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Pliopithecoidea
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<h2 id="history-of-discovery">History of discovery</h2> <p>The first fossil specimens attributed to Pliopithecoidea were discovered by <a href="/facts/%C3%89douard_Lartet/PHWYGBVe">Édouard Lartet</a> in Sansan, France in 1837. These fossils were later referenced by <a href="/facts/Henri_Marie_Ducrotay_de_Blainville/qMoUVQKv">Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville</a> in 1839, who named the type species <i><a href="/facts/Pliopithecus/gHhBo5RP">Pliopithecus antiquus</a></i>. A second species, <i>Pliopithecus platyodon</i>, was discovered in Switzerland by Biedermann in 1863. Following this, a small number of other pliopithecoid species were described from fossil collections found in France, Germany, and Poland.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> </p><p>In the mid-twentieth century, paleontologists <a href="/facts/Johannes_H%C3%BCrzeler/KwpIEBjo">Johannes Hürzeler</a> and Helmuth Zapfe reinvigorated interest in the pliopithecoids with a series of publications in which they named a number of new species, including <i>Pliopithecus vindobonensis</i>, which consists of the most complete cranial and post-cranial pliopithecoid specimens ever discovered. Based on their size, and some superficial similarities to modern day gibbons, Zapfe suggested that pliopithecoids were ancestral to the <a href="/facts/Hylobatidae/ArzDSTmr">Hylobatidae</a> lineage.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> </p><p>With the discovery of more European pliopithecoid fossils in the mid to late 1970s,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> and subsequent discovery of pliopithecoid fossils in China,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> the idea that pliopithecoids were ancestral to gibbons fell out of favor. Today, most paleontologists agree that pliopithecoids hold a basal position in the <a href="/facts/Catarrhine/CmXTFKwb">catarrhine</a> family tree.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> As such, pliopithecoids represent something similar to the common ancestor of <a href="/facts/Old_World_monkey/hrhKhgt7">Old World monkeys</a> and <a href="/facts/Ape/QdTk4pko">apes</a>. </p><p>A <a href="/facts/Femur/uVyTwj4l">femur</a> discovered in <a href="/facts/Eppelsheim/zBjRGzC2">Eppelsheim</a> and given the genus name <i>Paidopithex</i> was for many years controversial, as its large size compared to Pliopithecoids led to suggestions that it was instead related to the <a href="/facts/Dryopithecini/fscPEYCg">Dryopithecini</a>. A lack of femurs for Dryopithecini meant that the suggestion was not ruled out for many years, but in 2002 work by Köhler et al comparing it to a recently discovered <i><a href="/facts/Dryopithecus_laietanus/H8S3XtU7">Dryopithecus laietanus</a></i> skeleton showed that it was very different from the Dryopithecini. However, Köhler felt unable to definitely place Paidopithex in the Pliopithecoid superfamily, stating it was either an unusually large Pliopithecoid (estimated bodyweight 22 kg) or could be the sole known species of a separate superfamily.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> </p><p>A worn tooth found near Haritalyangar in India and dated from around 9 to 8 million years ago has been suggested as possibly a Pliopithecoid species, Krishnapithecus krishnai, but the wear has made this difficult to determine.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> However, two recently discovered molars in the same area appear to support this, with placement within the superfamily uncertain (but clearly not Crouzeliinae).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="physical-characteristics">Physical characteristics</h2> <p>The pliopithecoid fossil record mostly consists of teeth with a few mandibular and maxillary fragments.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> The dental formula (2.1.2.3) and shape of the teeth are the primary factors which include pliopithecoids among the <a href="/facts/Catarrhini/CmXTFKwb">catarrhini</a>. Although some authors have argued that the narrow upper molars and broad upper molars of pliopithecoids demonstrate their affinity with modern catarrhines,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> others have demonstrated that these traits are variable between species.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> In fact, pliopithecoids are more similar to <a href="/facts/New_World_monkey/RQ1hJY79">New World monkeys</a> in some aspects of their dentition, including narrow lower incisors (mesiodistally waisted towards the base of the crown).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> Many species have what is often referred to as a 'pliopithecine triangle', a subtle set of ridges defining a small triangular shaped pit between the protocone and hypocone of the lower molars, but even this trait is variable.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> Instead, the most defining dental trait present in all pliopithecoids is a tall crowned lower third premolar, which is relatively triangular in outline with a comparatively short, vertically oriented mesiobucal face.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> </p><p>The crania of <i>P. vindobonesis</i>, <i>Laccopithecus robustus</i>, <i>Pliopithecus zhanxiangi</i>, and <i>Anapithecus hernyaki</i> demonstrate that pliopithecoids had relatively large and globular braincases with a projecting snout.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> The snout projects less than the propliopithecoids of North Africa (<i>i.e.</i> <i><a href="/facts/Aegyptopithecus/GdsmXS93">Aegyptopithecus</a></i>), suggesting some prognathic reduction from the inferred common ancestor of these two primate families. The orbits are widely spaced and the mandible is long and robust, with a relatively broad ramus.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> Most importantly, however, pliopithecoids had an incompletely ossified ectotympanic tube. This anatomical feature represents an intermediate stage between what is found in <a href="/facts/Platyrrhines/RQ1hJY79">platyrrhines</a>, which do not have an ossified ectotympanic tube, and <a href="/facts/Catarrhines/CmXTFKwb">catarrhines</a>, which have a completely ossified ectotympanic tube.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> </p><p>Nearly all of what is known about the body proportions and post-cranial morphology of this family are derived from <i>Pliopithecus vindobonensis</i>, as it is the only species for which a complete skeleton has been found.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> Still, the majority of fossil material indicates that pliopithecoids were medium sized primates, approximately the size of a howler monkey or a gibbon (8 kg).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> Köhler estimates a slightly higher average weight of 10 kg.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> Post-cranially, pliopithecoids had an interesting mix of platyrrhine and catarrhine traits. The brachial index of <i>P. vindobonesis</i> (the length of the radius divided by the length of the humerus) is similar to that of a howler monkey, but the crural index (the length of the tibia divided by the length of the femur) is similar to that of a gibbon.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> Proportionally, however, the forelimbs of <i>P. vindobonesis</i> were shorter than their hindlimbs, making them comparable to a baboon. The hands and feet of <i>P. vindobonesis</i> were long and curved, suggesting that pliopithecoids were adept and agile climbers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> The post-crania of <i>P. vindobonesis</i> also shows that Pliopithecoids had an entepicondylar foramen, which is a primitive trait not found in any other catarrhine primates (extant or extinct).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> The wrist and hands of pliopithecoids were seemingly much more similar to platyrrhines than to catarrhines, as the carpo-metacarpal joint of the thumb is a modified “hinge joint” compared to the "saddle-like" thumb joint found in Old World monkeys and apes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> Pliopithecoids also had a tail.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="classification">Classification</h2> <p>The following classification scheme represents multiple sources. </p> <ul><li>Order <a href="/facts/Primate/Hl8RNE2X">Primates</a> (Linnaeus, 1758) <ul><li>Infraorder <a href="/facts/Catarrhini/CmXTFKwb">Catarrhini</a> (Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, 1812) <ul><li>Superfamily Pliopithecoidea (Zapfe, 1960) <ul><li>Family <a href="/facts/Pliopithecidae/LdDkF0ed">Pliopithecidae</a> (Zapfe, 1960) <ul><li>Subfamily Dionysopithecinae (Li, 1978) <ul><li>Genus <i>Dionysopithecus</i> (Li, 1978) <ul><li><i>Dionysopithecus shuangoeuensis</i> (Li, 1978)</li> <li><i>Dionysopithecus orientalis</i> (Suteethorn, 1990)</li></ul></li> <li>Genus <i>Platodontopithecus</i> (Li, 1978) <ul><li><i>Platodontopithecus jianghuaiensis</i> (Gu and Lin, 1983)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Subfamily Pliopithecinae (Zapfe, 1960) <ul><li>Genus <i><a href="/facts/Pliopithecus/gHhBo5RP">Pliopithecus</a></i> (Gervais, 1849) <ul><li><i>Pliopithecus antiquus</i> (Blainville, 1839)</li> <li><i>Pliopithecus piveteaui</i> (Hürzeler, 1954)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a></li> <li><i>Pliopithecus platydon</i> (Biederman, 1863)</li> <li><i>Pliopithecus zhanxiangi</i> (Harrison, Delson, and Guan, 1991)</li> <li><i>Pliopithecus bii</i> (Yu, Jin, Jie 2003)</li> <li><i>Pliopithecus canmatensis</i> (Alba, Moyá-Solá, Robles, Galindo, 2012)</li></ul></li> <li>Genus <i><a href="/facts/Epipliopithecus/8B8wfDHp">Epipliopithecus</a></i> (Zapfe and Hürzeler, 1957) <ul><li><i><a href="/facts/Epipliopithecus_vindobonensis/8B8wfDHp">Epipliopithecus vindobonensis</a></i> (Zapfe and Hürzeler, 1957)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Subfamily <a href="/facts/Crouzeliinae/XL5rqyIG">Crouzeliinae</a> (Ginsburg, 1975) <ul><li>Tribe Crouzeliini (Ginsburg, 1975) <ul><li>Genus <i>Plesiopliopithecus</i> (Zapfe, 1961) <ul><li><i>Pleisopliopithecus auscitanensis</i> (Ginsburg, 1975)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a></li> <li><i>Pleisopliopithecus rhondanica</i> (Ginsburg and Mein, 1980)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a></li> <li><i>Pleisopliopithecus lockeri</i> (Zapfe, 1961)</li> <li><i>Pleisopliopithecus priensis</i> (Welcomme, Aguilar, and Ginsburg, 1991)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Tribe Anapithecini (Kretzoi, 1975) <ul><li>Genus <i><a href="/facts/Anapithecus/3sUIGbVL">Anapithecus</a></i> (Kretzoi, 1975) <ul><li><i>Anapithecus hernyaki</i> (Kretzoi, 1975)</li></ul></li> <li>Genus <i>Laccopithecus</i> (Wu & Pan, 1984) <ul><li><i>Laccopithecus robustus</i> (Wu and Pan, 1984)</li></ul></li> <li>Genus <i>Barberapithecus</i> (Alba and Moyá-Solá, 2012) <ul><li><i>Barberapithecus huerzeleri</i> (Alba and Moyá-Solá, 2012)</li></ul></li> <li><i>Genus Egarapithecus</i> (Moyá-Solá, Köhler, and Alba, 2001) <ul><li><i>Egarapithecus narcisoi</i> (Moyá-Solá, Köhler, and Alba, 2001)</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Incertae_sedis/kWyo2wYR">incertae sedis</a></i> <ul><li>Genus <i>Paidopithex</i> (Pohlig, 1895)</li> <li>Genus <i>Krishnapithecus</i></li> <li>Genus <i><a href="/facts/Kapi_(mammal)/BDoD90w4">Kapi</a></i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <p>Begun divides Pliopithecoidea into two - Family <a href="/facts/Dionysopithecidae/w9PxonnU">Dionysopithecidae</a> and Family <a href="/facts/Pliopithecidae/LdDkF0ed">Pliopithecidae</a>, with the <a href="/facts/Pliopithecidae/LdDkF0ed">Pliopithecidae</a> sub-divided into <a href="/facts/Subfamily/2QPtfDS4">Subfamilies</a> Pliopithecinae and <a href="/facts/Crouzeliinae/XL5rqyIG">Crouzeliinae</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="notes">Notes</h2> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Begun, David (2002). The Pliopithecoidea (PDF). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-66315-6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-25. Retrieved 2016-02-09. <a href="0-521-66315-6" target="_blank">0-521-66315-6</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Harrison, Terry (2013). Catarrhine Origins. Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="https://www.academia.edu/7124992" target="_blank">https://www.academia.edu/7124992</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Begun, David (2002). The Pliopithecoidea (PDF). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-66315-6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-25. Retrieved 2016-02-09. <a href="0-521-66315-6" target="_blank">0-521-66315-6</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Zapfe, Helmuth (1958). "The skeleton of Pliopithecus (Epipliopithecus) vindobonesis Zapfe and Hürzeler". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 16 (4): 441–457. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330160405. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Ginsburg, Leonard (1975). "Les Pliopithe'ques des faluns helve´tiens de la Touraine et de l'Anjou". Colloques Internationaux du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (218): 877–886. <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Ginsburg, Leonard; Mein, Pierre (1980). "Crouzelia rhondanica, nouvelle espe'ce de primate catarrhinien, et essai sur la position systématique de Pliopithecidae". Bulletin du Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris (4): 57–85. <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Li, Chuan-kuei (1978). "A Miocene gibbon-like primate from Shihhung, Kiangsu Province". Vertebrata PalAsiatica (16): 187–192. <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Begun, David (2002). The Pliopithecoidea (PDF). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-66315-6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-25. Retrieved 2016-02-09. <a href="0-521-66315-6" target="_blank">0-521-66315-6</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Harrison, Terry (2013). Catarrhine Origins. Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="https://www.academia.edu/7124992" target="_blank">https://www.academia.edu/7124992</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Alba, David; Moyà-Solà, Salvador (2012). "A New Pliopithecid Genus (Primates: Pliopithecoidea) From Castel de Barberà (Vallès-Penedès Basin, Catalonia, Spain)". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 147 (1): 88–112. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21630. PMID 22101732. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Köhler, M; Alba, DM; Solà, SM; MacLatchy, L (December 2002). "Taxonomic affinities of the Eppelsheim femur". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 119 (4): 297–304. doi:10.1002/ajpa.10140. PMID 12448015. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Harrison, Terry (2018). "Catarrhine Origins". In Trevathan, Wenda (ed.). The International Encyclopedia of Biological Anthropology. Vol. 1. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 306–311. doi:10.1002/9781118584538.ieba0087. ISBN 978-1-118-58442-2. <a href="978-1-118-58442-2" target="_blank">978-1-118-58442-2</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Sankhyan, Anek; Kelley, Jay; Harrison, Terry (April 2017). "A highly derived pliopithecoid from the Late Miocene of Haritalyangar, India". Journal of Human Evolution. 105: 1–12. Bibcode:2017JHumE.105....1S. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.01.010. PMID 28366196. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Begun, David (2002). The Pliopithecoidea (PDF). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-66315-6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-25. Retrieved 2016-02-09. <a href="0-521-66315-6" target="_blank">0-521-66315-6</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Harrison, Terry (2013). Catarrhine Origins. Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="https://www.academia.edu/7124992" target="_blank">https://www.academia.edu/7124992</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Harrison, Terry; Gu, Yumin (1999). "Taxonomy and phylogenetic relationships of early Miocene catarrhines from Sihong, China". Journal of Human Evolution. 37 (2): 225–277. Bibcode:1999JHumE..37..225H. doi:10.1006/jhev.1999.0310. PMID 10444352. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fjhev.1999.0310" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fjhev.1999.0310</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Begun, David (2002). The Pliopithecoidea (PDF). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-66315-6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-25. Retrieved 2016-02-09. <a href="0-521-66315-6" target="_blank">0-521-66315-6</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Begun, David (2002). The Pliopithecoidea (PDF). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-66315-6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-25. Retrieved 2016-02-09. <a href="0-521-66315-6" target="_blank">0-521-66315-6</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Alba, David; Moyà-Solà, Salvador; Malgosa, Assumpció; Casanovas-Vilar, Isaac; Robles, Josep; Almécija, Sergio; Galindo, Jordi; Rotgers, Cheyenn; Bertó Mengual, Juan Vicente (2010). "A new species of Pliopithecus Gervais, 1849 (Primates: Pliopithecoidea) from the Middle Miocene (MN8) of Abocador de Can Mata (els Hostalets de Pierola, Catalonia, Spain)". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 141 (1): 52–75. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21114. PMID 19544577. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Begun, David (2002). The Pliopithecoidea (PDF). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-66315-6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-25. Retrieved 2016-02-09. <a href="0-521-66315-6" target="_blank">0-521-66315-6</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Harrison, Terry (1987). "The phylogenetic relationships of the early catarrhine primates: a review of the current evidence". Journal of Human Evolution. 16 (1): 41–80. Bibcode:1987JHumE..16...41H. doi:10.1016/0047-2484(87)90060-1. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Begun, David (2002). The Pliopithecoidea (PDF). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-66315-6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-25. Retrieved 2016-02-09. <a href="0-521-66315-6" target="_blank">0-521-66315-6</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Begun, David (2002). The Pliopithecoidea (PDF). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-66315-6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-25. Retrieved 2016-02-09. <a href="0-521-66315-6" target="_blank">0-521-66315-6</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Andrews, Peter; Harrison, Terry; Delson, Eric; Bernor, Raymond; Martin, L (1996). Distribution and Biochronology of European and Southwest Asian Miocene Catarrhines. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-08246-0. <a href="0-231-08246-0" target="_blank">0-231-08246-0</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Begun, David (2002). The Pliopithecoidea (PDF). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-66315-6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-25. Retrieved 2016-02-09. <a href="0-521-66315-6" target="_blank">0-521-66315-6</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Begun, David (2002). The Pliopithecoidea (PDF). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-66315-6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-25. Retrieved 2016-02-09. <a href="0-521-66315-6" target="_blank">0-521-66315-6</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Harrison, Terry (2013). Catarrhine Origins. Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="https://www.academia.edu/7124992" target="_blank">https://www.academia.edu/7124992</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>Andrews, Peter; Harrison, Terry; Delson, Eric; Bernor, Raymond; Martin, L (1996). Distribution and Biochronology of European and Southwest Asian Miocene Catarrhines. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-08246-0. <a href="0-231-08246-0" target="_blank">0-231-08246-0</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>Zapfe, Helmuth (1958). "The skeleton of Pliopithecus (Epipliopithecus) vindobonesis Zapfe and Hürzeler". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 16 (4): 441–457. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330160405. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>Alba, David; Moyà-Solà, Salvador; Robles, Josep M.; Galindo, Jordi (2012). "Brief Communication: The Oldest Pliopithecid Record in the Iberia Peninsula Based on New Material From the Vallès-Penedès Basin". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 147 (1): 135–140. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21631. PMID 22170401. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>Köhler, M; Alba, DM; Solà, SM; MacLatchy, L (December 2002). "Taxonomic affinities of the Eppelsheim femur". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 119 (4): 297–304. doi:10.1002/ajpa.10140. PMID 12448015. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:32"><p>Begun, David (2002). The Pliopithecoidea (PDF). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-66315-6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-25. Retrieved 2016-02-09. <a href="0-521-66315-6" target="_blank">0-521-66315-6</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:33"><p>Begun, David (2002). The Pliopithecoidea (PDF). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-66315-6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-25. Retrieved 2016-02-09. <a href="0-521-66315-6" target="_blank">0-521-66315-6</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:34"><p>Zapfe, Helmuth (1958). "The skeleton of Pliopithecus (Epipliopithecus) vindobonesis Zapfe and Hürzeler". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 16 (4): 441–457. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330160405. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:35"><p>Begun, David (2002). The Pliopithecoidea (PDF). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-66315-6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-25. Retrieved 2016-02-09. <a href="0-521-66315-6" target="_blank">0-521-66315-6</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:36"><p>Harrison, Terry (2013). Catarrhine Origins. Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="https://www.academia.edu/7124992" target="_blank">https://www.academia.edu/7124992</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:37"><p>Andrews, Peter; Harrison, Terry; Delson, Eric; Bernor, Raymond; Martin, L (1996). Distribution and Biochronology of European and Southwest Asian Miocene Catarrhines. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-08246-0. <a href="0-231-08246-0" target="_blank">0-231-08246-0</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:38"><p>Harrison, Terry (1987). "The phylogenetic relationships of the early catarrhine primates: a review of the current evidence". Journal of Human Evolution. 16 (1): 41–80. Bibcode:1987JHumE..16...41H. doi:10.1016/0047-2484(87)90060-1. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:39"><p>Begun, David (2002). The Pliopithecoidea (PDF). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-66315-6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-09-25. Retrieved 2016-02-09. <a href="0-521-66315-6" target="_blank">0-521-66315-6</a> <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:40"><p>Andrews, Peter; Harrison, Terry; Delson, Eric; Bernor, Raymond; Martin, L (1996). Distribution and Biochronology of European and Southwest Asian Miocene Catarrhines. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-08246-0. <a href="0-231-08246-0" target="_blank">0-231-08246-0</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:41"><p>P. piveteaui is considered a junior synonym of P. antiquus (Bergounioux and Crouzel, 1965; Harrison, 1991; Andrews et al., 1996), and as a distinct species by Begun (2002). <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:42"><p>Ginsburg (1975) and Moyá-Solá et al. (2001) recognize P. auscitanensis and P. rhodancia as a distinct genus, Crouzelia. <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:43"><p>Ginsburg (1975) and Moyá-Solá et al. (2001) recognize P. auscitanensis and P. rhodancia as a distinct genus, Crouzelia. <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:44"><p>P. priensis is placed into Pliopithecus by Andrews et al. (1996) and Moyá-Solá et al. (2001), but it has since been moved into Pleisopliopithecus by Begun (2002) and Harrison (2013) <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:45"><p>Ji, Xueping; Harrison, Terry; Zhang, Yingqi; Wu, Yun; Zhang, Chunxia; Hu, Jinming; Wu, Dongdong; Hou, Yemao; Li, Song; Wang, Guofu; Wang, Zhenzhen (2022). "The earliest hylobatid from the Late Miocene of China". Journal of Human Evolution. 171: 103251. Bibcode:2022JHumE.17103251J. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2022.103251. ISSN 0047-2484. PMID 36113226. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jhevol.2022.103251" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jhevol.2022.103251</a> <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:46"><p>Harrison, Terry (2018). "Catarrhine Origins". In Trevathan, Wenda (ed.). The International Encyclopedia of Biological Anthropology. Vol. 1. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 306–311. doi:10.1002/9781118584538.ieba0087. ISBN 978-1-118-58442-2. <a href="978-1-118-58442-2" target="_blank">978-1-118-58442-2</a> <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>