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Ichnofacies
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<h2 id="concept">Concept</h2> <p>Trace fossil assemblages are far from random; the range of fossils recorded in association is constrained by the environment in which the trace-making organisms dwelt.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1"><sup>1</sup></a> Palaeontologist <a href="/facts/Adolf_Seilacher/PJjH0AHr">Adolf Seilacher</a> pioneered the concept of ichnofacies, whereby the state of a sedimentary system at its time of deposition could be deduced by noting the trace fossils in association with one another.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="significance">Significance</h2> <p>Ichnofacies can provide information about water depth, <a href="/facts/Salinity/X6mB1YAM">salinity</a>, <a href="/facts/Turbidity/aqPf0q3I">turbidity</a> and energy. In general, traces found in shallower water are vertical, those in deeper water are more horizontal and patterned.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> This is partly because of the relative abundance of suspended food particles, such as <a href="/facts/Plankton/WGo3LU9T">plankton</a>, in the shallower waters of the <a href="/facts/Photic_zone/pTrzLGG5">photic zone</a>, and partly because vertical burrows are more secure in the turbulent conditions of shallow water. In deeper waters, there is a necessary transition to sediment feeding (extracting <a href="/facts/Nutrient/34bn4skK">nutrients</a> from the mud).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> Food availability, hence trace type, is also controlled by energy: high energy environments keep food particles suspended, whereas in lower energy areas, food settles out evenly, and burrows will tend to spread out to cover as much area as economically as possible.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> </p><p>Ichnofacies have a major advantage over using body fossils to gauge the same factors: body fossils can be transported, but trace fossils are always <i>in situ</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="recognized-invertebrate-ichnofacies">Recognized invertebrate ichnofacies</h2> <table><tbody><tr><th colspan="4">Marine Invertebrate Ichnofacies<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a></th></tr><tr><th>Name</th><th>Common Ichnogenera</th><th>Substrate</th><th>Inferred Paleoenvironment</th></tr><tr><td><i><a href="/facts/Scoyenia/LrQqhhF2">Scoyenia</a></i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Skolithos/W6eK37k5">Skolithos</a>, <a href="/facts/Cruziana/AmaBEXQY">Cruziana</a>, <a href="/facts/Diplichnites/IaCv4svd">Diplichnites</a>, <a href="/facts/Rusophycus/AQFaR5bb">Rusophycus</a></i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a></td><td>Variable - typically sandstones; red beds may be nearby</td><td>Diagnostic of terrestrial<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a>/freshwater<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> facies.</td></tr><tr><td><i>Psilonichnus</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a></td><td><i>Psilonichnus, Coenobichnus, Cellicalichnus, Macanopsis</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a></td><td>Highly variable grain size, sand, soft substrate<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a></td><td>Coastal barrier islands, strand plains, delta plains, estuaries, lagoons, and bays.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><i>Trypanites</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a></td><td><i>Entobia, Trypanites, Gastrochaenolites, Caulostrepsis, Maeandropolydora, Conchotrema</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a></td><td>Hardground, endurated substrates<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a></td><td>Coastal cliffs, reefs, beachrock<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><i><a href="/facts/Teredolites/HfQdR3KM">Teredolites</a></i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Teredolites/HfQdR3KM">Teredolites</a>, <a href="/facts/Thalassinoides/rkIjcMx6">Thalassinoides</a></i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a></td><td>Resistant woody and coaly substrates<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a></td><td>Driftwood, peat<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><i>Glossifungites</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Diplocraterion/hz8JLC5H">Diplocraterion</a>, <a href="/facts/Skolithos/W6eK37k5">Skolithos</a>, Spongeliomorpha, Rhizocoralium, <a href="/facts/Arenicolites/ypJNfQYs">Arenicolites</a>, <a href="/facts/Thalassinoides/rkIjcMx6">Thalassinoides</a>, Fuersichnus</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a></td><td>Firmground, dewatered muds<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a></td><td>Shallow, marginal marine, deltaic or estuarine <a href="/facts/Erosion_surface/d70xV7of">erosion surfaces</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><i><a href="/facts/Skolithos/W6eK37k5">Skolithos</a></i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Skolithos/W6eK37k5">Skolithos</a>, <a href="/facts/Ophiomorpha/8Xcqsjqg">Ophiomorpha</a>, <a href="/facts/Arenicolites/ypJNfQYs">Arenicolites</a>, <a href="/facts/Diplocraterion/hz8JLC5H">Diplocraterion</a></i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a></td><td>Unconsolidated littoral sands<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a></td><td>Beaches and sandy tidal flats, shallow water, foreshore to upper-shoreface, above wavebase<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><i><a href="/facts/Cruziana/AmaBEXQY">Cruziana</a></i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a></td><td><i>Arthrophycus, Phycodes, Rhizocorallium, <a href="/facts/Teichichnus/DUVufAtv">Teichichnus</a>, <a href="/facts/Arenicolites/ypJNfQYs">Arenicolites</a>, Rosselia, Bergaueria, <a href="/facts/Thalassinoides/rkIjcMx6">Thalassinoides</a>, Lockeia, Protovirgularia, Curvolithus, Dimorphichnus, <a href="/facts/Cruziana/AmaBEXQY">Cruziana</a>, <a href="/facts/Rusophycus/AQFaR5bb">Rusophycus</a></i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a></td><td>Sand and silt heterolithic successions and organic detritus<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a></td><td>Mid to distal continental shelves. Below normal wave base, but not necessarily below storm wave base<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><i><a href="/facts/Zoophycos/3Pg9uYxc">Zoophycos</a></i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Zoophycos/3Pg9uYxc">Zoophycos</a>, <a href="/facts/Phycosiphon/TSAwhQJj">Phycosiphon</a>, <a href="/facts/Chondrites_(genus)/YdNgxU03">Chondrites</a></i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a></td><td>Marine softground, impure sands and silts<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a></td><td>Deeper water, bottom of shelf; turbidite facies<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><i><a href="/facts/Nereites_irregularis/pldHQt9g">Nereites</a></i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Nereites_irregularis/pldHQt9g">Nereites</a>, Megagrapton, Protopaleodictyon, Spirophycus, Helminthoraphe, Glockerichnus, <a href="/facts/Spirorhaphe/gI26M4Q1">Spiroraphe</a>, Cosmoraphe, Urohelminthoida, Desmograpton, <a href="/facts/Paleodictyon/hvKB6cWy">Paleodictyon</a>, <a href="/facts/Scolicia/NVUvYd3o">Scolicia</a></i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a></td><td>Fine-grained muds and clays interbedded with turbidite silts<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a></td><td>Deep water, pelagic, base-of-slope turbidity systems<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a></td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="recognized-vertebrate-ichnofacies">Recognized vertebrate ichnofacies</h2> <table><tbody><tr><th colspan="4">Vertebrate Ichnofacies<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a></th></tr><tr><td>Name</td><td>Common Ichnogenera</td><td>Substrate</td><td>Inferred Paleoenvironment</td></tr><tr><td><i><a href="/facts/Chelichnus/a56AUQcB">Chelichnus</a></i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a> <i>(Laoporus)</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Chelichnus/a56AUQcB">Chelichnus</a>, Brasilichnium</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a></td><td>Unconsolidated, larger-grained sands</td><td>Aeolian sand dunes<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><i><a href="/facts/Grallator/jbeyC4gK">Grallator</a></i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a></td><td><i><a href="/facts/Grallator/jbeyC4gK">Grallator</a>, <a href="/facts/Jindongornipes/GvqA8TFr">Jindongornipes</a>, Koreanoformis, <a href="/facts/Avipeda/GJsIMJsL">Avipeda</a>, Brachychirotherium, Rhynchosauroides, <a href="/facts/Eubrontes/3qffwSjx">Eubrontes</a></i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a></td><td></td><td>Lacustrine shorelines<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><i><a href="/facts/Brontopodus/36jGbPHa">Brontopodus</a></i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a></td><td><i>Charirichnium, <a href="/facts/Ceratopsipes/IswseLdx">Ceratopsipes</a>, <a href="/facts/Amblydactylus/msfN23ak">Amblydactylus</a>, <a href="/facts/Brontopodus/36jGbPHa">Brontopodus</a></i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a></td><td>Clastic or carbonate<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a></td><td>Coastal plain, marine shoreline<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72"><sup>72</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><i>Batrachichnus</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73"><sup>73</sup></a></td><td><i>Batrachichnus, <a href="/facts/Limnopus/YW5nfK1K">Limnopus</a>, Amphisauropus, Dromopus, Dimetropus, Gilmoreichnus, <a href="/facts/Chirotherium/eDRJnzLw">Chirotherium</a></i></td><td></td><td>Tidal flat-fluvial plain<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74"><sup>74</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><i>Characichnos</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75"><sup>75</sup></a></td><td><i>Characichnos, <a href="/facts/Undichna/e0t6P8yt">Undichna</a>, Lunichnium, Puertollanopus, Serpentichnus, Batrachichnus, <a href="/facts/Hatcherichnus/g2bl5jaL">Hatcherichnus</a></i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76"><sup>76</sup></a></td><td>Semi-consolidated firmgrounds</td><td>Subaqueous lacustrine, estuarine, and deltaic environments<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77"><sup>77</sup></a></td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Trace_fossil_classification/Px5zjHJS">Trace fossil classification</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Bioturbation/1IXWzju8">Bioturbation</a></li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li><a href="http://www.es.ucl.ac.uk/tf/ichno.htm">Types of Ichnofacies- University College London</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Seilacher, A. (1967). "Bathymetry of trace fossils". Marine Geology. 5 (5–6): 413–428. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(67)90051-5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Seilacher, A. (1967). "Bathymetry of trace fossils". Marine Geology. 5 (5–6): 413–428. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(67)90051-5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Seilacher, A. (1967). "Bathymetry of trace fossils". Marine Geology. 5 (5–6): 413–428. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(67)90051-5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Seilacher, A. (1967). "Bathymetry of trace fossils". Marine Geology. 5 (5–6): 413–428. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(67)90051-5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Seilacher, A. (1967). "Bathymetry of trace fossils". Marine Geology. 5 (5–6): 413–428. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(67)90051-5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Seilacher, A. (1967). "Bathymetry of trace fossils". Marine Geology. 5 (5–6): 413–428. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(67)90051-5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Seilacher, A. (1967). "Bathymetry of trace fossils". Marine Geology. 5 (5–6): 413–428. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(67)90051-5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>"Ichnofacies". UCL. <a href="http://www.es.ucl.ac.uk/tf/ichno.htm" target="_blank">http://www.es.ucl.ac.uk/tf/ichno.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Benton, M.J.; Harper, D.A.T. (1997). Basic Palaeontology. Longman Harlow, Essex, England. ISBN 9780582228573. <a href="9780582228573" target="_blank">9780582228573</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Buatois, Luis; Mangano, M. Gabriela (2011). Ichnology: Organism-Substrate Interactions in Space and Time. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 67–69. ISBN 978-0-521-85555-6. <a href="978-0-521-85555-6" target="_blank">978-0-521-85555-6</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Seilacher, A. (1967). "Bathymetry of trace fossils". Marine Geology. 5 (5–6): 413–428. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(67)90051-5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Woolfe, K.J. (1990). "Trace fossils as paleoenvironmental indicators in the Taylor Group (Devonian) of Antarctica". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 80 (3–4): 301–310. doi:10.1016/0031-0182(90)90139-X. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Seilacher, A. (1967). "Bathymetry of trace fossils". Marine Geology. 5 (5–6): 413–428. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(67)90051-5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Woolfe, K.J. (1990). "Trace fossils as paleoenvironmental indicators in the Taylor Group (Devonian) of Antarctica". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 80 (3–4): 301–310. doi:10.1016/0031-0182(90)90139-X. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Frey, Robert W.; Pemberton, S. George (1987). "The Psilonichnus ichnocoenose, and its relationship to adjacent marine and nonmarine ichnocoenoses along the Georgia coast". Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology (35). <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Buatois, Luis; Mangano, M. Gabriela (2011). Ichnology: Organism-Substrate Interactions in Space and Time. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 67–69. ISBN 978-0-521-85555-6. <a href="978-0-521-85555-6" target="_blank">978-0-521-85555-6</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Frey, Robert W.; Pemberton, S. George (1987). "The Psilonichnus ichnocoenose, and its relationship to adjacent marine and nonmarine ichnocoenoses along the Georgia coast". Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology (35). <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Buatois, Luis; Mangano, M. Gabriela (2011). Ichnology: Organism-Substrate Interactions in Space and Time. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 67–69. ISBN 978-0-521-85555-6. <a href="978-0-521-85555-6" target="_blank">978-0-521-85555-6</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Frey, Robert W.; Pemberton, S. George (1987). "The Psilonichnus ichnocoenose, and its relationship to adjacent marine and nonmarine ichnocoenoses along the Georgia coast". Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology (35). <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Frey, R. W.; Seilacher, Adolf (1980). "Uniformity in marine invertebrate ichnology". Lethaia. 13 (3): 183–207. doi:10.1111/j.1502-3931.1980.tb00632.x. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Buatois, Luis; Mangano, M. Gabriela (2011). Ichnology: Organism-Substrate Interactions in Space and Time. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 67–69. ISBN 978-0-521-85555-6. <a href="978-0-521-85555-6" target="_blank">978-0-521-85555-6</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Frey, R. W.; Seilacher, Adolf (1980). "Uniformity in marine invertebrate ichnology". Lethaia. 13 (3): 183–207. doi:10.1111/j.1502-3931.1980.tb00632.x. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Frey, Robert W.; Pemberton, S. George. Facies Models. pp. 189–207. <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Bromely, Richard G.; Pemberton, S. George (1984). "A Cretaceous woodground: the Teredolites ichnofacies". Journal of Paleontology. 58. R.A. Rahmani: 488–498. <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Gingras, M.K.; MacEachern, J.A. (2004). "Modern perspectives on the Teredolites ichnofacies: observations from Willapa Bay, Washington" (PDF). PALAIOS. 19. Pickerill, R.K.: 79–88. doi:10.1669/0883-1351(2004)019<0079:mpotti>2.0.co;2. 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