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Cadmium
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<h2 id="characteristics">Characteristics</h2> <h3>Physical properties</h3> <p>Cadmium is a soft, <a href="/facts/Malleable/SBJsahEk">malleable</a>, <a href="/facts/Ductility/SBJsahEk">ductile</a>, silvery-white <a href="/facts/Divalent/ck7cHByj">divalent</a> metal. It is similar in many respects to zinc but forms <a href="/facts/Complex_(chemistry)/1tCyeQUm">complex</a> compounds.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a> Unlike most other metals, cadmium is resistant to <a href="/facts/Corrosion/lIC7H4we">corrosion</a> and is used as a protective <a href="/facts/Plating/3tRPlr6x">plate</a> on other metals. As a bulk metal, cadmium is <a href="/facts/Insoluble/kLE9h3Jb">insoluble</a> in water<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> and is not <a href="/facts/Flammability/1QexTQ4T">flammable</a>; however, in its powdered form it may burn and release <a href="/facts/Cadmium_oxide/44Kovzwf">toxic fumes</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> </p> <h3>Chemical properties</h3> <p class="note">See also: Category:Cadmium compounds</p> <p>Although cadmium usually has an <a href="/facts/Oxidation_state/W53W6s6V">oxidation state</a> of +2, it also exists in the +1 state. Cadmium and its <a href="/facts/Congener_(chemistry)/8qy2rvGG">congeners</a> are not always considered transition metals, in that they do not have partly filled d or f electron shells in the elemental or common oxidation states.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> Cadmium burns in air to form brown amorphous <a href="/facts/Cadmium_oxide/44Kovzwf">cadmium oxide</a> (CdO); the <a href="/facts/Crystal/e2R2mk3E">crystalline</a> form of this compound is a dark red which changes color when heated, similar to <a href="/facts/Zinc_oxide/P7sTyDez">zinc oxide</a>. <a href="/facts/Hydrochloric_acid/HqItJlUT">Hydrochloric acid</a>, <a href="/facts/Sulfuric_acid/Wom6fymJ">sulfuric acid</a>, and <a href="/facts/Nitric_acid/UDbwGp6s">nitric acid</a> dissolve cadmium by forming <a href="/facts/Cadmium_chloride/Id9KtSIs">cadmium chloride</a> (CdCl2), <a href="/facts/Cadmium_sulfate/SrVb2fnN">cadmium sulfate</a> (CdSO4), and <a href="/facts/Cadmium_nitrate/MRUynE1K">cadmium nitrate</a> (Cd(NO3)2) respectively. The oxidation state +1 can be produced by dissolving cadmium in a mixture of cadmium chloride and <a href="/facts/Aluminium_chloride/xrhvSxDr">aluminium chloride</a>, forming the Cd22+ cation as <a href="/facts/Cadmium(I)_tetrachloroaluminate/xGgf2ma5">cadmium(I) tetrachloroaluminate</a>, which is similar to the Hg22+ cation in <a href="/facts/Mercury(I)_chloride/S8W4jjEV">mercury(I) chloride</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> </p> Cd + CdCl2 + 2 AlCl3 → Cd2(AlCl4)2 <p>The structures of many cadmium complexes with <a href="/facts/Nucleobase/zj1Vl9Qh">nucleobases</a>, <a href="/facts/Amino_acid/WDxYwBny">amino acids</a>, and <a href="/facts/Vitamin/SnW0LYBL">vitamins</a> have been determined.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> </p> <h3>Isotopes</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Isotopes_of_cadmium/2F42oNDz">Isotopes of cadmium</a></p> <p>Naturally occurring cadmium is composed of eight <a href="/facts/Isotope/KD9B1y6o">isotopes</a>. Two of them are <a href="/facts/Radionuclide/5WpCfbdq">radioactive</a>, and three are expected to <a href="/facts/Radioactive_decay/Ya6FVjt4">decay</a> but have not measurably done so under laboratory conditions. The two natural radioactive isotopes are 113Cd (<a href="/facts/Beta_decay/vxTBlckp">beta decay</a>, half-life is 7.7×1015 y) and 116Cd (two-neutrino <a href="/facts/Double_beta_decay/ILmpbfqS">double beta decay</a>, half-life is 2.9×1019 y). The other three are 106Cd, 108Cd (both <a href="/facts/Double_electron_capture/aQ1ElH3c">double electron capture</a>), and 114Cd (double beta decay); only lower limits on these half-lives have been determined. At least three isotopes – 110Cd, 111Cd, and 112Cd – are stable. Among the isotopes that do not occur naturally, the most long-lived are 109Cd with a half-life of 462.6 days, and 115Cd with a half-life of 53.46 hours. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives of less than 2.5 hours, and the majority have half-lives of less than 5 minutes. Cadmium has 8 known <a href="/facts/Meta_state/L8DHcqnk">meta states</a>, with the most stable being 113mCd (<i>t</i>1⁄2 = 14.1 years), 115mCd (<i>t</i>1⁄2 = 44.6 days), and 117mCd (<i>t</i>1⁄2 = 3.36 hours).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> </p><p>The known isotopes of cadmium range in <a href="/facts/Atomic_mass/J1FJY9MV">atomic mass</a> from 94.950 <a href="/facts/Atomic_mass_unit/IMATU3vf">u</a> (95Cd) to 131.946 u (132Cd). For isotopes lighter than 112 u, the primary <a href="/facts/Decay_mode/Ya6FVjt4">decay mode</a> is <a href="/facts/Electron_capture/EIccoV1u">electron capture</a> and the dominant <a href="/facts/Decay_product/hT0obfLv">decay product</a> is element 47 (<a href="/facts/Silver/xXe41BGg">silver</a>). Heavier isotopes decay mostly through <a href="/facts/Beta_emission/vxTBlckp">beta emission</a> producing element 49 (<a href="/facts/Indium/zRq3stVb">indium</a>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> </p><p>One isotope of cadmium, 113Cd, <a href="/facts/Neutron_capture/elsFpM12">absorbs neutrons</a> with high selectivity: With very high probability, neutrons with energy below the <i>cadmium cut-off</i> will be absorbed; those higher than the <i>cut-off will be transmitted</i>. The cadmium cut-off is about 0.5 eV, and neutrons below that level are deemed <a href="/facts/Slow_neutron/UMKR4XgJ">slow neutrons</a>, distinct from intermediate and <a href="/facts/Fast_neutron/UMKR4XgJ">fast neutrons</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> </p><p>Cadmium is created via the <a href="/facts/S-process/31HVkqkI">s-process</a> in low- to medium-mass stars with masses of 0.6 to 10 <a href="/facts/Sun/CadPCVHh">solar masses</a>, over thousands of years. In that process, a <a href="/facts/Silver/xXe41BGg">silver</a> atom captures a <a href="/facts/Neutron/oRCM1geb">neutron</a> and then undergoes <a href="/facts/Beta_decay/vxTBlckp">beta decay</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="history">History</h2> <p>Cadmium (<a href="/facts/Latin/pM3Kge85">Latin</a> <i>cadmia</i>, <a href="/facts/Greek_language/pzDd6eIz">Greek</a> <i>καδμεία</i> meaning "<a href="/facts/Calamine_(mineral)/oWBb63vK">calamine</a>", a cadmium-bearing mixture of minerals that was named after the Greek mythological character Κάδμος, <a href="/facts/Cadmus/g75RkVLp">Cadmus</a>, the founder of <a href="/facts/Ancient_Thebes_(Boeotia)/PBN0g5la">Thebes</a>) was <a href="/facts/Discovery_of_the_chemical_elements/QY4X2RP3">discovered</a> in contaminated zinc compounds sold in pharmacies in Germany<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> in 1817 by <a href="/facts/Friedrich_Stromeyer/llcymrRj">Friedrich Stromeyer</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Karl_Samuel_Leberecht_Hermann/bcBFbgj6">Karl Samuel Leberecht Hermann</a> simultaneously investigated the discoloration in zinc oxide and found an impurity, first suspected to be <a href="/facts/Arsenic/k1c4f44D">arsenic</a>, because of the yellow precipitate with <a href="/facts/Hydrogen_sulfide/UbCqjMMk">hydrogen sulfide</a>. Additionally Stromeyer discovered that one supplier sold zinc carbonate instead of zinc oxide.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> Stromeyer found the new element as an impurity in <a href="/facts/Zinc_carbonate/ffvou3Re">zinc carbonate</a> (calamine), and, for 100 years, Germany remained the only important producer of the metal. The metal was named after the Latin word for calamine, because it was found in this zinc ore. Stromeyer noted that some impure samples of calamine changed color when heated but pure calamine did not. He was persistent in studying these results and eventually isolated cadmium metal by <a href="/facts/Roasting_(metallurgy)/kvlzMoeg">roasting</a> and reducing the <a href="/facts/Cadmium_sulfide/lsYV3Gum">sulfide</a>. The potential for cadmium yellow as pigment was recognized in the 1840s, but the early scarcity of cadmium limited this application.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> </p><p>Even though cadmium and its compounds are toxic in certain forms and concentrations, the <a href="/facts/British_Pharmaceutical_Codex/Khth2uzr">British Pharmaceutical Codex</a> from 1907 states that <a href="/facts/Cadmium_iodide/kmYqUThz">cadmium iodide</a> was used as a <a href="/facts/Medication/h9mhwWP2">medication</a> to treat "enlarged joints, <a href="/facts/Scrofulous/tIfI1qrD">scrofulous</a> glands, and <a href="/facts/Chilblains/eGGNSnlv">chilblains</a>".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> </p><p>In 1907, the <a href="/facts/International_Astronomical_Union/GMFPImXo">International Astronomical Union</a> defined the international <a href="/facts/%C3%85ngstr%C3%B6m/T5mjdd97">ångström</a> in terms of a red cadmium spectral line (1 wavelength = 6438.46963 Å).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> This was adopted by the 7th <a href="/facts/General_Conference_on_Weights_and_Measures/a1FPjTtr">General Conference on Weights and Measures</a> in 1927. In 1960, the definitions of both the <a href="/facts/Metre/hPhzc1CV">metre</a> and ångström were changed to use <a href="/facts/Krypton/llkNlCke">krypton</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> </p><p>After the industrial scale production of cadmium started in the 1930s and 1940s, the major application of cadmium was the coating of iron and steel to prevent corrosion; in 1944, 62% and in 1956, 59% of the cadmium in the United States was used for <a href="/facts/Plating/3tRPlr6x">plating</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> In 1956, 24% of the cadmium in the United States was used for a second application in red, orange and yellow pigments from sulfides and selenides of cadmium.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> </p><p>The stabilizing effect of cadmium chemicals like the carboxylates cadmium laurate and cadmium stearate on <a href="/facts/Polyvinyl_chloride/9VkegJvr">PVC</a> led to an increased use of those compounds in the 1970s and 1980s. The demand for cadmium in pigments, coatings, stabilizers, and alloys declined as a result of environmental and health regulations in the 1980s and 1990s; in 2006, only 7% of total cadmium consumption was used for plating, and only 10% was used for pigments.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> At the same time, these decreases in consumption were compensated by a growing demand for cadmium for nickel–cadmium batteries, which accounted for 81% of the cadmium consumption in the United States in 2006.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="occurrence">Occurrence</h2> <p class="note">See also: Category:Cadmium minerals</p> <p>Cadmium makes up about 0.1 <a href="/facts/Parts_per_million/PozRuoLM">ppm</a> of <a href="/facts/Earth%27s_crust/VSy2u31r">Earth's crust</a> and is the 65th most abundant element.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> It is much rarer than zinc, which makes up about 65 ppm.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> No significant deposits of cadmium-containing ores are known. The only cadmium <a href="/facts/Mineral/LkUFbNmv">mineral</a> of importance, <a href="/facts/Greenockite/VCGfH1os">greenockite</a> (Cd<a href="/facts/Sulfur/IK0amTfM">S</a>), is nearly always associated with <a href="/facts/Sphalerite/5NumvnzR">sphalerite</a> (ZnS). This association is caused by geochemical similarity between zinc and cadmium, with no geological process likely to separate them. Thus, cadmium is produced mainly as a byproduct of mining, smelting, and refining sulfidic ores of zinc, and, to a lesser degree, <a href="/facts/Lead/EYljasJN">lead</a> and <a href="/facts/Copper/I8PEE8oX">copper</a>. Small amounts of cadmium, about 10% of consumption, are produced from secondary sources, mainly from dust generated by recycling iron and steel scrap. Production in the United States began in 1907,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> but wide use began after World War I.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> </p><p>Metallic cadmium can be found in the <a href="/facts/Vilyuy_River/nVYHzjGe">Vilyuy River</a> basin in <a href="/facts/Siberia/oaCoPEjF">Siberia</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> </p><p>Rocks mined for phosphate fertilizers contain varying amounts of cadmium, resulting in a cadmium concentration of as much as 300 mg/kg in the fertilizers and a high cadmium content in agricultural soils.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> Coal can contain significant amounts of cadmium, which ends up mostly in <a href="/facts/Coal_fly_ash/RrPNlq9t">coal fly ash</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> </p><p>Cadmium in soil can be absorbed by crops such as rice and cocoa. In 2002, the <a href="/facts/Ministry_of_Agriculture_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China/LklcYF9F">Chinese ministry of agriculture</a> measured that 28% of rice it sampled had excess lead and 10% had excess cadmium above limits defined by law. <i><a href="/facts/Consumer_Reports/W7LTvc1F">Consumer Reports</a></i> tested 28 brands of <a href="/facts/Dark_chocolate/2hfzoCQE">dark chocolate</a> sold in the United States in 2022, and found cadmium in all of them, with 13 exceeding the California Maximum Allowable Dose level.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> </p><p>Some plants such as <a href="/facts/Willow/F66Xvslm">willow trees</a> and <a href="/facts/Populus/SSgurBpF">poplars</a> have been found to clean both lead and cadmium from soil.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> </p><p>Typical background concentrations of cadmium do not exceed 5 ng/m3 in the atmosphere; 2 mg/kg in soil; 1 μg/L in freshwater and 50 ng/L in seawater.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> Concentrations of cadmium above 10 μg/L may be stable in water having low total solute concentrations and <i>p</i> H and can be difficult to remove by conventional water treatment processes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="production">Production</h2> <p>Cadmium is a common impurity in <a href="/facts/Zinc/80b1qgk3">zinc</a> ores, and it is most often isolated during the <a href="/facts/Zinc_smelting/H5xvFQv1">production of zinc</a>. Some zinc ores concentrates from <a href="/facts/Zinc_sulfate/uwhWDMCC">zinc sulfate</a> ores contain up to 1.4% of cadmium.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> In the 1970s, the output of cadmium was 2.9 kilograms (6.5 lb) per ton of zinc.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> Zinc <a href="/facts/Sulfide/d8YMjLeu">sulfide</a> ores are roasted in the presence of <a href="/facts/Oxygen/acyn6o8r">oxygen</a>, converting the zinc sulfide to the <a href="/facts/Oxide/DXtoVe1C">oxide</a>. Zinc metal is produced either by <a href="/facts/Smelting/Ghdvhlga">smelting</a> the oxide with <a href="/facts/Carbon/ukrgQexo">carbon</a> or by <a href="/facts/Electrolysis/pU75nCDI">electrolysis</a> in <a href="/facts/Sulfuric_acid/Wom6fymJ">sulfuric acid</a>. Cadmium is isolated from the zinc metal by <a href="/facts/Vacuum_distillation/ep7NsYJ0">vacuum distillation</a> if the zinc is smelted, or cadmium sulfate is <a href="/facts/Precipitate/s3BgsLLY">precipitated</a> from the electrolysis solution.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> </p><p>The <a href="/facts/British_Geological_Survey/0YmacsLo">British Geological Survey</a> reports that in 2001, China was the top producer of cadmium with almost one-sixth of the world's production, closely followed by South Korea and Japan.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="applications">Applications</h2> <p>Cadmium is a common component of electric batteries, <a href="/facts/Cadmium_pigments/3NeFypNH">pigments</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> coatings,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> and electroplating.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a> </p> <h3>Batteries</h3> <p>In 2009, 86% of cadmium was used in <a href="/facts/Battery_(electricity)/bqEpm4ue">batteries</a>, predominantly in <a href="/facts/Rechargeable_battery/A6zUkPkW">rechargeable</a> <a href="/facts/Nickel%E2%80%93cadmium_battery/JTbx4bcB">nickel–cadmium batteries</a>. Nickel–cadmium cells have a nominal cell potential of 1.2 <a href="/facts/Volt/KF18MXP2">V</a>. The cell consists of a positive <a href="/facts/Nickel_hydroxide/u4tthenl">nickel hydroxide</a> <a href="/facts/Electrode/251PaKX8">electrode</a> and a negative cadmium electrode plate separated by an <a href="/facts/Alkaline/s6NqPGSP">alkaline</a> <a href="/facts/Electrolyte/4YE8bIVa">electrolyte</a> (<a href="/facts/Potassium_hydroxide/NBhPBuXc">potassium hydroxide</a>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> The European Union put a limit on cadmium in electronics in 2004 of 0.01%,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a> with some exceptions, and in 2006 reduced the limit on cadmium content to 0.002%.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a> Another type of battery based on cadmium is the <a href="/facts/Silver%E2%80%93cadmium_battery/0sYxAEzT">silver–cadmium battery</a>. </p> <h3>Electroplating</h3> <p>Cadmium <a href="/facts/Electroplating/HbKf0SBb">electroplating</a>, consuming 6% of the global production, is used in the aircraft industry to reduce <a href="/facts/Corrosion/lIC7H4we">corrosion</a> of steel components.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a> This coating is passivated by <a href="/facts/Chromate_and_dichromate/6xkFLIJw">chromate</a> salts.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a> A limitation of cadmium plating is <a href="/facts/Hydrogen_embrittlement/J3JCu2Y6">hydrogen embrittlement</a> of high-strength steels from the electroplating process. Therefore, steel parts heat-treated to tensile strength above 1300 MPa (200 ksi) should be coated by an alternative method (such as special low-embrittlement cadmium electroplating processes or physical vapor deposition). </p><p>Titanium embrittlement from cadmium-plated tool residues resulted in banishment of those tools (and the implementation of routine tool testing to detect cadmium contamination) in the A-12/SR-71, U-2, and subsequent aircraft programs that use titanium.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a> </p> <h3>Nuclear technology</h3> <p>Cadmium is used in the <a href="/facts/Control_rod/VvMTweU5">control rods</a> of nuclear reactors, acting as a very effective <a href="/facts/Neutron_poison/bkruR3yz">neutron poison</a> to control <a href="/facts/Neutron_flux/nDE9Nlrx">neutron flux</a> in <a href="/facts/Nuclear_fission/LfkIylvm">nuclear fission</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a> When cadmium rods are inserted in the core of a nuclear reactor, cadmium absorbs neutrons, preventing them from creating additional fission events, thus controlling the amount of reactivity. The <a href="/facts/Pressurized_water_reactor/2hSL4Hv0">pressurized water reactor</a> designed by <a href="/facts/Westinghouse_Electric_Company/sVQIoyB4">Westinghouse Electric Company</a> uses an alloy consisting of 80% silver, 15% indium, and 5% cadmium.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a> </p> <h3>Televisions</h3> <p><a href="/facts/Quantum_dot_display/HU9QE5ua">QLED TVs</a> have been starting to include cadmium in construction. Some companies have been looking to reduce the environmental impact of human exposure and pollution of the material in televisions during production.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a> </p> <h3>Anticancer drugs</h3> <p>Complexes based on cadmium and other heavy metals have potential for the treatment of cancer, but their use is often limited due to toxic side effects.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a> </p> <h3>Compounds</h3> <p><a href="/facts/Cadmium_oxide/44Kovzwf">Cadmium oxide</a> was used in black and white television phosphors and in the blue and green phosphors of color television cathode ray tubes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Cadmium_sulfide/lsYV3Gum">Cadmium sulfide</a> (CdS) is used as a photoconductive surface coating for photocopier drums.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a> </p> <p>Various cadmium salts are used in paint pigments, with CdS as a <a href="/facts/Cadmium_pigments/3NeFypNH">yellow pigment</a> being the most common. <a href="/facts/Cadmium_selenide/A7Xyr215">Cadmium selenide</a> is a red pigment, commonly called <i>cadmium red</i>. To painters who work with the pigment, cadmium provides the most brilliant and durable yellows, oranges, and reds – so much so that during production, these colors are significantly toned down before they are ground with oils and binders or blended into <a href="/facts/Watercolor/l0DejAVg">watercolors</a>, <a href="/facts/Gouache/XMSLlJBm">gouaches</a>, <a href="/facts/Acrylic_paint/nunhSnlQ">acrylics</a>, and other paint and pigment formulations. Because these pigments are potentially toxic, for safety users normally use a <a href="/facts/Barrier_cream/QTShDpot">barrier cream</a> on the hands to prevent absorption through the skin<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a> even though the amount of cadmium absorbed into the body through the skin is reported to be less than 1%.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a> </p><p>In <a href="/facts/Polyvinyl_chloride/9VkegJvr">PVC</a>, cadmium was used as heat, light, and weathering stabilizers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a> Currently, cadmium stabilizers have been completely replaced with barium-zinc, calcium-zinc and organo-tin stabilizers. Cadmium is used in many kinds of <a href="/facts/Solder/GBvJH75t">solder</a> and bearing alloys, because it has a low <a href="/facts/Coefficient_of_friction/d0108Rpu">coefficient of friction</a> and fatigue resistance.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a> It is also found in some of the lowest-melting <a href="/facts/Alloy/I7w7WQWR">alloys</a>, such as <a href="/facts/Wood%27s_metal/Prh7s4ja">Wood's metal</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a> </p> <h3>Semiconductors</h3> <p>Cadmium is an element in some <a href="/facts/Semiconductor/zFf3mGTE">semiconductor</a> materials. Cadmium sulfide, cadmium selenide, and <a href="/facts/Cadmium_telluride/eyfWTv6Q">cadmium telluride</a> are used in some <a href="/facts/Photodetectors/7cSkXS6s">photodetectors</a> and <a href="/facts/Solar_cell/3L814UCC">solar cells</a>. <a href="/facts/HgCdTe/kzgN6aJn">HgCdTe</a> detectors are sensitive to mid-<a href="/facts/Infrared/44XdJNcc">infrared</a> light<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a> and used in some motion detectors. </p> <h3>Laboratory uses</h3> <p>Helium–cadmium lasers are a common source of blue or ultraviolet laser light. Lasers at wavelengths of 325, 354 and 442 nm are made using this <a href="/facts/Gain_medium/Gmcharyh">gain medium</a>; some models can switch between these wavelengths. They are notably used in <a href="/facts/Fluorescence_microscopy/eMwIdrRR">fluorescence microscopy</a> as well as various laboratory uses requiring laser light at these wavelengths.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a> </p><p>Cadmium selenide <a href="/facts/Quantum_dot/K5Ytv8Yw">quantum dots</a> emit bright <a href="/facts/Luminescence/1QkIWyUj">luminescence</a> under UV excitation (He–Cd laser, for example). The color of this luminescence can be green, yellow or red depending on the particle size. Colloidal solutions of those particles are used for imaging of biological tissues and solutions with a <a href="/facts/Fluorescence_microscope/eMwIdrRR">fluorescence microscope</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a> </p><p>In molecular biology, cadmium is used to block <a href="/facts/Voltage-gated_calcium_channel/H9nAybJJ">voltage-dependent calcium channels</a> from fluxing calcium ions, as well as in <a href="/facts/Hypoxia_(medical)/JWV04G89">hypoxia</a> research to stimulate <a href="/facts/Proteasome/8vTtg2MI">proteasome</a>-dependent degradation of <a href="/facts/Hypoxia-inducible_factors/t149wfy6">Hif-1α</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a> </p><p>Cadmium-selective sensors based on the <a href="/facts/Fluorophore/wDWBmYhn">fluorophore</a> <a href="/facts/BODIPY/SGad9xI1">BODIPY</a> have been developed for imaging and sensing of cadmium in cells.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a> One powerful method for monitoring cadmium in aqueous environments involves <a href="/facts/Electrochemistry/C0RUWpBH">electrochemistry</a>. By employing a <a href="/facts/Self-assembled_monolayer/Sjzt0ugA">self-assembled monolayer</a> one can obtain a cadmium selective electrode with a <a href="/facts/Parts-per_notation/PozRuoLM">ppt</a>-level sensitivity.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72"><sup>72</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="biological-role">Biological role</h2> <p>Cadmium has no known function in higher organisms and is considered toxic.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73"><sup>73</sup></a> Cadmium is considered an environmental pollutant hazardous to living organisms.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74"><sup>74</sup></a> A cadmium-dependent <a href="/facts/Carbonic_anhydrase/je7bk6fk">carbonic anhydrase</a> has been found in some marine <a href="/facts/Diatom/x2oEcP1P">diatoms</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75"><sup>75</sup></a> which live in environments with low zinc concentrations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76"><sup>76</sup></a> </p><p>Cadmium is preferentially absorbed in the kidneys of humans. Up to about 30 mg of cadmium is commonly inhaled throughout human childhood and adolescence.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77"><sup>77</sup></a> </p><p>Cadmium is under research for its potential <a href="/facts/Toxicity/qa96rs60">toxicity</a> to increase the risk of <a href="/facts/Cancer/PVW6n1D0">cancer</a>, <a href="/facts/Cardiovascular_disease/HD420nMv">cardiovascular disease</a>, and <a href="/facts/Osteoporosis/xa1W00Tj">osteoporosis</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78"><sup>78</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79"><sup>79</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80"><sup>80</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81"><sup>81</sup></a> </p> <h3>Environmental impact</h3> <p>The <a href="/facts/Biogeochemistry/LuEFpDum">biogeochemistry</a> of cadmium and its release to the environment is under research.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82"><sup>82</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83"><sup>83</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="safety">Safety</h2> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Cadmium_poisoning/tKRPXnz6">Cadmium poisoning</a></p> <p>Individuals and organizations have been reviewing cadmium's bioinorganic aspects for its toxicity.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84"><sup>84</sup></a> The most dangerous form of occupational exposure to cadmium is inhalation of fine dust and fumes, or ingestion of highly soluble cadmium compounds.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85"><sup>85</sup></a> Inhalation of cadmium fumes can result initially in <a href="/facts/Metal_fume_fever/Hgo8q3ly">metal fume fever</a>, but may progress to chemical <a href="/facts/Pneumonitis/Ls2TBRA7">pneumonitis</a>, <a href="/facts/Pulmonary_edema/sVS5UDxl">pulmonary edema</a>, and death.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86"><sup>86</sup></a> </p><p>Cadmium is also an environmental hazard. Human exposure is primarily from fossil fuel combustion, phosphate fertilizers, natural sources, iron and steel production, cement production and related activities, nonferrous metals production, and municipal solid waste incineration.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87"><sup>87</sup></a> Other sources of cadmium include bread, root crops, and vegetables.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88"><sup>88</sup></a> </p> <p>There have been a few instances of general population poisoning as the result of long-term exposure to cadmium in contaminated food and water. Research into an estrogen mimicry that may induce breast cancer is ongoing, as of 2012<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cadmium&action=edit">[update]</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89"><sup>89</sup></a> In the decades leading up to <a href="/facts/World_War_II/2efV5L1U">World War II</a>, mining operations contaminated the <a href="/facts/Jinz%C5%AB_River/VzjYmPyv">Jinzū River</a> in Japan with cadmium and traces of other toxic metals. As a consequence, cadmium accumulated in the rice crops along the riverbanks downstream of the mines. Some members of the local agricultural communities consumed the contaminated rice and developed <a href="/facts/Itai-itai/BhCInjqL">itai-itai</a> disease and renal abnormalities, including <a href="/facts/Proteinuria/cFXX8w1F">proteinuria</a> and <a href="/facts/Glucosuria/af605y5o">glucosuria</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90"><sup>90</sup></a> The victims of this poisoning were almost exclusively post-menopausal women with low iron and low body stores of other minerals. Similar general population cadmium exposures in other parts of the world have not resulted in the same health problems because the populations maintained sufficient iron and other mineral levels. Thus, although cadmium is a major factor in the itai-itai disease in Japan, most researchers have concluded that it was one of several factors.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91"><sup>91</sup></a> </p><p>Cadmium is one of ten substances banned by the European Union's <a href="/facts/Restriction_of_Hazardous_Substances/VbhtCJ1k">Restriction of Hazardous Substances</a> (RoHS) directive, which regulates hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment, but allows for certain exemptions and exclusions from the scope of the law.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92"><sup>92</sup></a> </p><p>The International Agency for Research on Cancer has classified cadmium and cadmium compounds as carcinogenic to humans.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93"><sup>93</sup></a> Although occupational exposure to cadmium is linked to lung and prostate cancer, there is still uncertainty about the carcinogenicity of cadmium in low environmental exposure. Recent data from epidemiological studies suggest that intake of cadmium through diet is associated with a higher risk of endometrial, breast, and prostate cancer as well as with osteoporosis in humans.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94"><sup>94</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95"><sup>95</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96"><sup>96</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97"><sup>97</sup></a> A recent study has demonstrated that endometrial tissue is characterized by higher levels of cadmium in current and former smoking females.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98"><sup>98</sup></a> </p><p>Cadmium exposure is associated with a large number of illnesses including kidney disease,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99"><sup>99</sup></a> early atherosclerosis, hypertension, and cardiovascular diseases.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100"><sup>100</sup></a> Although studies show a significant correlation between cadmium exposure and occurrence of disease in human populations, a molecular mechanism has not yet been identified. One hypothesis holds that cadmium is an <a href="/facts/Endocrine_disruptor/Yk2hfnTj">endocrine disruptor</a> and some experimental studies have shown that it can interact with different <a href="/facts/Hormone/WFnBnINJ">hormonal</a> signaling pathways. For example, cadmium can bind to the <a href="/facts/Estrogen_receptor/dEGaNney">estrogen receptor</a> alpha,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101"><sup>101</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102"><sup>102</sup></a> and affect signal transduction along the <a href="/facts/Estrogen/dPEewnDV">estrogen</a> and <a href="/facts/MAPK/YdDS5KkU">MAPK</a> signaling pathways at low doses.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103"><sup>103</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104"><sup>104</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105"><sup>105</sup></a> </p><p>The <a href="/facts/Tobacco_plant/Bfh1JnE0">tobacco plant</a> absorbs and accumulates <a href="/facts/Heavy_metals/Cblmy8qI">heavy metals</a> such as cadmium from the surrounding soil into its leaves. Following tobacco smoke inhalation, these are readily absorbed into the body of users.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106"><sup>106</sup></a> Tobacco smoking is the most important single source of cadmium exposure in the general population. An estimated 10% of the cadmium content of a cigarette is inhaled through smoking. Absorption of cadmium through the lungs is more effective than through the gut. As much as 50% of the cadmium inhaled in cigarette smoke may be absorbed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107"><sup>107</sup></a> On average, cadmium concentrations in the blood of smokers is 4 to 5 times greater than non-smokers and in the kidney, 2–3 times greater than in non-smokers. Despite the high cadmium content in cigarette smoke, there seems to be little exposure to cadmium from <a href="/facts/Passive_smoking/Ar7w91W8">passive smoking</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108"><sup>108</sup></a> </p><p>In a non-smoking population, food is the greatest source of exposure. High quantities of cadmium can be found in <a href="/facts/Crustacean/PBobIVJP">crustaceans</a>, <a href="/facts/Mollusca/1elgknsQ">mollusks</a>, <a href="/facts/Offal/obWrHwDK">offal</a>, <a href="/facts/Frog_legs/QXFxX24B">frog legs</a>, <a href="/facts/Cocoa_solids/ew1SrzP7">cocoa solids</a>, bitter and semi-bitter <a href="/facts/Chocolate/4drs8ryf">chocolate</a>, <a href="/facts/Seaweed/thLwLBk8">seaweed</a>, <a href="/facts/Fungi/BHo5DP59">fungi</a> and <a href="/facts/Algae/U1ftVKU3">algae</a> products. However, grains, vegetables, and starchy roots and tubers are consumed in much greater quantity in the U.S., and are the source of the greatest dietary exposure there.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109"><sup>109</sup></a> Most plants bio-accumulate metal toxins such as cadmium and when composted to form organic fertilizers, yield a product that often can contain high amounts (e.g., over 0.5 mg) of metal toxins for every kilogram of fertilizer. Fertilizers made from animal dung (e.g., cow dung) or urban waste can contain similar amounts of cadmium. The cadmium added to the soil from fertilizers (rock phosphates or organic fertilizers) become bio-available and toxic only if the <a href="/facts/Soil_pH/D9G9ChcT">soil pH</a> is low (i.e., acidic soils). In the European Union, an analysis of almost 22,000 topsoil samples with LUCAS survey concluded that 5.5% of samples have concentrations higher than 1 mg kg−1.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:110" href="#fn:110"><sup>110</sup></a> </p><p>Zinc, copper, calcium, and iron ions, and selenium with vitamin C are used to treat cadmium intoxication, although it is not easily reversed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:111" href="#fn:111"><sup>111</sup></a> </p> <h3>Regulations</h3> <p>Because of the adverse effects of cadmium on the environment and human health, the supply and use of cadmium is restricted in Europe under the <a href="/facts/Registration,_Evaluation,_Authorisation_and_Restriction_of_Chemicals/xzQp2nKs">REACH Regulation</a>. </p><p>The EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain specifies that 2.5 μg/kg body weight is a tolerable weekly intake for humans.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:112" href="#fn:112"><sup>112</sup></a> The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives has declared 7 μg/kg body weight to be the provisional tolerable weekly intake level.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:113" href="#fn:113"><sup>113</sup></a> The state of <a href="/facts/California/zLW2vdQJ">California</a> requires a food label to carry a warning about potential exposure to cadmium on products such as cocoa powder.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:114" href="#fn:114"><sup>114</sup></a> The European Commission has put in place the EU regulation (2019/1009) on fertilizing products (EU, 2019), adopted in June 2019 and fully applicable as of July 2022. It sets a Cd limit value in phosphate fertilizers to 60 mg kg−1 of P2O5. </p><p>The U.S. <a href="/facts/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Administration/dCGbW5Ax">Occupational Safety and Health Administration</a> (OSHA) has set the <a href="/facts/Permissible_exposure_limit/IrQeETWy">permissible exposure limit</a> (PEL) for cadmium at a time-weighted average (TWA) of 0.005 ppm. The <a href="/facts/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health/5WjdDNMN">National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health</a> (NIOSH) has not set a <a href="/facts/Recommended_exposure_limit/nexWYeNv">recommended exposure limit</a> (REL) and has designated cadmium as a known human carcinogen. The <a href="/facts/IDLH/ektUbSdQ">IDLH</a> (immediately dangerous to life and health) level for cadmium is 9 mg/m3.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:115" href="#fn:115"><sup>115</sup></a> </p> <table><tbody><tr><th>Lethal dose<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:116" href="#fn:116"><sup>116</sup></a></th><th>Organism</th><th>Route</th><th>Time</th></tr><tr><td>LD50: 225 mg/kg</td><td>rat</td><td>oral</td><td>n/a</td></tr><tr><td>LD50: 890 mg/kg</td><td>mouse</td><td>oral</td><td>n/a</td></tr><tr><td>LC50: 25 mg/m3</td><td>rat</td><td>airborne</td><td>30 min</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In addition to mercury, the presence of cadmium in some <a href="/facts/Nickel%E2%80%93cadmium_battery/JTbx4bcB">batteries</a> has led to the requirement of proper disposal (or recycling) of batteries. </p> <h3>Product recalls</h3> <p>In May 2006, a sale of the seats from <a href="/facts/Arsenal_F.C./pubabvB0">Arsenal F.C.</a>'s old stadium, <a href="/facts/Arsenal_Stadium/D7zqUowf">Highbury</a> in London, England was cancelled when the seats were discovered to contain trace amounts of cadmium.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:117" href="#fn:117"><sup>117</sup></a> Reports of high levels of cadmium use in children's jewelry in 2010 led to a US <a href="/facts/Consumer_Product_Safety_Commission/cun9ftPD">Consumer Product Safety Commission</a> investigation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:118" href="#fn:118"><sup>118</sup></a> The U.S. CPSC issued specific recall notices for cadmium content in jewelry sold by <a href="/facts/Claire%27s/mkQ0jfEx">Claire's</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:119" href="#fn:119"><sup>119</sup></a> and <a href="/facts/Wal-Mart/E6dPQV2m">Wal-Mart</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:120" href="#fn:120"><sup>120</sup></a> stores. </p><p>In June 2010, <a href="/facts/McDonald%27s/Assda4qC">McDonald's</a> voluntarily recalled more than 12 million promotional <i><a href="/facts/Shrek_Forever_After/auyshInh">Shrek Forever After 3D</a></i> Collectible Drinking Glasses because of the cadmium levels in paint pigments on the glassware.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:121" href="#fn:121"><sup>121</sup></a> The glasses were manufactured by <a href="/facts/Arc_International_(tableware)/Qx6aQ5bs">Arc International</a>, of <a href="/facts/Millville,_New_Jersey/dECA1tTa">Millville, New Jersey</a>, USA.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:122" href="#fn:122"><sup>122</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Red_List_building_materials/kFH1qRLU">Red List building materials</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Toxic_heavy_metal/2VRBFJVm">Toxic heavy metal</a></li></ul> <h2 id="notes">Notes</h2> <h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2> <ul><li>Hartwig, Andrea (2013). "Cadmium and Cancer". In Astrid Sigel; Helmut Sigel; Roland K. O. Sigel (eds.). <i>Cadmium: From Toxicity to Essentiality</i>. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 11. Springer. pp. 491–507. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-007-5179-8_15">10.1007/978-94-007-5179-8_15</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-94-007-5178-1. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23430782">23430782</a>.</li> <li>Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) (2012). Toxicological Profile for Cadmium. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service. <a href="https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp5.pdf">https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp5.pdf</a></li> <li>Nordberg, Gunnar F. (2007). <i>Handbook on the toxicology of metals</i> (3rd ed.). Academic Press. pp. 445–486. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-12-369413-3.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> Look up <i>cadmium</i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cadmium. <a href="/facts/Wikisource/TrMdylNf">Wikisource</a> has the text of the <a href="/facts/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition/mPElbCRY">1911 <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i></a> article "Cadmium". <ul><li><a href="http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/048.htm">Cadmium</a> at <i><a href="/facts/The_Periodic_Table_of_Videos/vC5kbN0M">The Periodic Table of Videos</a></i> (University of Nottingham)</li> <li><a href="https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/csem.asp?csem=6&po=0">ATSDR Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Cadmium Toxicity</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201218022238/https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/csem.asp?csem=6&po=0">Archived</a> 18 December 2020 at the <a href="/facts/Wayback_Machine/nmQ3a6JC">Wayback Machine</a> U.S. <a href="/facts/Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services/eS90vYmd">Department of Health and Human Services</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/Cadmium">National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health – Cadmium Page</a></li> <li><a href="https://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/search2/r?dbs+hsdb:@term+@na+@rel+cadmium,+elemental">NLM Hazardous Substances Databank – Cadmium, Elemental</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Morrow, H. (2010). "Cadmium and Cadmium Alloys". Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 1–36. doi:10.1002/0471238961.0301041303011818.a01.pub3. ISBN 978-0-471-23896-6. <a href="978-0-471-23896-6" target="_blank">978-0-471-23896-6</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, E.; Wiberg, Nils (1985). "Cadmium". Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie, 91–100 (in German). Walter de Gruyter. pp. 1056–1057. ISBN 978-3-11-007511-3. <a href="978-3-11-007511-3" target="_blank">978-3-11-007511-3</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>"Cadmium 3.2.6 Solubility". PubChem. Retrieved 25 November 2021. <a href="https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/cadmium#section=Solubility" target="_blank">https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/cadmium#section=Solubility</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>"Case Studies in Environmental Medicine (CSEM) Cadmium". Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Archived from the original on 6 June 2011. Retrieved 30 May 2011. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110606014211/http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/cadmium/cdcontents.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20110606014211/http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/csem/cadmium/cdcontents.html</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Cotton, F. A. (1999). "Survey of Transition-Metal Chemistry". Advanced Inorganic Chemistry (6th ed.). John Wiley and Sons. p. 633. 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