="/facts/Tony_Gilroy/Q3PcKJfA">Tony Gilroy</a> based his storytelling about the character Cassian Andor on Joseph Stalin. Of the star of the series, <a href="/facts/Diego_Luna/7wHH4Pde">Diego Luna</a>, Gilroy remarked to Rolling Stone, "If you look at a picture of Young Stalin, isn't he glamorous? He looks like Diego!" <a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101">101</a>

<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Anti-Stalinist_left/8n9s6UFS">Anti-Stalinist left</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/De-Stalinization/8TKutdRn">De-Stalinization</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Grover_Furr/0A2k3vn3">Grover Furr</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Ludo_Martens/WgLCAaLv">Ludo Martens</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Neo-Sovietism/xtmYHt4k">Neo-Sovietism</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Nostalgia_for_the_Soviet_Union/DzofFe6m">Nostalgia for the Soviet Union</a></li>
<li>"<a href="/facts/On_the_Cult_of_Personality_and_Its_Consequences/JjSUJTEl">On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences</a>"</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Soviet_patriotism/GmmEvQWE">Soviet patriotism</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Stalin_Society/GduRHUNA">Stalin Society</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/The_Stalinist_Legacy/P2pEnRlm">The Stalinist Legacy</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Tankie/DqNqUM3o">Tankie</a>, a pejorative term for pro-Soviet communists</li></ul>

<h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2>
<ul><li>Khapaeva, Dina. "Triumphant memory of the perpetrators: Putin's politics of re-Stalinization." Communist & Post-Communist Studies (March 2016), pp 61–73. celebrations of Stalin's memory in Russia today. <a href="http://krytyka.com/sites/krytyka/files/khapaeva_0.pdf">online</a></li>
<li>Khapaeva, Dina. "Historical memory in post-Soviet Gothic society." Social Research (2009): 359–394. <a href="http://www.ukrainianstudies.org/aaus-list/1007/pdf00005.pdf">online</a></li>
<li>Sherlock, Thomas. "Russian politics and the Soviet past: Reassessing Stalin and Stalinism under Vladimir Putin." Communist and Post-Communist Studies 49.1 (2016): 45–59. <a href="http://krytyka.com/sites/krytyka/files/sherlock_0.pdf">online</a></li>
<li>Torbakov, Igor. "History, Memory and National Identity: Understanding the politics of history and memory wars in post-Soviet lands." Demokratizatsiya 19.3 (2011): 209+ <a href="https://www.gwu.edu/~ieresgwu/assets/docs/demokratizatsiya%20archive/GWASHU_DEMO_19_3/J773U5477844263L/J773U5477844263L.pdf">online</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170510165720/https://www2.gwu.edu/~ieresgwu/assets/docs/demokratizatsiya%20archive/GWASHU_DEMO_19_3/J773U5477844263L/J773U5477844263L.pdf">Archived</a> 10 May 2017 at the <a href="/facts/Wayback_Machine/nmQ3a6JC">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li>Tumarkin, Maria M. "The Long Life of Stalinism: Reflections on the Aftermath of Totalitarianism and Social Memory." Journal of social history 44.4 (2011): 1047–1061.</li></ul>
<h2 id="external-links">External links</h2>
<ul><li><a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/oct/19/stalin-portraits-ukraine-rebel-territory">Agence France-Presse, 2015. Stalin portraits emerge in heart of Ukraine's rebel-held territory. 19 October The Guardian</a>.</li>
<li><a href="http://discardedlies.com/entry/?3675">Russian history in the classroom</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160330200748/http://discardedlies.com/entry/?3675">Archived</a> 30 March 2016 at the <a href="/facts/Wayback_Machine/nmQ3a6JC">Wayback Machine</a></li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930114457/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,878343,00.html">Stalin's Return</a> <a href="/facts/Time_(magazine)/N4FXc99l">Time Magazine</a>, 1970</li>
<li><a href="http://www.globalpost.com/video/commerce/100722/stalin-russia-soviet-union">Moscow: Stalin 2.0</a> – video report by <a href="/facts/Global_Post/8u7yEo2m">Global Post</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.wsws.org/articles/2000/feb2000/russ-f29.shtml">The rehabilitation of Stalin  – an ideological cornerstone of the new Kremlin politics</a> <a href="/facts/World_Socialist_Web_Site/fgEqAkwN">World Socialist Web Site</a>, 2000</li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070416192616/http://www.jamestown.org/edm/article.php?article_id=2369713">Russian historians denounce re-Stalinization</a> <a href="/facts/Eurasia_Daily_Monitor/cEWphVWs">Eurasia Daily Monitor</a>, 2005</li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070701022203/http://www.rferl.org/features/features_Article.aspx?m=12&y=2006&id=133FDD19-7078-4BE8-92C2-85C566275229">Russia: Nostalgia For USSR Increases</a> By Victor Yasmann, <a href="/facts/RFE/RL/Sf0tmXVV">RFE/RL</a>, 21 December 2006</li>
<li><a href="http://www.nzherald.co.nz/section/2/story.cfm?c_id=2&objectid=10369289">Outrage at revision of Stalin's legacy</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070929140547/http://www.nzherald.co.nz/section/2/story.cfm?c_id=2&objectid=10369289">Archived</a> 29 September 2007 at the <a href="/facts/Wayback_Machine/nmQ3a6JC">Wayback Machine</a>, by Andrew Osborn, 21 February 2006</li>
<li><a href="http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2006/03/dcf154f4-67f5-4b19-bd13-a729cdc24a54.html">Russia: Gorbachev Speaks About Democracy, Authoritarianism</a>, <a href="/facts/RFE/RL/Sf0tmXVV">RFE/RL</a>, 1 March 2006</li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">Garman, Liam (26 May 2022). "Neo-Eurasianism – placing Russia on a path of collision with the West". Defence Connect. Archived from the original on 6 July 2022. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220706132241/https://www.defenceconnect.com.au/key-enablers/10070-neo-eurasianism-placing-russia-on-a-path-of-collision-with-the-west" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20220706132241/https://www.defenceconnect.com.au/key-enablers/10070-neo-eurasianism-placing-russia-on-a-path-of-collision-with-the-west</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">Khapaeva, Dina (4 February 2016). "Triumphant memory of the perpetrators: Putin's politics of re-Stalinization". Communist and Post-Communist Studies. 49 (1): 69. doi:10.1016/j.postcomstud.2015.12.007. Archived from the original on 8 March 2022 – via University of California Press. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220308203510/https://online.ucpress.edu/cpcs/article-abstract/49/1/61/595/Triumphant-memory-of-the-perpetrators-Putin-s?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20220308203510/https://online.ucpress.edu/cpcs/article-abstract/49/1/61/595/Triumphant-memory-of-the-perpetrators-Putin-s?redirectedFrom=fulltext</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">Khapaeva, Dina (4 February 2016). "Triumphant memory of the perpetrators: Putin's politics of re-Stalinization". Communist and Post-Communist Studies. 49 (1): 61–73. doi:10.1016/j.postcomstud.2015.12.007. Archived from the original on 8 March 2022 – via University of California Press. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220308203510/https://online.ucpress.edu/cpcs/article-abstract/49/1/61/595/Triumphant-memory-of-the-perpetrators-Putin-s?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20220308203510/https://online.ucpress.edu/cpcs/article-abstract/49/1/61/595/Triumphant-memory-of-the-perpetrators-Putin-s?redirectedFrom=fulltext</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">Draper, Hal. "Hal Draper: The Neo-Stalinist Type (1948)". www.marxists.org. Retrieved 16 February 2018. <a href="https://www.marxists.org/archive/draper/1948/01/neostal.htm" target="_blank">https://www.marxists.org/archive/draper/1948/01/neostal.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">"Neo-Stalinism: Writing History and Making Policy – CIA document". www.faqs.org. <a href="http://www.faqs.org/cia/docs/61/0000234137/NEO-STALINISM:-WRITING-HISTORY-AND-MAKING-POLICY.html" target="_blank">http://www.faqs.org/cia/docs/61/0000234137/NEO-STALINISM:-WRITING-HISTORY-AND-MAKING-POLICY.html</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">Clark, Katerina. The Soviet Novel: History as Ritual Indiana University Press, 2000, ISBN 978-0-253-33703-0, p. 236 [1]. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">Ferdinand Joseph Maria Feldbrugge, "Samizdat and political dissent in the Soviet Union", Brill, 1975, p. 30, [2] <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a2mt8_9UF-8C&dq=neo-Stalinism+rehabilitation&pg=PA30" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=a2mt8_9UF-8C&dq=neo-Stalinism+rehabilitation&pg=PA30</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">see The Soviet Novel: History as Ritual, By Katerina Clark, Indiana University Press, 2000, ISBN 978-0-253-33703-0, p. 236 [3]. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">Shaw identifies as features of the "political geography" of "neo-Stalinism" the following criteria:
1. A well-developed core-periphery structure, reflecting marked differences in levels of economic development and living standards. This is in part the product of a tendency towards "incrementalism" – seeking to gain economies by allocating a considerable proportion of resources to those regions which have benefited most from previous investment ...
2. The inbuilt conservatism of the system and the bias towards heavy industry [ensuring] the continuing importance of traditional industrial regions with "smokestack" industries, such as the Donetsk-Dnepr region of eastern Ukraine and the Urals.
3. "Extensive" (ie, resource-demanding) rather than "intensive" (resource-saving) development, leading to waste of resources and environmental deterioration in the core, growing dependence of the core on the resources of the periphery and pressure to develop the latter in the cheapest and often most short-sighted manner.
4. Administration of the economy by sectors and tendencies towards 'narrow departmentalism' [leading] to the development of a series of ministerial "empires" lacking interlinkages, reducing the scope for scale economies, encouraging excessive transportation and leading to the economic overspecialization of many cities and regions, especially peripheral ones ...
5. The relative neglect of agriculture, transportation, consumer welfare and numerous services ...
6. A well-developed hierarchy of well-being in the settlement structure, whereby, in general terms, the best endowed settlements were the biggest ones with major administrative and political functions ... conditions [deteriorating] as they became smaller.
7. The development of regional economies ... greatly influenced by the 'military-industrial complex' with the progress of individual cities, groups of cities and even entire regions (including peripheral ones) very much bound up with the needs of the military machine.
8. Continental and inward-looking development induced by the longstanding tendency towards economic autarky. Isolation from the world economy ... Only from the 1960s were autarkic tendencies modified, encouraging further economic development along land frontiers, on coasts and at ports., see Shaw, Denis J.B. Russia in the Modern World: A New Geography. Wiley-Blackwell, 1999. ISBN 978-0-631-18134-7. pp. 81–84.
 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">Copleston, Frederick, S.J. A History of Philosophy: Russian Philosophy. Continuum International Publishing Group, 2003. ISBN 978-0-8264-6904-5. p. 403. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:61">Khlevniuk 2015, p. x. sfn error: no target: CITEREFKhlevniuk2015 (help) <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:62">Khlevniuk 2015, p. x. sfn error: no target: CITEREFKhlevniuk2015 (help) <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:63">Service 2004, p. 597. sfn error: no target: CITEREFService2004 (help) <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:67">Bakradze et al. 2013. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBakradzeGudjovLipmanWall2013 (help) <a href="#fnref:67" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:68">The Moscow Times, 2 March 2013. sfn error: no target: CITEREFThe_Moscow_Times,_2_March_2013 (help) <a href="#fnref:68" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:69">Snyder, 26 May 2010. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSnyder,_26_May_2010 (help) <a href="#fnref:69" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:70">"У Запоріжжі підірвали пам'ятник Сталіну" [Stalin Monument Blown Up in Zaporizhzhia] (in Ukrainian). Archived from the original on 14 December 2018. Retrieved 1 January 2011. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181214115447/https://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2011/01/1/5740807/" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20181214115447/https://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2011/01/1/5740807/</a> <a href="#fnref:70" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:71">Ukrayinska Pravda, 4 March 2015. sfn error: no target: CITEREFUkrayinska_Pravda,_4_March_2015 (help) <a href="#fnref:71" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:72">Stalin's new status in Russia, By Richard Galpin, BBC News, Moscow <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7798497.stm" target="_blank">http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7798497.stm</a> <a href="#fnref:72" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:73">"Activists Denounce Stalin in Station" 28 August 2009 By Kristina Mikulova Moscow Times <a href="#fnref:73" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:74">Stalin Back in Vogue as Putin Endorses History-Book Nostalgia by Henry Meyer, Bloomberg.com, 29 November 2007 <a href="https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601085&sid=anSl5jtQ1FpI&refer=europe" target="_blank">https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601085&sid=anSl5jtQ1FpI&refer=europe</a> <a href="#fnref:74" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:75">History textbooks Archived 2 February 2018 at the Wayback Machine, Russian Ministry of Education. (in Russian) <a href="http://mon.gov.ru/obr/pri/4520/" target="_blank">http://mon.gov.ru/obr/pri/4520/</a> <a href="#fnref:75" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:76">List of admitted school text-books, 2007 (in Russian) <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070126085253/http://www.mon.gov.ru/edu-politic/prik/uchebniki.doc" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20070126085253/http://www.mon.gov.ru/edu-politic/prik/uchebniki.doc</a> <a href="#fnref:76" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:77">'Gulag' book, once banned, is now required reading Associated Press Retrieved on 10 September 2009 <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090923234153/http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5iQ7So_Q4jgcve9RRNCCbK9CAImiAD9AK13N02" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20090923234153/http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5iQ7So_Q4jgcve9RRNCCbK9CAImiAD9AK13N02</a> <a href="#fnref:77" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:78">The Gulag Archipelago was included to the school program, Izvestia, 9 September. <a href="http://www.izvestia.ru/news/news215132?print" target="_blank">http://www.izvestia.ru/news/news215132?print</a> <a href="#fnref:78" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:79">Wendle, John (8 May 2009). "Russia Moves to Ban Criticism of WWII Win". Time. Archived from the original on 11 May 2009. Retrieved 6 June 2009. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090511075035/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1896927,00.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20090511075035/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1896927,00.html</a> <a href="#fnref:79" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:80">Wendle, John (8 May 2009). "Russia Moves to Ban Criticism of WWII Win". Time. Archived from the original on 11 May 2009. Retrieved 6 June 2009. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090511075035/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1896927,00.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20090511075035/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1896927,00.html</a> <a href="#fnref:80" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:81">"Russia panel to 'protect history'". BBC. 19 May 2009. Retrieved 6 August 2009. <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/8058087.stm" target="_blank">http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/8058087.stm</a> <a href="#fnref:81" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:82">Andrew Osborne, "Medvedev Creates History Commission", Wall Street Journal, [4] <a href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB124277297306236553" target="_blank">https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB124277297306236553</a> <a href="#fnref:82" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:83">"Archived copy". Archived from the original on 9 July 2009. Retrieved 4 September 2009.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090709093513/http://www.themoscowtimes.com/article/1010/42/379276.htm" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20090709093513/http://www.themoscowtimes.com/article/1010/42/379276.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:83" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:84">Russia scolds OSCE for equating Hitler and Stalin Retrieved on 25 July 2009 <a href="http://www.boston.com/news/world/europe/articles/2009/07/04/russia_scolds_osce_for_equating_hitler_and_stalin/" target="_blank">http://www.boston.com/news/world/europe/articles/2009/07/04/russia_scolds_osce_for_equating_hitler_and_stalin/</a> <a href="#fnref:84" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:85">"Resolution on Stalin riles Russia". BBC News. 3 July 2009. <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8133749.stm" target="_blank">http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8133749.stm</a> <a href="#fnref:85" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:86">Human rights defenders called Luzhkov to remove from the Metro the notes about Stalin, Kommersant, 8 September 2009. <a href="http://www.kommersant.ru/doc.aspx?DocsID=1234434" target="_blank">http://www.kommersant.ru/doc.aspx?DocsID=1234434</a> <a href="#fnref:86" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:87">Andrew Osborn, "Josef Stalin 'returns' to Moscow metro", Telegraph, 5 September 2009, [5] <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/russia/6140394/Josef-Stalin-returns-to-Moscow-metro.html" target="_blank">https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/russia/6140394/Josef-Stalin-returns-to-Moscow-metro.html</a> <a href="#fnref:87" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:88">Human rights defenders called Luzhkov to remove from the Metro the notes about Stalin, Kommersant, 8 September 2009. <a href="http://www.kommersant.ru/doc.aspx?DocsID=1234434" target="_blank">http://www.kommersant.ru/doc.aspx?DocsID=1234434</a> <a href="#fnref:88" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:89">Human rights defenders called Luzhkov to remove from the Metro the notes about Stalin, Kommersant, 8 September 2009. <a href="http://www.kommersant.ru/doc.aspx?DocsID=1234434" target="_blank">http://www.kommersant.ru/doc.aspx?DocsID=1234434</a> <a href="#fnref:89" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:90">Human rights defenders called Luzhkov to remove from the Metro the notes about Stalin, Kommersant, 8 September 2009. <a href="http://www.kommersant.ru/doc.aspx?DocsID=1234434" target="_blank">http://www.kommersant.ru/doc.aspx?DocsID=1234434</a> <a href="#fnref:90" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:91">Human rights defenders called Luzhkov to remove from the Metro the notes about Stalin, Kommersant, 8 September 2009. <a href="http://www.kommersant.ru/doc.aspx?DocsID=1234434" target="_blank">http://www.kommersant.ru/doc.aspx?DocsID=1234434</a> <a href="#fnref:91" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:92">"Zakharovich, Yuri. 'Can the U.S.-Russian Alliance Last?' Time. 21 December 2001". Archived from the original on 29 May 2008. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080529021625/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,189499,00.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20080529021625/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,189499,00.html</a> <a href="#fnref:92" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:93">"Opinion & Reviews – Wall Street Journal". www.opinionjournal.com. Retrieved 16 February 2018. <a href="http://www.opinionjournal.com/editorial/feature.html?id=110006663" target="_blank">http://www.opinionjournal.com/editorial/feature.html?id=110006663</a> <a href="#fnref:93" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:94">Fiery Counterrevolutionaries Archived 3 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Kommersant, 18 April 2005. <a href="http://www.kommersant.com/p570866/r_1/Fiery_Counterrevolutionaries/" target="_blank">http://www.kommersant.com/p570866/r_1/Fiery_Counterrevolutionaries/</a> <a href="#fnref:94" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:95">Liberals rap Kremlin as Stalin is worshipped, Reuters, 5 March 2010. <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE6241M820100305" target="_blank">https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE6241M820100305</a> <a href="#fnref:95" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:96">Short questions and answers, by Dmitry Puchkov. <a href="http://oper.ru/torture/read.php?t=1045689217" target="_blank">http://oper.ru/torture/read.php?t=1045689217</a> <a href="#fnref:96" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:97">The satanization of the modern Russia is ongoing, same way as it happened with the Soviet Union Archived 26 September 2009 at the Wayback Machine, Sergey Kara-Murza, 24 September 2009 (in Russian) <a href="http://news.km.ru/prodolzhaetsya_satanizacziya_nyn" target="_blank">http://news.km.ru/prodolzhaetsya_satanizacziya_nyn</a> <a href="#fnref:97" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:98">Thomas Sherlock, "Russian politics and the Soviet past: Reassessing Stalin and Stalinism under Vladimir Putin" Communist and Post-Communist Studies 30#1 (2016) pp 1–15 (2016) <a href="#fnref:98" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:99">"RT Writer Glorifies Stalin's Gulags in False Tweets, Later Apologizes". Newsweek. 8 October 2018. <a href="https://www.newsweek.com/rt-writer-glorifies-stalins-gulags-false-tweets-1158728" target="_blank">https://www.newsweek.com/rt-writer-glorifies-stalins-gulags-false-tweets-1158728</a> <a href="#fnref:99" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:100">"RT Reporter Exits Network After 'Misguided' Praise of Stalin's Gulags". 16 October 2018. <a href="https://www.thewrap.com/rt-sameera-khan-exits-stalin-gulags/" target="_blank">https://www.thewrap.com/rt-sameera-khan-exits-stalin-gulags/</a> <a href="#fnref:100" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:101">"How 'Andor' Drew from… Joseph Stalin? Plus: Inside Season 2 of the Revolutionary Star Wars Show". Rolling Stone. 10 November 2022. <a href="https://www.rollingstone.com/tv-movies/tv-movie-features/andor-explained-season-1-finale-season-2-preview-1234626573/" target="_blank">https://www.rollingstone.com/tv-movies/tv-movie-features/andor-explained-season-1-finale-season-2-preview-1234626573/</a> <a href="#fnref:101" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
</ol>

Neo-Stalinism open-in-new

Neo-Stalinism