Transcription activator-like effector

<h2 id="function-in-plant-pathogenesis">Function in plant pathogenesis</h2>
<h3>Xanthomonas</h3>
Xanthomonas are Gram-negative bacteria that can infect a wide variety of plant species including pepper/capsicum, rice, citrus, cotton, tomato, and soybeans.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a> 
Some types of Xanthomonas cause localized leaf spot or leaf streak while others spread systemically and cause black rot or leaf blight disease. They inject a number of effector proteins, including TAL effectors, into the plant via their <a href="/facts/Type_three_secretion_system/WL4VW48e">type III secretion system</a>. TAL effectors have several motifs normally associated with eukaryotes including multiple nuclear localization signals and an acidic activation domain. When injected into plants, these proteins can enter the nucleus of the plant cell, bind plant promoter sequences, and activate transcription of plant genes that aid in bacterial infection.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a> Plants have developed a defense mechanism against type III effectors that includes R (resistance) genes triggered by these effectors. Some of these R genes appear to have evolved to contain TAL-effector binding sites similar to site in the intended target gene. This competition between pathogenic bacteria and the host plant has been hypothesized to account for the apparently malleable nature of the TAL effector DNA binding domain.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a>

Examples of Xanthomonas-crop pathosystems involving TALEs<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a><table><tbody><tr><th>X. species</th><th>victim crop</th></tr><tr><td>X. campestris pv. musacerum, X. vasicola pv. musacerum</td><td><a href="/facts/Banana/D6r2qPPq">banana</a> and <a href="/facts/Ensete/pJ7J94bY">ensete</a></td></tr><tr><td>X. axonopodis pv. phaseoli, <a href="/facts/Xanthomonas_axonopodis_pv._glycines/fEVzz5IU">X. axonopodis pv. glycines</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Common_bean/1Lozghuk">common bean</a> and <a href="/facts/Soybean/reNwxvo2">soybean</a></td></tr><tr><td>X. axonopodis pv. vignicola</td><td><a href="/facts/Cowpea/FRGaaWKt">cowpea</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Xanthomonas_campestris_pv._campestris/j0L3xJqz">X. campestris pv. campestris</a>, X. campestris pv. armoracieae</td><td>all <a href="/facts/Brassica/x0L32VGA">Brassica</a>s</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Xanthomonas_axonopodis_pv._manihotis/bY2K1zrI">X. axonopodis pv. manihotis</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Cassava/KvjKQDkV">cassava</a></td></tr><tr><td>X. translucens pv. translucens</td><td><a href="/facts/Barley/GH7X2qtG">barley</a>, <a href="/facts/Rye/LwdwSNcp">rye</a>, <a href="/facts/Wheat/lrk6HdV3">wheat</a>, <a href="/facts/Triticale/7wcvhVAL">triticale</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Xanthomonas_axonopodis_pv._citri/HNf7WRRo">X. axonopodis pv. citri</a>, <a href="/facts/Xanthomonas_citri/5v9QyelJ">X. citri</a>, X. citri pv. aurantifolii</td><td><a href="/facts/Citrus/6FqG38Dk">citrus</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Xanthomonas_campestris_pv._malvacearum/fEVzz5IU">X. campestris pv. malvacearum</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Cotton/efXRcjbn">cotton</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Xanthomonas_euvesicatoria/ec68ma8X">X. euvesicatoria</a>, <a href="/facts/Xanthomonas_gardneri/3meF29Hv">X. gardneri</a></td><td>pepper/<a href="/facts/Capsicum/oqoEFu4F">capsicum</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Xanthomonas_oryzae_pv._oryzae/cwGTSHwC">X. oryzae pv. oryzae</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Rice/wvL1hBCz">rice</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Xanthomonas_arboricola_pv._pruni/Mx4jqMfL">X. arboricola pv. pruni</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Plum/w05NWXGc">plum</a>, <a href="/facts/Peach/I7FLcBTU">peach</a>, <a href="/facts/Nectarine/I7FLcBTU">nectarine</a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Xanthomonas_perforans/muVvjw2P">X. perforans</a>, <a href="/facts/Xanthomonas_campestris_pv._vesicatoria/xxX6cwHY">X. campestris pv. vesicatoria</a></td><td><a href="/facts/Tomato/3d5Xsqw7">tomato</a></td></tr><tr><td>X. campestris pv. mangiferaindicae</td><td><a href="/facts/Mango/JxM1qusg">mango</a></td></tr><tr><td>X. arboricola pv. juglandis</td><td><a href="/facts/Walnut/lEkDbm8N">walnut</a></td></tr></tbody></table>
<h3>Non-Xanthomonas</h3>
R. solanacearum, B. rhizoxinica, and <a href="/facts/Banana_blood_disease/JFd8Xyjh">banana blood disease</a> (a bacterium not yet definitively identified, in the R. solanacearum species group).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a>

<h2 id="dna-recognition">DNA recognition</h2>

The most distinctive characteristic of TAL effectors is a central repeat domain containing between 1.5 and 33.5 repeats that are usually 34 residues in length (the C-terminal repeat is generally shorter and referred to as a “half repeat”).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a> A typical repeat sequence is LTPEQVVAIASHDGGKQALETVQRLLPVLCQAHG, but the residues at the 12th and 13th positions are hypervariable (these two amino acids are also known as the repeat variable diresidue or RVD). There is a simple relationship between the identity of these two residues in sequential repeats and sequential DNA bases in the TAL effector's target site.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a> The crystal structure of a TAL effector bound to DNA indicates that each repeat comprises two alpha helices and a short RVD-containing loop where the second residue of the RVD makes sequence-specific DNA contacts while the first residue of the RVD stabilizes the RVD-containing loop.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a> Target sites of TAL effectors also tend to include a thymine flanking the 5’ base targeted by the first repeat; this appears to be due to a contact between this T and a conserved <a href="/facts/Tryptophan/JcUxlxAh">tryptophan</a> in the region N-terminal of the central repeat domain.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a> However, this "zero" position does not always contain a thymine, as some scaffolds are more permissive.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a>
The TAL-DNA code was broken by two separate groups in 2010.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a> The first group, headed by <a href="/facts/Adam_Bogdanove/7Frc6T7f">Adam Bogdanove</a>, broke this code computationally by searching for patterns in protein sequence alignments and DNA sequences of target promoters derived from a database of genes upregulated by TALEs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a> The second group (Boch) deduced the code through molecular analysis of the TAL effector AvrBs3 and its target DNA sequence in the promoter of a pepper gene activated by AvrBs3.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a> The experimentally validated code between RVD sequence and target DNA base can be expressed as follows:

TAL base recognition<table><tbody><tr><th>Residue</th><th>Base</th><th>Notes</th><th>References</th></tr><tr><td>NI</td><td>A</td><td></td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a></td></tr><tr><td>HD</td><td>C</td><td>Not 5-methyl-C</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a></td></tr><tr><td>NG</td><td>T, 5mC</td><td></td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a></td></tr><tr><td>NN</td><td>R</td><td>Purine: G or A</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a></td></tr><tr><td>NS</td><td>N</td><td>Any</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a></td></tr><tr><td>NK</td><td>G</td><td>Reduced <a href="/facts/Transcription_Activator-Like_Effector_Nuclease/muonqIIx">TALEN</a> activity if used exclusively</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31">31</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32">32</a></td></tr><tr><td>NH</td><td>G</td><td></td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33">33</a></td></tr></tbody></table>
<h2 id="target-genes">Target genes</h2>
TAL effectors can induce susceptibility genes that are members of the NODULIN3 (N3) gene family. These genes are essential for the development of the disease. In rice two genes, Os-8N3 and Os-11N3, are induced by TAL effectors. Os-8N3 is induced by PthXo1 and Os-11N3 is induced by PthXo3 and AvrXa7.
Two hypotheses exist about possible functions for N3 proteins:

<ul><li>They are involved in copper transport, resulting in detoxification of the environment for bacteria. The reduction in copper level facilitates bacterial growth.</li>
<li>They are involved in glucose transport, facilitating glucose flow. This mechanism provides nutrients to bacteria and stimulates pathogen growth and virulence </li></ul>
<h2 id="engineering-tal-effectors">Engineering TAL effectors</h2>
This simple correspondence between amino acids in TAL effectors and DNA bases in their target sites makes them useful for protein engineering applications. Numerous groups have designed artificial TAL effectors capable of recognizing new DNA sequences in a variety of experimental systems.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34">34</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35">35</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36">36</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37">37</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38">38</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39">39</a> Such engineered TAL effectors have been used to create artificial transcription factors that can be used to target and activate or repress <a href="/facts/Endogenous/DFkSLkRI">endogenous</a> genes in <a href="/facts/Tomato/3d5Xsqw7">tomato</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40">40</a> <a href="/facts/Arabidopsis_thaliana/wt2IMJsC">Arabidopsis thaliana</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41">41</a> and human cells.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42">42</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43">43</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44">44</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45">45</a>
Genetic constructs to encode TAL effector-based proteins can be made using either conventional <a href="/facts/Artificial_gene_synthesis/ELoepoLA">gene synthesis</a> or modular assembly.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46">46</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47">47</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48">48</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49">49</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50">50</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51">51</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52">52</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53">53</a> A <a href="http://www.addgene.org/talen/">plasmid kit</a> for assembling custom TALEN and other TAL effector constructs is available through the public, not-for-profit repository <a href="/facts/Addgene/DcVpNvlL">Addgene</a>. Webpages providing access to public software, protocols, and other resources for TAL effector-DNA targeting applications include the <a href="http://boglabx.plp.iastate.edu/TALENT/">TAL Effector-Nucleotide Targeter</a> and <a href="http://www.taleffectors.com">taleffectors.com</a>.

<h2 id="applications">Applications</h2>
Engineered TAL effectors can also be fused to the cleavage domain of <a href="/facts/FokI/qyL5Sulu">FokI</a> to create <a href="/facts/Transcription_Activator-Like_Effector_Nuclease/muonqIIx">TAL effector nucleases (TALEN)</a> or to <a href="/facts/Meganuclease/1TGsTyQM">meganucleases</a> (nucleases with longer recognition sites) to create "megaTALs."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54">54</a> Such fusions share some properties with <a href="/facts/Zinc_finger_nucleases/f8LDUsT7">zinc finger nucleases</a> and may be useful for <a href="/facts/Genetic_engineering/vwdlDR61">genetic engineering</a> and <a href="/facts/Gene_therapy/CaxRLfKM">gene therapy</a> applications.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55">55</a>
TALEN-based approaches are used in the emerging fields of <a href="/facts/Genome_editing/NX2XDX4P">gene editing</a> and <a href="/facts/Genome_engineering/NX2XDX4P">genome engineering</a>. TALEN fusions show activity in a yeast-based assay,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56">56</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57">57</a> at endogenous yeast genes,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58">58</a> in a plant reporter assay,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59">59</a> at an endogenous plant gene,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60">60</a> at endogenous <a href="/facts/Zebrafish/Nxg1F1mG">zebrafish</a> genes,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61">61</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62">62</a> at an endogenous <a href="/facts/Rat/5rn6uEKM">rat</a> gene,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63">63</a> and at endogenous human genes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64">64</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65">65</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66">66</a> The human <a href="/facts/HPRT/HHAu0uF1">HPRT1</a> gene has been targeted at detectable, but unquantified levels.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67">67</a> In addition, TALEN constructs containing the FokI cleavage domain fused to a smaller portion of the TAL effector still containing the <a href="/facts/DNA_binding_domain/x2vlHUKl">DNA binding domain</a> have been used to target the endogenous <a href="/facts/NTF3/gED8r8C9">NTF3</a> and <a href="/facts/CCR5/Ya83LIg8">CCR5</a> genes in human cells with efficiencies of up to 25%.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68">68</a> TAL effector nucleases have also been used to engineer human <a href="/facts/Embryonic_stem_cell/P1n1eS1p">embryonic stem cells</a> and <a href="/facts/Induced_Pluripotent_Stem_Cell/bGItax29">induced pluripotent stem cells</a> (IPSCs)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69">69</a> and to knock out the endogenous ben-1 gene in <a href="/facts/Caenorhabditis_elegans/XJVJzPn2">C. elegans</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70">70</a>
TALE-induced <a href="/facts/Non-homologous_end_joining/xvHqwBPt">non-homologous end joining</a> modification has been used to produce novel disease resistance in rice.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71">71</a>

<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/DNA-binding_protein/HEMm9eDX">DNA-binding protein</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/DNA_binding_domain/x2vlHUKl">DNA binding domain</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Sequence_motif/RtcoysBD">Sequence motif</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/TALE-likes/fm2eqdFA">TALE-likes</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Zinc_finger/dWrlw4t7">Zinc finger</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Zinc_finger_nuclease/f8LDUsT7">Zinc finger nuclease</a></li></ul>

<h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2>

<ul><li>Schornack S, Boch J (2010). <a href="http://issuu.com/scisoc/docs/reporter1001?mode=embed&layout=http://skin.issuu.com/v/light/layout.xml&showFlipBtn=true">"Unraveling a 20-year enigma"</a>. IS-MPMI Reporter (1). International Society for Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions: 3–4.</li>
<li>Goodsell D (December 2014). <a href="https://pdb101.rcsb.org/motm/180">"TAL Effectors"</a>. Protein Data Bank (PDB) Molecule of the Month. Research Collaboratory for Structural Bioinformatics (RCSB). <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2210%2Frcsb_pdb%2Fmom_2014_12">10.2210/rcsb_pdb/mom_2014_12</a>.</li></ul>

<h2 id="external-links">External links</h2>
<ul><li><a href="http://www.TALengineering.org">"A comprehensive, publicly available resource for engineered TAL effector technology"</a>. TALengineering.org.</li>
<li><a href="https://groups.google.com/group/talengineering">"TALengineering newsgroup"</a>. Newsgroup for discussion of engineered TAL effector technology</li>
<li><a href="http://www.taleffectors.com/">"An open resource for TAL effector constructs"</a>. www.taleffectors.com.</li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">Schornack S, Moscou MJ, Ward ER, Horvath DM (2013-08-04). "Engineering plant disease resistance based on TAL effectors". Annual Review of Phytopathology. 51 (1). Annual Reviews: 383–406. doi:10.1146/annurev-phyto-082712-102255. PMID 23725472. <a href="/wiki/Diana_Horvath" target="_blank">/wiki/Diana_Horvath</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">Deng, Dong; Yan, Chuangye; Pan, Xiaojing; Mahfouz, Magdy; Wang, Jiawei; Zhu, Jian-Kang; Shi, Yigong; Yan, Nieng (2012-02-10). "Structural basis for sequence-specific recognition of DNA by TAL effectors". Science. 335 (6069): 720–723. Bibcode:2012Sci...335..720D. doi:10.1126/science.1215670. ISSN 1095-9203. PMC 3586824. PMID 22223738. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3586824" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3586824</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">Deng, Dong; Yan, Chuangye; Pan, Xiaojing; Mahfouz, Magdy; Wang, Jiawei; Zhu, Jian-Kang; Shi, Yigong; Yan, Nieng (2012-02-10). "Structural basis for sequence-specific recognition of DNA by TAL effectors". Science. 335 (6069): 720–723. Bibcode:2012Sci...335..720D. doi:10.1126/science.1215670. ISSN 1095-9203. PMC 3586824. PMID 22223738. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3586824" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3586824</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">Deng, Dong; Yan, Chuangye; Pan, Xiaojing; Mahfouz, Magdy; Wang, Jiawei; Zhu, Jian-Kang; Shi, Yigong; Yan, Nieng (2012-02-10). "Structural basis for sequence-specific recognition of DNA by TAL effectors". Science. 335 (6069): 720–723. Bibcode:2012Sci...335..720D. doi:10.1126/science.1215670. ISSN 1095-9203. PMC 3586824. PMID 22223738. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3586824" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3586824</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">Heuer H, Yin YN, Xue QY, Smalla K, Guo JH (July 2007). "Repeat domain diversity of avrBs3-like genes in Ralstonia solanacearum strains and association with host preferences in the field". Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 73 (13): 4379–84. Bibcode:2007ApEnM..73.4379H. doi:10.1128/AEM.00367-07. PMC 1932761. PMID 17468277. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1932761" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1932761</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">Li L, Atef A, Piatek A, Ali Z, Piatek M, Aouida M, et al. (July 2013). "Characterization and DNA-binding specificities of Ralstonia TAL-like effectors". Molecular Plant. 6 (4): 1318–30. doi:10.1093/mp/sst006. PMC 3716395. PMID 23300258. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3716395" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3716395</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">Schornack S, Moscou MJ, Ward ER, Horvath DM (2013-08-04). "Engineering plant disease resistance based on TAL effectors". Annual Review of Phytopathology. 51 (1). Annual Reviews: 383–406. doi:10.1146/annurev-phyto-082712-102255. PMID 23725472. <a href="/wiki/Diana_Horvath" target="_blank">/wiki/Diana_Horvath</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">de Lange O, Wolf C, Dietze J, Elsaesser J, Morbitzer R, Lahaye T (June 2014). "Programmable DNA-binding proteins from Burkholderia provide a fresh perspective on the TALE-like repeat domain". Nucleic Acids Research. 42 (11): 7436–49. doi:10.1093/nar/gku329. PMC 4066763. PMID 24792163. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4066763" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4066763</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">Schornack S, Moscou MJ, Ward ER, Horvath DM (2013-08-04). "Engineering plant disease resistance based on TAL effectors". Annual Review of Phytopathology. 51 (1). Annual Reviews: 383–406. doi:10.1146/annurev-phyto-082712-102255. PMID 23725472. <a href="/wiki/Diana_Horvath" target="_blank">/wiki/Diana_Horvath</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">de Lange O, Wolf C, Thiel P, Krüger J, Kleusch C, Kohlbacher O, Lahaye T (November 2015). "DNA-binding proteins from marine bacteria expand the known sequence diversity of TALE-like repeats". Nucleic Acids Research. 43 (20): 10065–80. doi:10.1093/nar/gkv1053. PMC 4787788. PMID 26481363. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4787788" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4787788</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">Boch J, Bonas U (September 2010). "Xanthomonas AvrBs3 family-type III effectors: discovery and function". Annual Review of Phytopathology. 48: 419–36. doi:10.1146/annurev-phyto-080508-081936. PMID 19400638. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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</ol>

Transcription activator-like effector open-in-new

Transcription activator-like effector