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Tasu'a
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<h2 id="significance-in-shia-islam">Significance in Shia Islam</h2> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Battle_of_Karbala/vwouBjKH">Battle of Karbala</a>, <a href="/facts/Ashura/0P9vAW6t">Ashura</a>, and <a href="/facts/Mourning_of_Muharram/5tz2Agzz">Mourning of Muharram § Significance</a></p> <p>Tasu'a is the ninth day of <a href="/facts/Muharram/rErd6zNY">Muharram</a>, the first month of the <a href="/facts/Islamic_calendar/7n4UBAYy">Islamic calendar</a>, a month in which fighting has been forbidden since before the advent of <a href="/facts/Islam/zDLbL45C">Islam</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1"><sup>1</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a> Tasu'a is followed by <a href="/facts/Ashura/0P9vAW6t">Ashura</a>, tenth of Muharram, which marks the death of <a href="/facts/Husayn_ibn_Ali/hXoUh3Pe">Husayn ibn Ali</a>, grandson of the <a href="/facts/Prophets_and_messengers_in_Islam/WPWy6Gdp">Islamic prophet</a> <a href="/facts/Muhammad/5VcA7XrT">Muhammad</a> and the third <a href="/facts/Imamate_in_Shia_doctrine/yEI8zlDR">Shia imam</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> Husayn was killed, alongside most of his male relatives and his small retinue, on 10 Muharram 61 <a href="/facts/Islamic_calendar/7n4UBAYy">AH</a> (10 October 680 <a href="/facts/Common_Era/e5DpqUoe">CE</a>) in the <a href="/facts/Battle_of_Karbala/vwouBjKH">Battle of Karbala</a> against the army of the Umayyad caliph <a href="/facts/Yazid_I/RyxVlc5w">Yazid ibn Mu'awiya</a> (r. 680–683), having been surrounded for some days and deprived of the drinking water of the nearby <a href="/facts/Euphrates/RbCk68gt">Euphrates</a> river. After the battle, the women and children in Husayn's camp were taken prisoner and marched to the Umayyad capital <a href="/facts/Damascus/IL0Qwt6R">Damascus</a> in <a href="/facts/Syria/7pDXGzq8">Syria</a>. The battle followed failed negotiations and Husayn's refusal to pledge his allegiance to Yazid, who is often portrayed by <a href="/facts/Muslims/W2ukq4pg">Muslim</a> historians as impious and immoral.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> The fight took place in the desert land of <a href="/facts/Karbala/W9d65tKW">Karbala</a>, en route to the nearby <a href="/facts/Kufa/Mce6seyF">Kufa</a>, whose residents had invited Husayn to lead them against Yazid.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> </p><p>In <a href="/facts/Shia_Islam/JIQl7ooz">Shia Islam</a>, Karbala symbolizes the eternal struggle between good and evil,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> the pinnacle of self-sacrifice,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> and the ultimate sabotage of Muhammad's prophetic mission.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> Historically, the event served to crystallize the Shia community into a distinct sect and remains an integral part of their religious identity to date.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> The first ten days of Muharram, including Tasu'a and Ashura, are days of mourning for Shia Muslims.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> On the one hand, Shia mourners share in the pain of Husayn and hope to benefit from his intercession on the <a href="/facts/Judgement_Day_in_Islam/nIKjMVVD">Day of Judgement</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> On the other, the Shia minority views mourning for Husayn as an act of protest against oppression, a struggle for God (<i><a href="/facts/Jihad/DerLM18J">jihad</a></i>), and as such an act of worship.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="events-of-tasua">Events of Tasu'a</h2> <p>Following failed negotiations, the Umayyad army attacked the camp of Husayn in the afternoon of Tasu'a. As the Umayyad army approached, however, Husayn dispatched his half-brother <a href="/facts/Abbas_ibn_Ali/9mk6WbrH">Abbas ibn Ali</a> and some companions, who convinced the enemy commander <a href="/facts/Umar_ibn_Sa%27d/9oRLnCtD">Umar ibn Sa'd</a> (d. 686) to delay the confrontation until the following day.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> Husayn then besieged his followers in a speech to leave and not risk their lives, after which Abbas was the first to renew his support.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> Nearly all those present stayed with Husayn until the end.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> By most accounts, Husayn and his men spent that night praying and reading the <a href="/facts/Quran/39rkStko">Quran</a>, the central religious text of <a href="/facts/Islam/zDLbL45C">Islam</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> On this night, Husayn's sister <a href="/facts/Zaynab_bint_Ali/0tynGnt4">Zaynab</a> is said to have reminded her half-brother Abbas of their father's wish for the latter to be the reserves of Karbala, and to be to Husayn as Ali was to Muhammad. This Abbas confirmed and swore to do.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> There is a report by the Shia historian <a href="/facts/Sayyed_Ibn_Tawus/fBYSpCaE">Ibn Tawus</a> (d. 1266) that Abbas was killed on Tasu'a in a failed sally to bring water for the thirsty camp.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> Most sources, however, place his death on Ashura.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> </p><p>The Umayyad officer <a href="/facts/Shimr_ibn_Dhi_%27l-Jawshan/2JRvQcn6">Shamir ibn Dhi al-Jawshan</a> had earlier acquired safe passage for Abbas ibn Ali and his three (full) brothers from <a href="/facts/Ubayd_Allah_ibn_Ziyad/HbWcKIKt">Ibn Ziyad</a> (d. 686), the Umayyad governor of Kufa. Shamir did so perhaps because he was also a member of the <a href="/facts/Banu_Kilab/m2H80Rpo">Banu Kilab</a> tribe, to which Abbas' mother belonged. Ibn Ziyad's letter of protection was then sent to Abbas and his brothers, who refused it. Shamir extended the same offer on Tasu'a, but Abbas and his brothers remained defiant.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="mourning-rituals">Mourning rituals</h2> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Mourning_of_Muharram/5tz2Agzz">Mourning of Muharram § Muharram rituals in Shia Islam</a></p> <p>In addition to pilgrimage to the <a href="/facts/Imam_Husayn_Shrine/JowaCsT9">shrine of Husayn</a>, located in Karbala, <a href="/facts/Iraq/pqYSFJw8">Iraq</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> Shia Muslims annually commemorate the events of Karbala throughout the months of Muharram and <a href="/facts/Safar/r44lWPUg">Safar</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> Most rituals take place during the first ten days of Muharram, culminating on Ashura with processions in major Shia cities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> The main component of ritual ceremonies (<i>majalis</i>, sg. <i>majlis</i>) is the narration of the stories of Karbala (<i><a href="/facts/Rawda_Khwani/u3NRellq">rawza-khwani</a></i>, <i>qiraya</i>),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> and the recitation of rhythmic elegies and dirges (<i><a href="/facts/Noha/de2aSUAU">nawha</a></i>, <i>niyaha</i>, <i>marsia-khwani</i>),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> all intended to raise the sympathy of audience and move them to tears.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> A <i>majlis</i> often takes place in a dedicated building or structure, known variously as <i><a href="/facts/Hussainiya/6vvo4blH">Husayniya</a></i>, <i>takiya</i>, <i>imambarah</i>, or <i>azakhana</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> Another component of mourning gatherings is the self-flagellation of participants to the rhythm of Karbala elegies.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> Rooted in ancient <a href="/facts/Arabs/E77duPsg">Arab</a> practices,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> mild forms of self-flagellation, striking one's face and chest in grief (<i>latm</i>, <i>sina-zani</i>, <i>matam</i>),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a> are common today in Shia communities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a> But there are also extreme forms of self-flagellation (<i><a href="/facts/Tatbir/D91opTuB">tatbir</a></i>, <i>tiq-zani</i>, <i>qama-zani</i>), in which the participants strike themselves, usually on the forehead or back, with knives, swords, or chains to which razor blades are attached.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a> Banned in <a href="/facts/Iran/24yukge8">Iran</a> and the Shia communities of <a href="/facts/Lebanon/2dReTXyp">Lebanon</a> since the mid-90s,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a> instrumental self-flagellation has been condemned by many Shia clerics,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a> and it remains an often controversial practice among the Shia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a> </p><p>Another mourning ritual is the dramatic reenactment of Karbala narratives (<i><a href="/facts/Ta%27zieh/TgJbm2bx">ta'ziya</a></i>, <i>shabih-khwani</i>), practiced today in Iran, in the western <a href="/facts/Persian_Gulf/W78AfnC1">Gulf</a> shore, and in Lebanon.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a> On Tasu'a, often such plays are dedicated to Abbas ibn Ali, Husayn's half-brother and his standard-bearer in the Battle of Karbala.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a> During Muharram, especially on Ashura,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a> processions of mourners (<i>dasta</i>, <i>mawkib</i>) march the streets,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a> chanting dirges and elegies,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a> sometimes accompanied by self-flagellation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a> For instance, in <a href="/facts/Najaf/nxEhIJs0">Najaf</a>, Iraq, mourners march in the evening of Tasu'a toward the shrine of <a href="/facts/Ali/YwM7b73C">Ali ibn Abi Talib</a>, the first Shia imam, while carrying decorative torches.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a> Depending on the region, processions also carry symbolic objects, such as <i><a href="/facts/Alam_(finial)/NMACsXjX">alam</a></i> (lit. 'flag'),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a> <i><a href="/facts/Nakhl_Gardani/NDgfVQDe">nakhl</a></i> (lit. 'date palm'),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a> <i>ta'ziya</i>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a> and <i>tadjah.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a></i> <i>Alam</i> represents the ensign of Husayn in Karbala,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a> while the last three objects symbolize his bier or tomb.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Mourning_of_Muharram/5tz2Agzz">Mourning of Muharram</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Arba%27een/Trjmx79V">Arba'een</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Ashura/0P9vAW6t">Ashura</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Battle_of_Karbala/vwouBjKH">Battle of Karbala</a></li></ul> <h2 id="footnotes">Footnotes</h2> <ul><li>Aghaie, K.S. (2004). <a href="https://archive.org/details/martyrsofkarbala0000agha/mode/2up"><i>The Martyrs of Karbala: Shi'i Symbols and Rituals in Modern Iran</i></a>. University of Washington Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-295-98455-4.</li> <li>Aghaie, K.S. (2007). <a href="https://archive.org/details/voicesofislam0000unse_r7b1/page/110/mode/2up">"The Passion of 'Ashura in Shiite Islam"</a>. In Cornell, V.J. (ed.). <a href="https://archive.org/details/voicesofislam0000unse_r7b1/mode/2up"><i>Voices of Islam</i></a>. Vol. 2. Praeger. pp. 111–124. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-275-98734-3.</li> <li>Aghaie, K.S. (2013). "'Āshūrā' (Shī'ism)". In Fleet, K.; Krämer, G.; Matringe, D.; Nawas, J.; Stewart, D.J. (eds.). <i>Encyclopaedia of Islam</i> (Third ed.). <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_ei3_COM_23855">10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_23855</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-90-04-25268-4.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Mahmoud_M._Ayoub/nBYINyot">Ayoub, M.M.</a> (1978). <i>Redemptive Suffering in Islam: A Study of the Devotional Aspects of Ashura in Twelver Shi'ism</i>. De Gruyter. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-90-279-7943-8.</li> <li>Ayoub, M.M.; Browne, E.G.; Chelkowski, P.; al-Mufid (1988). "Shi'i Literature". In <a href="/facts/Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr/zUGNtq7v">Nasr, S.H.</a>; <a href="/facts/Hamid_Dabashi/WmClMgr1">Dabashi, H.</a>; <a href="/facts/Seyyed_Vali_Reza_Nasr/FnLDcSD9">Nasr, S.V.R</a> (eds.). <a href="https://archive.org/details/shiismdoctrinest0000unse/mode/2up"><i>Shi'ism: Doctrines, Thought, and Spirituality</i></a>. State University of New York Press, Albany. pp. 312–329. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-88706-690-9.</li> <li>Bahramian, A.; Bulookbashi, A.A. (2015). "Al-'Abbās b. 'Alī". In Madelung, W.; Daftary, F. (eds.). <i>Encyclopaedia Islamica</i>. Translated by Negahban, F. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1875-9831_isla_COM_0009">10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_0009</a>.</li> <li>Beverley, J.A. (2011). <a href="https://archive.org/details/ReligiousCelebrations/mode/2up?q=ashura">"Ashura"</a>. In Gordon Melton, J. (ed.). <i>Religious Celebrations: An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations</i>. ABC-CLIO. pp. 47–49. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-59884-205-0.</li> <li>Blank, J. (2001). <i>Mullahs on the Mainframe: Islam and Modernity Among the Daudi Bohras</i>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-226-05676-0.</li> <li>Calmard, J. (1982). <a href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abbas-b-ali-b-abu-taleb">"'Abbās b. 'Alī b. Abū Ṭāleb"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia Iranica</i>. Vol. I/1. pp. 77–79.</li> <li>Calmard, J. (1987). <a href="https://iranicaonline.org/articles/azadari">"'Azādārī"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia Iranica</i>. Vol. III/2. pp. 174–177.</li> <li>Calmard, J. (2004). <a href="https://iranicaonline.org/articles/hosayn-b-ali-ii">"Ḥosayn b. 'Ali ii. In Popular Shi'ism"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia Iranica</i>. Vol. XII/5. pp. 498–502.</li> <li>Calmard, J.; Allan, J.W. (1985). <a href="https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/alam-va-alamat-ar">"'Alam va 'Alāmat"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia Iranica</i>. Vol. I/8. pp. 785–791.</li> <li>Campo, J.E., ed. (2009). <a href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopedia-of-islam_202006/page/318/mode/2up">"Husayniyya"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia of Islam</i>. Facts on File. pp. 319–321. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-8160-5454-1.</li> <li>Chelkowski, P. (1985). "Shia Muslim Processional Performances". <i>The Drama Review: TDR</i>. 29/3 (3): 18–30. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1145650">10.2307/1145650</a>. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1145650">1145650</a>.</li> <li>Chelkowski, P. (2012a). "Ta'ziya". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). <i>Encyclopaedia of Islam</i> (Second ed.). <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_SIM_7476">10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_7476</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-90-04-16121-4.</li> <li>Chelkowski, P. (2012b). "Rawḍa-Ḵẖwānī". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). <i>Encyclopedia of Islam</i> (Second ed.). <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_SIM_6256">10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_6256</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-90-04-16121-4.</li> <li>Crow, D.K. (2016). "The Death of al-Ḥusayn b. 'Ali and Early Shī'ī Views of the Imamate". In Kohlberg, E. (ed.). <i>Shi'ism</i>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-351-90028-7.</li> <li>D'Souza, D. (1998). "The Figure of Zaynab in Shi'i Devotional Life". In Singh, D.E. (ed.). <a href="https://www.academia.edu/32233803"><i>Spiritual Traditions: Essential Visions for Living</i></a>. United Theological College. pp. 201–225. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-81-7214-461-6.</li> <li>Fakhr-Rohani, M.R. (2014). <a href="https://archive.org/details/islamicimageside0000unse/page/228/mode/2up">"Ashura"</a>. In Morrow, J.A. (ed.). <i>Islamic Images and Ideas: Essays on Sacred Symbolism</i>. McFarland & Company. pp. 228–250. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-7864-5848-6.</li> <li>Flaskerud, I. (2015). "Flagellation". In Fleet, K.; Krämer, G.; Matringe, D.; Nawas, J.; Stewart, D.J. (eds.). <i>Encyclopaedia of Islam</i> (Third ed.). <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_ei3_COM_27156">10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_27156</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-90-04-28211-7.</li> <li>Hussain, A.J. (2005). <a href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/185346">"The Mourning of History and the History of Mourning: The Evolution of Ritual Commemoration of the Battle of Karbala"</a>. <i>Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East</i>. 25 (1): 78–88. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1215%2F1089201X-25-1-78">10.1215/1089201X-25-1-78</a>.</li> <li>Hyder, S.A. 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"Community Process and the Performance of Muharram Observances in Trinidad". <i>The Drama Review</i>. 38 (2): 150–75. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1146338">10.2307/1146338</a>. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1146338">1146338</a>.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Wilferd_Madelung/JegKSvsl">Madelung, W.</a> (2004). <a href="https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hosayn-b-ali-i">"Ḥosayn b. 'Ali i. Life and Significance in Shi'ism"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia Iranica</i>. Vol. XII/5. pp. 493–498.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Moojan_Momen/NG5Mpean">Momen, M.</a> (1985). <i>An Introduction to Shi'i Islam</i>. Yale University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-300-03531-5.</li> <li>Munson, H. (1988). <a href="https://archive.org/details/islamrevolutioni00muns/mode/2up"><i>Islam and Revolution in the Middle East</i></a>. 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(ed.). <i>Women in the Medieval Islamic World: Power, Patronage, and Piety</i>. Macmillan. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-333-80035-5.</li> <li>Plessner, M. (2012). "al-Muḥarram". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). <i>Encyclopaedia of Islam</i> (Second ed.). <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_SIM_5426">10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_5426</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-90-04-16121-4.</li> <li>Sindawi, K. (2002). <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/25802958.pdf">"The Image of Ḥusayn ibn 'Alī in <i> Maqātil</i> Literature"</a> (PDF). <i>Quaderni di Studi Arabi</i>. 20/21: 79–104. <a href="/facts/JSTOR_(identifier)/YTeVmaJ7">JSTOR</a> <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25802958">25802958</a>.</li> <li>Szanto, E. 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State University of New York Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-87395-390-8.</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Fakhr-Rohani 2014, p. 228. - Fakhr-Rohani, M.R. (2014). "Ashura". In Morrow, J.A. (ed.). Islamic Images and Ideas: Essays on Sacred Symbolism. McFarland & Company. pp. 228–250. ISBN 978-0-7864-5848-6. <a href="https://archive.org/details/islamicimageside0000unse/page/228/mode/2up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/islamicimageside0000unse/page/228/mode/2up</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Plessner 2012. - Plessner, M. (2012). "al-Muḥarram". In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (Second ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_5426. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_SIM_5426" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_SIM_5426</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Aghaie 2013. - Aghaie, K.S. (2013). "'Āshūrā' (Shī'ism)". In Fleet, K.; Krämer, G.; Matringe, D.; Nawas, J.; Stewart, D.J. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (Third ed.). doi:10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_23855. ISBN 978-90-04-25268-4. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_ei3_COM_23855" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_ei3_COM_23855</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Momen 1985, p. 28. - Momen, M. (1985). An Introduction to Shi'i Islam. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-03531-5. <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Pinault 2000, p. 70. - Pinault, D. (2000). "Zaynab bin 'Ali and the Place of the Women of the Households of the First Imāms in Shī'īte Devotional Literature". In Hambly, G. (ed.). Women in the Medieval Islamic World: Power, Patronage, and Piety. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-80035-5. <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Aghaie 2007, p. 117. - Aghaie, K.S. (2007). "The Passion of 'Ashura in Shiite Islam". In Cornell, V.J. (ed.). Voices of Islam. Vol. 2. Praeger. pp. 111–124. ISBN 978-0-275-98734-3. <a href="https://archive.org/details/voicesofislam0000unse_r7b1/page/110/mode/2up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/voicesofislam0000unse_r7b1/page/110/mode/2up</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Madelung 2004. - Madelung, W. (2004). "Ḥosayn b. 'Ali i. Life and Significance in Shi'ism". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. XII/5. pp. 493–498. <a href="https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hosayn-b-ali-i" target="_blank">https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hosayn-b-ali-i</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Aghaie 2004, p. 9. - Aghaie, K.S. (2004). The Martyrs of Karbala: Shi'i Symbols and Rituals in Modern Iran. University of Washington Press. ISBN 0-295-98455-4. <a href="https://archive.org/details/martyrsofkarbala0000agha/mode/2up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/martyrsofkarbala0000agha/mode/2up</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Aghaie 2007, p. 112. - Aghaie, K.S. (2007). "The Passion of 'Ashura in Shiite Islam". In Cornell, V.J. (ed.). Voices of Islam. Vol. 2. Praeger. pp. 111–124. ISBN 978-0-275-98734-3. <a href="https://archive.org/details/voicesofislam0000unse_r7b1/page/110/mode/2up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/voicesofislam0000unse_r7b1/page/110/mode/2up</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Chelkowski 1985, p. 19. - Chelkowski, P. (1985). "Shia Muslim Processional Performances". The Drama Review: TDR. 29/3 (3): 18–30. doi:10.2307/1145650. JSTOR 1145650. <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1145650" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1145650</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Crow 2016. - Crow, D.K. (2016). "The Death of al-Ḥusayn b. 'Ali and Early Shī'ī Views of the Imamate". In Kohlberg, E. (ed.). Shi'ism. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-351-90028-7. <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Kennedy 2016, p. 77. - Kennedy, H. (2016). The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the Sixth to the Eleventh Century (Third ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-78761-2. <a href="https://archive.org/details/the-prophet-and-the-age-of-the-caliphates-the-islamic-near-east-from-the-sixth-t/mode/2up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/the-prophet-and-the-age-of-the-caliphates-the-islamic-near-east-from-the-sixth-t/mode/2up</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Hyder 2006, p. 9. - Hyder, S.A. (2006). Reliving Karbala: Martyrdom in South Asian Memory. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-537302-8. <a href="https://archive.org/details/RelivingKarbalaSyedAkbarHyder/mode/2up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/RelivingKarbalaSyedAkbarHyder/mode/2up</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Osman 2014, p. 133. - Osman, R. (2014). Female Personalities in the Qur'an and Sunna: Examining the Major Sources of Imami Shi'i Islam. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-315-77014-7. <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Momen 1985, p. 240. - Momen, M. (1985). An Introduction to Shi'i Islam. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-03531-5. <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Blank 2001, p. 84. - Blank, J. (2001). Mullahs on the Mainframe: Islam and Modernity Among the Daudi Bohras. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-05676-0. <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Munson 1988, p. 24. - Munson, H. (1988). Islam and Revolution in the Middle East. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-04604-9. <a href="https://archive.org/details/islamrevolutioni00muns/mode/2up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/islamrevolutioni00muns/mode/2up</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Ayoub 1978, pp. 142–143. - Ayoub, M.M. (1978). Redemptive Suffering in Islam: A Study of the Devotional Aspects of Ashura in Twelver Shi'ism. De Gruyter. ISBN 978-90-279-7943-8. <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Nakash 1993, p. 165. - Nakash, Y. (1993). "An Attempt to Trace the Origin of the Rituals of 'Āshūrā'". Die Welt des Islams: 161–181. JSTOR 1570949. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1570949" target="_blank">https://www.jstor.org/stable/1570949</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Bahramian & Bulookbashi 2015. - Bahramian, A.; Bulookbashi, A.A. (2015). "Al-'Abbās b. 'Alī". In Madelung, W.; Daftary, F. (eds.). Encyclopaedia Islamica. Translated by Negahban, F. doi:10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_0009. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1875-9831_isla_COM_0009" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1875-9831_isla_COM_0009</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Madelung 2004. - Madelung, W. (2004). "Ḥosayn b. 'Ali i. Life and Significance in Shi'ism". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. XII/5. pp. 493–498. <a href="https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hosayn-b-ali-i" target="_blank">https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hosayn-b-ali-i</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Bahramian & Bulookbashi 2015. - Bahramian, A.; Bulookbashi, A.A. (2015). "Al-'Abbās b. 'Alī". In Madelung, W.; Daftary, F. (eds.). Encyclopaedia Islamica. Translated by Negahban, F. doi:10.1163/1875-9831_isla_COM_0009. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1875-9831_isla_COM_0009" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1875-9831_isla_COM_0009</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Madelung 2004. - Madelung, W. (2004). "Ḥosayn b. 'Ali i. Life and Significance in Shi'ism". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. XII/5. pp. 493–498. <a href="https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hosayn-b-ali-i" target="_blank">https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hosayn-b-ali-i</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Momen 1985, p. 30. - Momen, M. (1985). An Introduction to Shi'i Islam. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-03531-5. <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Tabatabai 1975, p. 176. - Tabatabai, S.M.H. (1975). Shi'ite Islam. Translated by Nasr, S.H. State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-87395-390-8. <a href="https://archive.org/details/ShiaInIslamCopy/mode/2up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/ShiaInIslamCopy/mode/2up</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Munson 1988, pp. 23. - Munson, H. (1988). Islam and Revolution in the Middle East. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-04604-9. <a href="https://archive.org/details/islamrevolutioni00muns/mode/2up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/islamrevolutioni00muns/mode/2up</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Sindawi 2002, p. 91. - Sindawi, K. (2002). "The Image of Ḥusayn ibn 'Alī in Maqātil Literature" (PDF). Quaderni di Studi Arabi. 20/21: 79–104. JSTOR 25802958. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/25802958.pdf" target="_blank">https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/25802958.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>Aghaie 2004, p. 128. - Aghaie, K.S. (2004). The Martyrs of Karbala: Shi'i Symbols and Rituals in Modern Iran. University of Washington Press. ISBN 0-295-98455-4. <a href="https://archive.org/details/martyrsofkarbala0000agha/mode/2up" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/martyrsofkarbala0000agha/mode/2up</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>Calmard 1982. - Calmard, J. (1982). "'Abbās b. 'Alī b. Abū Ṭāleb". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. I/1. pp. 77–79. <a href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abbas-b-ali-b-abu-taleb" target="_blank">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abbas-b-ali-b-abu-taleb</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>Sindawi 2002, p. 91. - Sindawi, K. (2002). "The Image of Ḥusayn ibn 'Alī in Maqātil Literature" (PDF). Quaderni di Studi Arabi. 20/21: 79–104. JSTOR 25802958. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/25802958.pdf" target="_blank">https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/25802958.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>Calmard 1982. - Calmard, J. (1982). "'Abbās b. 'Alī b. Abū Ṭāleb". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Vol. I/1. pp. 77–79. <a href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abbas-b-ali-b-abu-taleb" target="_blank">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/abbas-b-ali-b-abu-taleb</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:32"><p>Bahramian & Bulookbashi 2015. - Bahramian, A.; Bulookbashi, A.A. (2015). "Al-'Abbās b. 'Alī". In Madelung, W.; Daftary, F. (eds.). Encyclopaedia Islamica. 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JSTOR 1145650. <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1145650" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1145650</a> <a href="#fnref:70" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:71"><p>Korom & Chelkowski 1994, pp. 152, 154–155. - Korom, F.J.; Chelkowski, P. (1994). "Community Process and the Performance of Muharram Observances in Trinidad". The Drama Review. 38 (2): 150–75. doi:10.2307/1146338. JSTOR 1146338. <a href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1146338" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1146338</a> <a href="#fnref:71" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>