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Optically stimulated luminescence thermochronometry
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<h2 id="theoretical-concepts-of-electron-trapping-and-detrapping-for-osl-measurement">Theoretical concepts of electron trapping and detrapping for OSL measurement</h2> <p>In natural environment, <a href="/facts/Crystal_lattices/7gQKTsXk">crystal lattices</a> of quartz and/or feldspar are bombarded with radiation released from <a href="/facts/Radiogenic_heating/KXP6MKk6">radiogenic source</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> such as <i>in -situ</i> <a href="/facts/Radioactive_decay/Ya6FVjt4">radioactive decay</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> As the crystals are <a href="/facts/Irradiation/fHW0QNAa">irradiated</a>, <a href="/facts/Electron_charge/lPcj6CoQ">charges</a> are stored up in their <a href="/facts/Crystallographic_defect/LHJymDro">crystallographic defects</a>. The <a href="/facts/Electron_charge/lPcj6CoQ">charge</a> trapping process involves atomic-scale <a href="/facts/Ion/3bePpDna">ionic</a> substitution of both electron and hole within the <a href="/facts/Crystal_lattices/7gQKTsXk">crystal lattices</a> of <a href="/facts/Quartz/4n86tE2G">quartz</a> and <a href="/facts/Feldspar/DVvFnfA9">feldspar</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Electrodiffusion/lcIz28qY">electron diffusion</a> happens in response to <a href="/facts/Ionizing_radiation/vw0d9GaT">ionizing radiation</a> as the minerals cools below their <a href="/facts/Closure_temperature/9kFe21m6">closure temperature</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> </p><p>If quartz or feldspar gains are exposed to natural light source such as the sun, the trapped charges will be evicted in form of <a href="/facts/Luminescence/1QkIWyUj">luminescence</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> This natural process is called bleaching. Any other process that could heat up the sample will also cause the trapped electrons to escape from the crystal lattice known as thermal bleaching. Optical bleaching of the mineral leads to eviction of trapped charges in the minerals,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> hence, careful sampling and handling must be followed to avoid using bleached sample for OSL thermochronometry. To artificially produce luminescence in the laboratory for luminescence study of the mineral, these two processes are adopted.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="kinetic-or-rate-equations-for-trapping-and-detrapping-processes">Kinetic or rate equations for trapping and detrapping processes</h2> <p>A wide range of kinetic models have been developed to explain trapping and detrapping processes in quartz and feldspar crystals.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> Two of these models are particularly useful in determining the cooling histories of quartz or feldspar<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> These models are known as the general order kinetic model<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> and band tail model.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> The two models consider three major processes to characterize the mineral luminescence, which are: trapping process, thermal detrapping process and athermal detrapping process. Each of the processes are guided by different equations discussed below. These models are useful for the determining of cooling history of the mineral, which involves subtracting the differential sum of thermal detrapping and athermal detrapping from the trapping process<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> (i.e. Trapping – (Thermal detrapping + Athermal detrapping). </p> <h3>Rate equations</h3> <table><tbody><tr><td><h4>Trapping process</h4><p>The process describes the rate at which a mineral acquires charge from its natural environment.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a> The process is defined by the equation below.</p><p> d n ~ d t = D R D o ( 1 − n ~ ) α {\displaystyle {\frac {d{\tilde {n}}}{dt}}={\frac {D_{R}}{D_{o}}}(1-{\tilde {n}})^{\alpha }} </p><p>where n ~ {\displaystyle {\tilde {n}}} is the ratio of electrons that are trapped (n) and the full storage capacity (N) in the mineral crystal. D R {\displaystyle D_{R}} is the charge stored per unit time, known as dose rate (unit is Gy/ky). D o {\displaystyle D_{o}} is the dose that correspond to the maximum storage capacity of the mineral. The probability that the mineral will get filled defines the D ˙ {\displaystyle {\dot {D}}} and D o {\displaystyle D_{o}} relationship. α {\displaystyle \alpha } is an exponential factor greater than or equal to 1.</p></td><td><h4>Thermal detrapping</h4><p>The equation describes how charges are evicted in form of luminescence from the mineral system when the mineral absorbed heat energy. This is where the general order kinetic model and the band tail model equations differs.</p><p>1. For the general order kinetic Model<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> 2. For the band tail Model<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a></p><p> d n ~ d t = − s n ~ β exp ( − E k T ) {\displaystyle {\frac {d{\tilde {n}}}{dt}}=-s{\tilde {n}}^{\beta }\exp \left({\frac {-E}{kT}}\right)} d n ~ d t = − s n ~ β exp ( − ( E t − E b ) k T ) {\displaystyle {\frac {d{\tilde {n}}}{dt}}=-s{\tilde {n}}^{\beta }\exp \left({\frac {-(E_{t}-E_{b})}{kT}}\right)} </p><p>Where s {\displaystyle s} frequency factor measured in per second (s−1), β {\displaystyle \beta } is the kinetic order, which is usually less than or equal to 1; E {\displaystyle E} is the <a href="/facts/Activation_energy/GqkgPvo0">activation energy</a> measured in (eV), E t {\displaystyle E_{t}} and E b {\displaystyle E_{b}} are the activation energies at the <a href="/facts/Conduction_band/2NUALlHJ">conduction band</a> and the <a href="/facts/Valence_band/2NUALlHJ">valence band</a> respectively in the <a href="/facts/Crystal_structure/bJ4bCeHd">crystal lattices</a> of the mineral. k {\displaystyle k} is the <a href="/facts/Boltzmann_constant/5DIejyR3">Boltzmann constant</a> (e<i>V/K)</i> and T {\displaystyle T} is the <a href="/facts/Thermodynamic_temperature/JXeJJPa6">absolute temperature</a> (K).</p></td><td><h4>Athermal detrapping</h4><p>This equation describes the luminescence recorded as the signal fades out known as 'anomalous fading'.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a> This is determined without heating the mineral during fading experiment<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a> The relationship is defined by this equation.</p><p> d n ~ d t = − s n ~ β exp ( − p ′ − 1 3 r ′ ) {\displaystyle {\frac {d{\tilde {n}}}{dt}}=-s{\tilde {n}}^{\beta }\exp \left(-p'^{-{\tfrac {1}{3}}}r'\right)} </p><p>where p ′ {\displaystyle p'} represents the density of the crystal's recombination centers and r is the distance between the recombination centers and the electron traps.</p></td></tr></tbody></table> <h3>Determination of cooling history from the kinetic equations</h3> <p>By combining the four equations above, a single differential equation is developed to convert the luminescence into cooling rate. We have: </p><p> d n ~ d t = D R D o ( 1 − n ~ ) α − s n ~ β exp ( − E k T ) − s n ~ β exp ( − p ′ − 1 3 r ′ ) {\displaystyle {\frac {d{\tilde {n}}}{dt}}={\frac {D_{R}}{D_{o}}}(1-{\tilde {n}})^{\alpha }-s{\tilde {n}}^{\beta }\exp \left({\frac {-E}{kT}}\right)-s{\tilde {n}}^{\beta }\exp \left(-p'^{-{\tfrac {1}{3}}}r'\right)} for the general order kinetic model; and </p><p> d n ~ d t = D R D o ( 1 − n ~ ) α − s n ~ β exp ( − ( E t − E b ) k T ) − s n ~ β exp ( − p ′ − 1 3 r ′ ) {\displaystyle {\frac {d{\tilde {n}}}{dt}}={\frac {D_{R}}{D_{o}}}(1-{\tilde {n}})^{\alpha }-s{\tilde {n}}^{\beta }\exp \left({\frac {-(E_{t}-E_{b})}{kT}}\right)-s{\tilde {n}}^{\beta }\exp \left(-p'^{-{\tfrac {1}{3}}}r'\right)} for the band tail model. </p><p>Any of the models can be used because the same series of laboratory experiments are followed for the estimation of all the parameters involved in the equations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a> The inversion of measured n ~ {\displaystyle {\tilde {n}}} for a range of temperature -time history or T-t path can be used to determine the cooling rate.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a> Sufficient number of T-t paths conducted in the laboratory is used to build a probability density function, which will help to determine the most likely cooling histories undergone by the mineral.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="sample-preparation">Sample preparation</h2> <p>Bedrock samples from earth surface or boreholes are required earth materials for OSL dating.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a> Minerals (<a href="/facts/Quartz/4n86tE2G">quartz</a> and/or <a href="/facts/Feldspar/DVvFnfA9">feldspar</a>) are usually separated from the rock or sediment samples under regulated laboratory lighting system similar to procedures used in <a href="/facts/Archaeology/K3Q5P38R">archaeological</a> OSL dating.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a> The light source is usually a controlled red light condition to avoid luminescence signal resetting.[7] Crushing of sample are gently carried out to avoid generating heat that is strong enough to reset OSL signal in the minerals.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a> Crushed samples are separated by means of a <a href="/facts/Sieve/LJBztC9f">sieve</a> to get fine-grained. A range of values varying from 90 – 125 microns,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a> 100 – 200 microns and 180 – 212 microns<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a> can be used for OSL measurement. The selected grains are chemically treated with HCl to digest carbonates and with H2O2 to remove organic materials<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a> that can contaminate the sensitivity of OSL signal during measurement. Feldspar and quartz with densities of < 2.62 g cm−3 and < 2.68 g cm−3 respectively are separated from other heavier minerals by density separation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a> Inclusions of zircon, apatite and feldspar in quartz as well as alpha-particles irradiated grain edges that can contaminate OSL signal are removed by etching in hydrofluoric acid (HF).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="osl-signal-detection-system">OSL signal detection system</h2> <p>OSL ages are commonly measured using an automated Ris ∅ {\displaystyle \varnothing } <a href="https://www.earthsciences.hku.hk/research/research-group/facilities/thermoluminescence-tl-optically-stimulated-luminescence-osl-reader">Thermal Luminescence Reader (e.g. TL-DA-20)</a>. It contains an internal beta-source (e.g. 90Sr/90Y) with optical stimulation emitted through laser diodes (LEDs). The reader also has a detection filter for transmission of stimulated luminescence signals. During this measurement, the mineral grain (quartz or feldspar) is glued on a heater strip (stainless-steel discs) using adhesive (commonly silicone spray). The mineral grain is stimulated with the light source.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a> This light is the series of <a href="/facts/Light-emitting_diode/gE8x4MDb">light emitting diode</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a> This bombardment stimulates the electrons, which are trapped and begin to <a href="/facts/Recombination_(physics)/2UtL6mJp">recombine</a> in the crystal.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a> During this process, they give the OSL signal, which is collected or recorded in the ray sensitive <a href="/facts/Photomultiplier/lVDdAH5d">photomultiplier</a> tube.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a> The photomultiplier tube converts all the incident <a href="/facts/Photon/mFNhAEzA">photons</a> (i.e. light) to electronic charge. This is the basic principle of how the luminescence (light) emission from the minerals under investigation is measured. </p> <h2 id="osl-age-determination">OSL age determination</h2> <p>To determine the OSL age of the sample, the <a href="/facts/Absorbed_dose/jbqUFt9v">dose rate</a>, ( D R {\displaystyle D_{R}} ) and the equivalent dose ( D E {\displaystyle D_{E}} ). A <a href="/facts/Absorbed_dose/jbqUFt9v">dose</a> is the quantity of natural radiation or energy absorbed by a mineral.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72"><sup>72</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Dose_rate/jbqUFt9v">dose rate</a> is the effective radiation absorbed from naturally occurring <a href="/facts/Ionizing_radiation/vw0d9GaT">ionizing source</a> per unit time.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73"><sup>73</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74"><sup>74</sup></a> </p><p>The age is calculated by determining the ratio of equivalent dose ( D E {\displaystyle D_{E}} ) and the dose rate ( D R {\displaystyle D_{R}} ) using the equation below. </p><p> A = D E D R {\displaystyle A={\frac {D_{E}}{D_{R}}}} </p><p>where A {\displaystyle A} is the age (yr), D E {\displaystyle D_{E}} is measured in Gray (Gy). Note that 1 Gy is equivalent to 1 J.kg−1 (Joule per kilogram) and D R {\displaystyle D_{R}} is Gy year−1<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75"><sup>75</sup></a> </p> <h3>Dose rate determination</h3> <p>For a single grain of mineral, the dose rate ( D R {\displaystyle D_{R}} ) can be determined by measuring the concentrations of <a href="/facts/Uranium/n2sGWBzU">uranium</a>, <a href="/facts/Potassium/FWPwS7Rj">potassium</a> and <a href="/facts/Thorium/ysdWH470">thorium</a> by direct <a href="/facts/Mass_spectrometry/RH5WBHJ2">mass spectrometric</a> analysis of quartz or feldspar grains.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76"><sup>76</sup></a> Ge-Gamma, INAA, X-ray flourescnce and <a href="/facts/Inductively_coupled_plasma_mass_spectrometry/jtr1dzfg">ICP-MS</a> or <a href="/facts/Inductively_coupled_plasma_atomic_emission_spectroscopy/n2jrH1QE">ICP-OES</a> are <a href="/facts/Spectrometer/IqRE8xaQ">spectrometers</a> that can could be used.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77"><sup>77</sup></a> Other methods for the determination the dose rate include: (1) overburden <a href="/facts/Cosmic_ray/uxCVdTKd">cosmic</a> dose rate estimation, (2) water content attenuation method, and (3) disequilibrium dose rate correction method.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78"><sup>78</sup></a> An average dose rate is usually calculated as representative of the dose rate.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79"><sup>79</sup></a> </p> <h3>Equivalent dose determination</h3> <p>The equivalent dose ( D E {\displaystyle D_{E}} ) is also known as the dose response is determined from the dose response curve (see Plot B).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80"><sup>80</sup></a> The single-aliquot regenerative (SAR) protocol is a commonly used method for the determination of the equivalent dose.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81"><sup>81</sup></a> The protocol involves series of laboratory measurement of OSL signal (see Plot A), which is emitted by the aliquot after it has been optically stimulated at a known beta dose within a given time in seconds. The beta-source may be 90Sr/90Y in an automated Ris ∅ {\displaystyle \varnothing } <a href="https://www.earthsciences.hku.hk/research/research-group/facilities/thermoluminescence-tl-optically-stimulated-luminescence-osl-reader">Thermal Luminescence Reader</a> . During SAR protocol, the difference in the measurement for quartz and feldspar is mainly on the degree of heat required per time and the source of stimulation. </p><p>The first stage involves determination of the natural dose (see Plot B) preheating the aliquot to about 160 -130 °C (for feldspar)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82"><sup>82</sup></a> for 10 s or 160-300 °C (for quartz)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83"><sup>83</sup></a> when the natural <a href="/facts/Luminescence/1QkIWyUj">luminescence</a> signal (i.e. natural dose) is still intact. This is done to remove unstable signals in the mineral. After preheating, the aliquot is optically stimulated by <a href="/facts/Infrared/44XdJNcc">Infrared</a> <a href="/facts/Light-emitting_diode/gE8x4MDb">light emitting diode</a> (for feldspar) or Blue <a href="/facts/Light-emitting_diode/gE8x4MDb">light emitting diode</a> (for quartz) depending on which mineral (see OSL detection system) for 40 s at 125 °C (for feldspar) or 100 s at 125 °C (for quartz) and the natural OSL signal (NL) is measured and recorded in the photomultiplier tube. For the second stage, the aliquot is <a href="/facts/Irradiation/fHW0QNAa">irradiated</a> with a fixed known test dose (beta dose).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84"><sup>84</sup></a> The aliquot is preheated at temperature less than 160 °C. The IRSL signal measurement is taken as a test dose IRSL response (NT) after it has been optically stimulated for 40 s at 125 °C (for feldspar) or 100 s at 125 °C (for quartz).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85"><sup>85</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86"><sup>86</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87"><sup>87</sup></a> At this stage the aliquot is completely bleached.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88"><sup>88</sup></a> A regenerative test dose is then started after bleaching.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89"><sup>89</sup></a> </p><p>The same procedure as described above is followed but a range of regenerative dose is given at different temperature for sensitivity correction of OSL signal (See Plot B). For the regenerative dose measurement, the aliquot is <a href="/facts/Irradiation/fHW0QNAa">irradiated</a> with a known dose before preheating at 160-130 °C for 10 s or 160-300 °C for feldspar or quartz respectively while the signal response (Ri) is measured. A fixed test dose is by irradiating the aliquot and a preheating of the aliquot is carried out at a temperature less than 160 °C. The aliquot is optically stimulated at the same rate and the IRSL signal (RT) is measured. The steps are repeated for range of different regenerative dose including zero test dose.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90"><sup>90</sup></a> During each of the tests, all OSL signals are recorded in the <a href="/facts/Photomultiplier_tube/bjbB9fBE">photomultiplier tube</a> and the OSL counts are plotted against the OSL exposure time in seconds as shown in the OSL signal curve (first graph).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91"><sup>91</sup></a> </p><p>For sensitivity correction, NL is plotted against NT representing the natural OSL signal while the plot of Ri against RT representing regenerative dose test (see Plot B). The natural dose is along the vertical axis because no laboratory dose is given at the stage. The regenerative dose measurement will vary with respect to the given dose at each stage. The equivalent dose ( D E {\displaystyle D_{E}} ) is determined by drawing a line (red discontinuous line in Plot B) from the natural dose to intercept with the regenerative dose curve. The point of interception with the curve represent the equivalent dose by reading its value on the horizontal axis (See Plot B).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92"><sup>92</sup></a> The corresponding dose value at the horizontal axis is recorded for the equivalent dose ( D E {\displaystyle D_{E}} ).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93"><sup>93</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="applications">Applications.</h2> <h3>General applications</h3> <p>OSL finds application in all low-temperature (<50 °C) tectonic and sedimentary processes. These studies are mainly captured within the sub-Quaternary period including, but not limited to focused fluvial and/or <a href="/facts/Glacial_erosion/gaGJXy0W">glacial erosion</a>, <a href="/facts/Rock_exhumation/pynUjfyt">rock exhumation</a> and evolution of <a href="/facts/Topography/SS8Bx4t9">topography</a> in active tectonic regions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94"><sup>94</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95"><sup>95</sup></a> Other applications include glaciation deposits, lagoon deposits, storm surge and tsunami deposits, lake deposits including shoreline migration history, fluvial erosion deposits, <a href="/facts/Loess/VpFUed3E">loess</a> deposit records.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96"><sup>96</sup></a> For example, the rate of slip on a normal faults plane can also be modelled, the rate of glacial or fluvial erosion of the earth surface can also be modelled as well as when sedimentary deposits are found within the sub-<a href="/facts/Quaternary/3cEgHAqc">Quaternary</a> period.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97"><sup>97</sup></a> </p><p>In active tectonics regions, the application of OSL dating is very useful in tracking the thermal history and rate of rock exhumation towards the Earth's surface.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98"><sup>98</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99"><sup>99</sup></a> The closer the cooling ages, the higher the rate of erosion and/or exhumation of the rock unit under investigation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100"><sup>100</sup></a> When the OSL age of quartz or feldspar is known, the obtained ages are coupled with the existing thermal-mechanical equations e.g. Pecube<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101"><sup>101</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102"><sup>102</sup></a> to reconstruct the thermal-mechanical history. </p><p>The OSL ages (see diagram), cooling ages, elevation data are plotted against the horizontal distance where samples and elevation data were collected to interpret the exhumation rate of rock or the evolution of the relief system through time.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103"><sup>103</sup></a> For example, OSL dating has been applied in determined the cooling histories of some rapidly eroding active regions at sub-Quaternary time-scale (i.e. 104 to 105 years). These examples are <a href="/facts/South_Island/asD6NsNx">Whataroa-Perth</a> catchment area in the <a href="/facts/Southern_Alps/FjQQURuc">Southern Alps</a> of <a href="/facts/New_Zealand/4mpSlJdg">New Zealand</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104"><sup>104</sup></a> and Namche Barwa-Gyala Peri dome in eastern Himalaya.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105"><sup>105</sup></a> In the Namche Barwa-Gyala Peri dome, river erosion was prevalent<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106"><sup>106</sup></a> while glacial erosion was the main active process in the <a href="/facts/South_Island/asD6NsNx">Whataroa-Perth</a> catchment area.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107"><sup>107</sup></a> In both studies, the rate of exhumation and evolution of the relief systems were estimated by inversion of OSL thermochronological ages.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108"><sup>108</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109"><sup>109</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Luminescence_dating/UnESGMaf">Luminescence dating</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Optically_stimulated_luminescence/EPr2uVn4">Optically stimulated luminescence</a> (physics)</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Herman, Frédéric; Rhodes, Edward J.; Braun, Jean; Heiniger, Lukas (2010b). "Uniform erosion rates and relief amplitude during glacial cycles in the Southern Alps of New Zealand, as revealed from OSL-thermochronology". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 297 (1–2): 183–189. Bibcode:2010E&PSL.297..183H. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2010.06.019. ISSN 0012-821X. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Guralnik, B.; Ankjærgaard, C.; Jain, M.; Murray, A.S.; Müller, A.; Wälle, M.; Lowick, S.E.; Preusser, F.; Rhodes, E.J. (2015a). "OSL-thermochronometry using bedrock quartz: A note of caution". Quaternary Geochronology. 25: 37–48. doi:10.1016/j.quageo.2014.09.001. ISSN 1871-1014. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>King, G.E.; Herman, F.; Lambert, R.; Valla, P.G.; Guralnik, B. (2016a). "Multi-OSL-thermochronometry of feldspar". Quaternary Geochronology. 33: 76–87. doi:10.1016/j.quageo.2016.01.004. ISSN 1871-1014. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Guralnik, Benny; Jain, Mayank; Herman, Frédéric; Ankjærgaard, Christina; Murray, Andrew S.; Valla, Pierre G.; Preusser, Frank; King, Georgina E.; Chen, Reuven (2015c). "OSL-thermochronometry of feldspar from the KTB borehole, Germany" (PDF). Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 423: 232–243. Bibcode:2015E&PSL.423..232G. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2015.04.032. ISSN 0012-821X. <a href="http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/109132/1/Guralnik_et_al_2015_EPSL_KTB_GOA.pdf" target="_blank">http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/109132/1/Guralnik_et_al_2015_EPSL_KTB_GOA.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Herman, Frédéric; Rhodes, Edward J.; Braun, Jean; Heiniger, Lukas (2010b). "Uniform erosion rates and relief amplitude during glacial cycles in the Southern Alps of New Zealand, as revealed from OSL-thermochronology". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 297 (1–2): 183–189. Bibcode:2010E&PSL.297..183H. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2010.06.019. ISSN 0012-821X. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Herman, Frédéric; Rhodes, Edward J.; Braun, Jean; Heiniger, Lukas (2010b). "Uniform erosion rates and relief amplitude during glacial cycles in the Southern Alps of New Zealand, as revealed from OSL-thermochronology". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 297 (1–2): 183–189. Bibcode:2010E&PSL.297..183H. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2010.06.019. ISSN 0012-821X. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Guralnik, Benny; Jain, Mayank; Herman, Frédéric; Paris, Richard B.; Harrison, T. Mark; Murray, Andrew S.; Valla, Pierre G.; Rhodes, Edward J. (2013). "Effective closure temperature in leaky and/or saturating thermochronometers". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 384: 209–218. Bibcode:2013E&PSL.384..209G. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2013.10.003. ISSN 0012-821X. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Guralnik, Benny; Jain, Mayank; Herman, Frédéric; Ankjærgaard, Christina; Murray, Andrew S.; Valla, Pierre G.; Preusser, Frank; King, Georgina E.; Chen, Reuven (2015c). "OSL-thermochronometry of feldspar from the KTB borehole, Germany" (PDF). Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 423: 232–243. Bibcode:2015E&PSL.423..232G. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2015.04.032. ISSN 0012-821X. <a href="http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/109132/1/Guralnik_et_al_2015_EPSL_KTB_GOA.pdf" target="_blank">http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/109132/1/Guralnik_et_al_2015_EPSL_KTB_GOA.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Rhodes, Edward J. (2011). "Optically Stimulated Luminescence Dating of Sediments over the Past 200,000 Years". Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences. 39 (1): 461–488. Bibcode:2011AREPS..39..461R. doi:10.1146/annurev-earth-040610-133425. ISSN 0084-6597. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>King, Georgina E.; Guralnik, Benny; Valla, Pierre G.; Herman, Frédéric (2016c). "Trapped-charge thermochronometry and thermometry: A status review". Chemical Geology. 446: 3–17. Bibcode:2016ChGeo.446....3K. doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2016.08.023. ISSN 0009-2541. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.chemgeo.2016.08.023" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.chemgeo.2016.08.023</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>King, Georgina E.; Guralnik, Benny; Valla, Pierre G.; Herman, Frédéric (2016c). "Trapped-charge thermochronometry and thermometry: A status review". Chemical Geology. 446: 3–17. Bibcode:2016ChGeo.446....3K. doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2016.08.023. ISSN 0009-2541. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.chemgeo.2016.08.023" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.chemgeo.2016.08.023</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>King, Georgina E.; Guralnik, Benny; Valla, Pierre G.; Herman, Frédéric (2016c). "Trapped-charge thermochronometry and thermometry: A status review". Chemical Geology. 446: 3–17. Bibcode:2016ChGeo.446....3K. doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2016.08.023. 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ISSN 0009-2541. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.chemgeo.2016.08.023" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.chemgeo.2016.08.023</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Herman, Frédéric; Rhodes, Edward J.; Braun, Jean; Heiniger, Lukas (2010b). "Uniform erosion rates and relief amplitude during glacial cycles in the Southern Alps of New Zealand, as revealed from OSL-thermochronology". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 297 (1–2): 183–189. Bibcode:2010E&PSL.297..183H. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2010.06.019. ISSN 0012-821X. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Herman, Frédéric; Rhodes, Edward J.; Braun, Jean; Heiniger, Lukas (2010b). "Uniform erosion rates and relief amplitude during glacial cycles in the Southern Alps of New Zealand, as revealed from OSL-thermochronology". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 297 (1–2): 183–189. Bibcode:2010E&PSL.297..183H. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2010.06.019. ISSN 0012-821X. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>King, Georgina E.; Herman, Frédéric; Guralnik, Benny (2016b). "Northward migration of the eastern Himalayan syntaxis revealed by OSL thermochronometry". Science. 353 (6301): 800–804. Bibcode:2016Sci...353..800K. doi:10.1126/science.aaf2637. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 27540169. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Herman, Frédéric; Rhodes, Edward J.; Braun, Jean; Heiniger, Lukas (2010b). "Uniform erosion rates and relief amplitude during glacial cycles in the Southern Alps of New Zealand, as revealed from OSL-thermochronology". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 297 (1–2): 183–189. Bibcode:2010E&PSL.297..183H. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2010.06.019. ISSN 0012-821X. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Rhodes, Edward J. (2011). "Optically Stimulated Luminescence Dating of Sediments over the Past 200,000 Years". Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences. 39 (1): 461–488. Bibcode:2011AREPS..39..461R. doi:10.1146/annurev-earth-040610-133425. ISSN 0084-6597. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>King, Georgina E.; Herman, Frédéric; Guralnik, Benny (2016b). "Northward migration of the eastern Himalayan syntaxis revealed by OSL thermochronometry". Science. 353 (6301): 800–804. Bibcode:2016Sci...353..800K. doi:10.1126/science.aaf2637. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 27540169. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Herman, Frédéric; Rhodes, Edward J.; Braun, Jean; Heiniger, Lukas (2010b). "Uniform erosion rates and relief amplitude during glacial cycles in the Southern Alps of New Zealand, as revealed from OSL-thermochronology". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 297 (1–2): 183–189. Bibcode:2010E&PSL.297..183H. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2010.06.019. ISSN 0012-821X. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>King, Georgina E.; Guralnik, Benny; Valla, Pierre G.; Herman, Frédéric (2016c). "Trapped-charge thermochronometry and thermometry: A status review". Chemical Geology. 446: 3–17. Bibcode:2016ChGeo.446....3K. doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2016.08.023. 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