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Gaiseric
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<h2 id="path-to-kingship">Path to kingship</h2> <p>After his father Godigisel's death in a battle against the <a href="/facts/Franks/RHyCqfkd">Franks</a> during the <a href="/facts/Crossing_of_the_Rhine/xSKtY0Fu">Crossing of the Rhine</a>, Gaiseric became the second most powerful man among the Vandals, only answering to the newly appointed king, his half-brother <a href="/facts/Gunderic/hEdtneGg">Gunderic</a>. His status as a noble of the king's family occurred before his more formal accession to the kingship.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Jordanes/7ubI564h">Jordanes</a> described Gaiseric in the following manner: </p> <blockquote><p>Gaiseric...was a man of moderate height and lame in consequence of a fall from his horse. He was a man of deep thought and few words, holding luxury in disdain, furious in his anger, greedy for gain, shrewd in winning over the barbarians and skilled in sowing the seeds of dissension to arouse enmity.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a></p></blockquote> <p>Gunderic's death in 428 paved the way for Gaiseric's ascension to king of the Vandals; his rise to power was accompanied by continued hostilities against competing powers begun by his brother.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> He likewise sought ways of increasing the power and wealth of his people (Vandals and some Alans), who then resided in the <a href="/facts/Ancient_Rome/cGqIuxPd">Roman</a> province of <a href="/facts/Hispania_Baetica/SDe1RmG3">Hispania Baetica</a> in southern <a href="/facts/Hispania/EYd2cv27">Hispania</a>. The Vandals had suffered greatly from attacks from the more numerous <a href="/facts/Visigoths/1GffbA8F">Visigothic</a> <a href="/facts/Foederati/dRSUMWz9">federates</a>, and not long after taking power, Gaiseric decided to leave Hispania to his rivals. In fact, he seems to have started building a Vandal fleet for a potential exodus even before he became king. Before he could make his move to Africa, Gaiseric was attacked by a large force of <a href="/facts/Suebi/dg0NkYWh">Suebi</a> under the command of <a href="/facts/Heremigarius/rMVXQSah">Heremigarius</a>, who had managed to take <a href="/facts/Lusitania/oF5tx1MN">Lusitania</a>. However, this Suebic army was later defeated during the <a href="/facts/Battle_of_M%25C3%25A9rida_(428)/yBjyllBc">Battle of Mérida (428)</a> and its leader drowned in the <a href="/facts/Guadiana/tGgNRql5">Guadiana</a> River while trying to flee.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="africa">Africa</h2> <p class="note">Main articles: <a href="/facts/Vandal_conquest_of_Roman_Africa/AKUex0vs">Vandal conquest of Roman Africa</a> and <a href="/facts/Vandal_War_(439-442)/3eV03fjC">Vandal War (439-442)</a></p> <p>After defending the aforementioned Suebian attack at Mérida, Gaiseric led most of his people—possibly as many as 80,000 persons to <a href="/facts/Northern_Africa/ItxQAfs7">Northern Africa</a> in 428/429; some scholars claim that this figure represents an exaggeration and the number was probably closer to 20,000.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> Whatever the true numbers, there are indications that the Vandals under Gaiseric may have been invited by the Roman governor <a href="/facts/Bonifacius/n6UfpAgq">Bonifacius</a>, who wished to use the military strength of the Vandals in his struggle against the imperial government under the Roman general, <a href="/facts/Flavius_Aetius/rkl97UG5">Aetius</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> </p><p>Crossing at the Straits of Gibraltar, Gaiseric led not only his Vandal brethren and army, but was likely accompanied by a contingent of Alans and Goths.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> Once there, he won many battles over the weak and divided Roman defenders and quickly overran the territory now comprising modern <a href="/facts/Morocco/6ly8170M">Morocco</a> and northern <a href="/facts/Algeria/UXDF4Tj6">Algeria</a>. His Vandal army defeated the Bonifatius' army in the <a href="/facts/Battle_of_Calama/BlR4rxN1">battle of Calama</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> and laid siege to the city of <a href="/facts/Hippo_Regius/rQNN5FDq">Hippo Regius</a> (where <a href="/facts/Augustine_of_Hippo/RJI1otNA">Augustine</a> had recently been bishop and who died during the siege),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> taking it after <a href="/facts/Siege_of_Hippo_Regius/d6YkuNNx">14 months of bitter fighting</a>. Gaiseric and his forces then began subduing the interior of Numidia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> </p><p>A peace between Gaiseric and the <a href="/facts/Roman_Emperors/sT4nFc67">Roman Emperor</a> <a href="/facts/Valentinian_III/b5tYG8ye">Valentinian III</a> was concluded in 435,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> and in return for recognizing Gaiseric as king of the lands he had conquered, the Vandals would desist from further attacks on Carthage, pay a tribute to the Empire, and Gaiseric's son <a href="/facts/Huneric/KMlJzbod">Huneric</a> was sent—as a hostage—to Rome.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> Gaiseric's treaty with the Romans also included Vandal retention of <a href="/facts/Mauretania/w0SEbp5V">Mauretania</a> and part of <a href="/facts/Numidia/ErVpEwob">Numidia</a> as <i><a href="/facts/Foederati/dRSUMWz9">foederati</a></i> (allies under special treaty) of Rome.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> </p><p><a href="/facts/Prosper_of_Aquitaine/j3VlhCma">Prosper of Aquitaine</a> wrote that Gaiseric had four of his Hispano-Roman counsellors executed after they refused to convert to Arianism. He later banned all non-Arians from serving in his court in the 450s or 460s.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> </p><p>In a surprise move on 19 October 439, Gaiseric <a href="/facts/Battle_of_Carthage_(439)/SRfBLDzt">captured</a> <a href="/facts/Carthage/MXGPRNFA">Carthage</a>, striking a devastating blow at imperial power, taking advantage of the fact that Aetius remained preoccupied with affairs in Gaul.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> Classical scholar Stewart Oost observed, "Thus he undoubtedly achieved what had been his purpose since he first crossed to Africa."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> Historian <a href="/facts/Chris_Wickham/cQopbrgB">Chris Wickham</a> argues that Gaiseric's conquest of Carthage presaged Rome's later collapse.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> The Romans were caught unaware, and Gaiseric captured a large part of the western Roman navy docked in the port of Carthage. The <a href="/facts/Catholic/YpnKqaEL">Catholic</a> bishop of the city, <a href="/facts/Quodvultdeus/dhNdIcIh">Quodvultdeus</a>, was exiled to <a href="/facts/Naples/SXrFcg2C">Naples</a>, since Gaiseric demanded that all his close advisors follow the <a href="/facts/Arianism/c51Mv6Rk">Arian</a> form of <a href="/facts/Christianity/nKyJHlqq">Christianity</a>. The subsequent sermons of Quodvultdeus paint a "dark picture of the Vandal plunderers."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> </p><p>In the wake of Gaiseric's assault on Carthage, North African bishop and historian, <a href="/facts/Victor_Vitensis/5nMBQuES">Victor of Vita</a>, wrote in his <i>Historia persecutionis Africanae provinciae sub Geiserico et Hunerico regibus Vandalorum</i> (<i>History of the Persecution in the Province of Africa under the Vandal Kings Gaiseric and Huneric</i>) that the Vandal king immediately began to unrelentingly persecute adherents of the true Nicene Christian faith.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> According to historian Peter Heather, Victor also claimed "that 'innumerable' Nicene bishops and priests were tortured and put to death by Vandals as they sacked and pillaged Nicene churches for their treasures."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> Heather doubts Victor of Vita's claim of a deliberate and prompt campaign by Gaiseric to persecute Nicene Christians and instead, avows it was more likely not until after 442, when the combined attempt by Eastern and Western Rome to retake Carthage failed; only then did the Vandal king put "considered religious policies into operation."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> Heather likewise points out how Gaiseric's religious policies seem not to have been applied to the other Vandal provinces of <a href="/facts/Numidia/ErVpEwob">Numidia</a> and <a href="/facts/Byzacena/dlUa4lfq">Byzacena</a>, where the Nicene Church operated freely in two-thirds of the Vandal kingdom.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> </p><p>Notwithstanding the blow to the imperial coffers caused by Gaiseric's seizure of African revenue and the corresponding grain supply, the Vandal king had no intention of depriving Italy of Africa's grain, but instead wished to sell it to the emperor for profit.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> Meanwhile, his new status was that of <i>Proconsularis</i> and as such, Gaiseric made Carthage his new residence.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> Inheriting an already economically efficient and effective state, the tax revenues from his new lands enabled the Vandal conqueror to construct a large fleet that challenged imperial control over the Mediterranean.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> Gaiseric presided over a mixture of Vandals, Alans, Goths and Romans in Africa, relying on an ad-hoc administration under auspices of the imperial government to legitimize his rule.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> Latin literary culture even flourished in Carthage.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> </p><p>Gaiseric besieged Panormus (Palermo, <a href="/facts/Sicily/E6fug03z">Sicily</a>) in 440 AD but was repulsed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> Hunnic invasions into the lower Danube forced Constantinople to withdraw forces from Sicily to the benefit of Gaiseric. In a 442 treaty with Rome, the Vandals were recognized as the independent rulers of <a href="/facts/Byzacena/dlUa4lfq">Byzacena</a> and part of <a href="/facts/Numidia/ErVpEwob">Numidia</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> In 455, Gaiseric seized the <a href="/facts/Balearic_Islands/zsbDICWA">Balearic Islands</a>, <a href="/facts/Sardinia/7GGJNHCx">Sardinia</a>, <a href="/facts/Corsica/6xJ6aREr">Corsica</a>, and <a href="/facts/Malta/FsqM3M37">Malta</a>, and his fleet soon came to control much of the western Mediterranean. During 455, the Roman emperor <a href="/facts/Valentinian_III/b5tYG8ye">Valentinian III</a> was <a href="/facts/Murder/GV3zvVYY">murdered</a> on orders of <a href="/facts/Petronius_Maximus/mc96ICrv">Petronius Maximus</a>, who <a href="/facts/Usurper/n2FXPv3q">usurped</a> the throne. Petronius Maximus also married Valentinian's widow, <a href="/facts/Licinia_Eudoxia/a7Sb0EVb">Licinia Eudoxia</a>, and likewise wedded the imperial couple's daughter <a href="/facts/Eudocia_(daughter_of_Valentinian_III)/pFVzrvC4">Eudocia</a> to his own son; the latter had formerly been promised to Gaiseric's son, Huneric, which contributed a possible <i>casus belli</i> that was exploited by the Vandal king.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> Gaiseric was of the opinion that these acts voided his 442 peace treaty with Valentinian, and on 31 May, he and his men landed on <a href="/facts/Italy/tUf0PDYF">Italian</a> soil.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="sack-of-rome-in-455">Sack of Rome in 455</h2> <p>Responding to the actions of Petronius Maximus, Gaiseric moved a large seaborne force from Carthage to Italy and sacked the city in a more thorough manner than even <a href="/facts/Alaric_I/cp5tm63Q">Alaric's</a> Goths had carried out in 410.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> Historian Michael Kulikowski notes that unlike Alaric, who besieged Rome as an itinerant barbarian general in "desperate straits," Gaiseric was the king of a flourishing polity and was therefore able to systematically conduct the sack.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> More than just systematically attack Rome, Gaiseric's invasion was a devastating blow to the empire itself, so much so that the late historian Michael Grant once claimed, "Gaiseric contributed more to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire than any other single man."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> </p><p>Before Gaiseric marched upon Rome, <a href="/facts/Pope_Leo_I/nkSB3kJc">Pope Leo I</a> implored him not to destroy the ancient city or murder its inhabitants. Gaiseric agreed and the gates of Rome were thrown open to him and his men.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> Once inside the city, the invaders plundered it thoroughly, to the extent that Procopius noted how the Vandals had even stripped the gold from the ceiling of the Jupiter Capitolinus temple—but more significant was the capture of important figures and dignitaries in the city, whose return remained a bargaining point between the Vandals and the Empire for many years to come.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a> Routine Vandal raids along the coast of Italy and the Mediterranean characterized the situation during the first years after Gaiseric's successful seizure of Rome.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> </p><p>Petronius Maximus, who was foremost among those vying for power in the wake of Valentinian III's murder, fled rather than fight the Vandal warlord.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> Although history remembers the Vandal <a href="/facts/Sack_of_Rome_(455)/SqKmrKdw">sack of Rome</a> as extremely brutal—making the word <a href="/facts/Vandalism/huCfsqth">vandalism</a> a term for any wantonly destructive act—in actuality, the Vandals did not wreak great destruction in the city; they did, however, take <a href="/facts/Gold/1znknojp">gold</a>, <a href="/facts/Silver/xXe41BGg">silver</a> and many other things of value. Gaiseric also took with him Empress Eudoxia and her daughters, Eudocia, and <a href="/facts/Placidia/1WhBHNR0">Placidia</a>, as well as riches from the city. Across Italy, the shock of the Vandal sack of Rome and the ongoing presence of the Vandals paralyzed the imperial government.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> Eudocia married Gaiseric's son <a href="/facts/Huneric/KMlJzbod">Huneric</a> after arriving in Carthage.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> That union produced <a href="/facts/Hilderic/CJBb4vsP">Hilderic</a>—Gaiseric's grandson—who later played a critical role in Emperor Justinian's sixth-century conquests of north Africa.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="later-exploits-and-final-years">Later exploits and final years</h2> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Vandal_War_(461-468)/rbBl3IsU">Vandal War (461-468)</a></p> <p>Sometime in 460, the Emperor <a href="/facts/Majorian/olqVCR9M">Majorian</a> began collecting an invasion fleet for an assault against the Vandals.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a> Once Gaiseric received word of this initiative, he preempted the attack by sending vessels from Carthage to <i>Carthago Nova</i>, where the Vandal ships burned the imperial boats at their moorings, again proving himself "more than a match for the imperial establishments of both West and East."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a> Then in early 462, Gaiseric sent the empress Eudoxia with her daughters Eudocia and Placidia—captured during the sack of Rome—back to Constantinople from Carthage in an act of reconciliation with the Empire, likely intending to preserve the marriage of his son Huneric to Eudocia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a> </p><p>While rhetorical writing from the period still distinguished between "barbarian" and Romans and the imperial state attempted to exercise control over the empire and its peripheries, the elite population in the lands controlled by the likes of the Germanic chieftains <a href="/facts/Theodoric_the_Great/7aNHJB6H">Theodoric</a> and Gaiseric, preferred the certainties of their leadership over "the vagaries and ineptitude of the would-be imperial government in Italy."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a> </p><p>In 468, Gaiseric's kingdom was the target of the last concerted effort by the two-halves of the Roman Empire.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a> They wished to subdue the Vandals and end their pirate raids, so Emperor Leo sent an armada from Constantinople led by <a href="/facts/Basiliscus/pYBaB5sk">Basiliscus</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a> Gaiseric sent a fleet of 500 Vandal ships against the Romans, losing 340 ships in the first engagement, but succeeded in destroying 600 Roman ships in the second battle, during which fireships were employed by Gaiseric to devastating effect.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a> This catastrophic defeat of the Roman fleet by Gaiseric's forces was claimed to have cost the imperial coffers upwards of 64,000 pounds of gold and 700,000 pounds of silver.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a> The Romans abandoned the campaign and Gaiseric remained master of the western Mediterranean until his death, ruling from the <a href="/facts/Strait_of_Gibraltar/Bzko8DMw">Strait of Gibraltar</a> all the way to <a href="/facts/Tripolitania/1hvEXyjN">Tripolitania</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a> </p><p>Following up the <a href="/facts/Byzantine_empire/njEELXWF">Byzantine</a> defeat, the Vandals tried to invade the <a href="/facts/Peloponnese/o56B4jsB">Peloponnese</a> but were driven back by the <a href="/facts/Maniots/vplGy9dK">Maniots</a> at Kenipolis with heavy losses.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a> In retaliation, the Vandals took 500 hostages at <a href="/facts/Zakynthos/pr8Ic1u2">Zakynthos</a>, hacked them to pieces, and threw the body parts overboard on the way to Carthage.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a> </p><p>In 474, Gaiseric made peace with the <a href="/facts/Eastern_Roman_Empire/njEELXWF">Eastern Roman Empire</a> through a treaty negotiated by the Constantinopolitan Senator, Severus, who was acting under <a href="/facts/Zeno_(emperor)/AuFStWfV">Zeno's</a> authority.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a> He gave Sicily to Odoacer in 476, in exchange for an annual tribute.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a> After enjoying just a few short years of peace, Gaiseric died at Carthage in 477, succeeded by his son Huneric, who did not have his father's enviable reputation and Vandal authority began to diminish.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a> Nonetheless, the peace established by Zeno between Vandal-controlled Carthage and Constantinople lasted until 530, when Justinian's conquests broke it.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Alaric_I/cp5tm63Q">Alaric I</a></li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Augustine%3a_The_Decline_of_the_Roman_Empire/9stQjp2X">Augustine: The Decline of the Roman Empire</a></i>.</li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Barbarians_Rising/lQLdf1tl">Barbarians Rising</a></i></li> <li><a href="/facts/Battle_of_Agrigentum_(456)/KRTQAh6s">Battle of Agrigentum (456)</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Odoacer/aVVELW25">Odoacer</a></li></ul> <h3>Notes</h3> <h3>Citations</h3> <h2 id="bibliography">Bibliography</h2> <ul><li>Bunson, Matthew (1995). <i>A Dictionary of the Roman Empire</i>. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19510-233-8.</li> <li><a href="/facts/J.B._Bury/ckLfLe4a">Bury, J.B.</a> (1923). <i>History of the Later Roman Empire: From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian</i>. Vol. I. New York: Macmillan. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/963903029">963903029</a>.</li> <li>Conant, Jonathan (2012). <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/staying-roman/C3C93E5592A6765714E7C6CB922A3557"><i>Staying Roman: Conquest and Identity in Africa and the Mediterranean, 439–700</i></a>. <a href="/facts/Cambridge_University_Press/fgEBSSRq">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 9781139048101.</li> <li>Early, Joseph (2015). <i>A History of Christianity</i>. Nashville, TN: B & H Academic. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-43368-363-3.</li> <li>Gordon, Colin D. (1966). <i>The Age of Attila: Fifth Century Byzantium and the Barbarians</i>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/314897401">314897401</a>.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Michael_Grant_(classicist)/RuWpM9ms">Grant, Michael</a> (1978). <i>History of Rome</i>. New York: Scribner. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-684-15986-4.</li> <li>Greenhalgh, Peter; Eliopoulos, Edward (1986). <i>Deep into Mani: Journey to the Southern Tip of Greece</i>. London: Faber and Faber. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-57113-524-2.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Peter_Heather/IgKk4jx5">Heather, Peter</a> (2005). <i>The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians</i>. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19515-954-7.</li> <li>Heather, Peter (2012). <i>Empires and Barbarians: The Fall of Rome and the Birth of Europe</i>. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-989226-6.</li> <li>Heather, Peter (2022). <i>Christendom: The Triumph of a Religion, AD 300–1300</i>. New York: Knopf. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-45149-430-6.</li> <li>Jordanes (1915). <i>The Gothic History of Jordanes</i>. Translated by Charles C. Mierow. London: Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/463056290">463056290</a>.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Michael_Kulikowski/y2lGLyt7">Kulikowski, Michael</a> (2019). <i>The Tragedy of Empire: From Constantine to the Destruction of Roman Italy</i>. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-67466-013-7.</li> <li>Lançon, Bertrand (2001). <i>Rome in Late Antiquity: AD 312–609</i>. New York: Routledge. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-41592-975-2.</li> <li>Lee, A.D. (2013). <i>From Rome to Byzantium, AD 363 to 565: The Transformation of Ancient Rome</i>. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-74862-790-5.</li> <li>Lucas de Heere. <a href="https://lib.ugent.be/viewer/archive.ugent.be:79D46426-CC9D-11E3-B56B-4FBAD43445F2#?c=&m=&s=&cv=29&xywh=-4120,-220,13707,8315">"Théâtre de tous les peuples et nations de la terre avec leurs habits et ornemens divers, tant anciens que modernes, diligemment depeints au naturel par Luc Dheere peintre et sculpteur Gantois[manuscript]"</a>. <i>lib.ugent.be</i>. Retrieved 25 August 2020.</li> <li>Merrills, Andy; Miles, Richard (2010). <i>The Vandals</i>. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-44431-807-4.</li> <li>Oost, Stewart (1968). <i>Galla Placidia Augusta: A Biographical Essay</i>. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/561770132">561770132</a>.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Walter_Pohl/geblqvjV">Pohl, Walter</a> (2004). "The Vandals: Fragments of a Narrative". In A.H. Merrills (ed.). <i>Vandals, Romans and Berbers: New Perspectives on Late Antique North Africa</i>. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-75464-145-2.</li> <li>Schwarcz, Andreas (2004). "The Settlement of Vandals in North Africa". In A.H. Merrills (ed.). <i>Vandals, Romans and Berbers: New Perspectives on Late Antique North Africa</i>. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-75464-145-2.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Chris_Wickham/cQopbrgB">Wickham, Chris</a> (2005). <i>Framing the Early Middle Ages: Europe and the Mediterranean, 400–800</i>. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/OCLC_(identifier)/Yqad8waq">OCLC</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1025811203">1025811203</a>.</li> <li>Wijnendaele, Jeroen W. P. (2014). <i>The Last of the Romans: Bonifatius – Warlord and Comes Africae</i>. London and New York: Bloomsbury. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-78093-847-9.</li></ul> <h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2> <ul><li>Diesner, Hans-Joachim (1966). <i>Das Vandalenreich. Aufstieg und Untergang</i>. Stuttgart: <a href="/facts/Kohlhammer_Verlag/ASr7rDGN">Kohlhammer Verlag</a>.</li> <li>Duval, Noël (2003). <i>L'Afrique vandale et byzantine</i>. Turnhout: Brepols. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 2503512755.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Edward_Gibbon/D3r8xdXp">Gibbon, Edward</a> (1896–1902). <i>The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>. New York: Macmillan.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Walter_Goffart/FvJWQdsL">Goffart, Walter</a> (1980). <a href="https://archive.org/details/barbariansromans0000goff"><i>Barbarians and Romans, A.D. 418–584 : the Techniques of Accommodation</i></a>. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-691-05303-0.</li> <li>Gwatkin, H.; Whitney, J., eds. (1957). <i>The Cambridge Medieval History</i>. Cambridge: Macmillan.</li> <li>O'Donnell, James J. (1985). <a href="https://archive.org/details/augustine0000odon"><i>Augustine</i></a>. Boston: Twayne Publishers. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-8057-6609-X.</li> <li>Mills, Andrew (2010). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yTIHPoyMOFYC"><i>The Vandals</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1405160681.</li> <li>Nsiri, Mohamed-Arbi (2018). "Genséric fossoyeur de la Romanitas africaine?". <i>Libyan Studies</i>. 49 (1): 93–119. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Flis.2018.12">10.1017/lis.2018.12</a>. <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:158445490">158445490</a>.</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Early 2015, p. 116. - Early, Joseph (2015). A History of Christianity. Nashville, TN: B & H Academic. ISBN 978-1-43368-363-3. <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>See the following for more detail: Nicoletta Onesti, "Tracing the Language of the Vandals", 16 pages, 22 February 2015. Also see: Nicoletta Onesti, "The Language and Names of the Vandals" 2009, 3, 22 February 2015 <a href="https://www.academia.edu/691311/Tracing_the_Language_of_the_Vandals," target="_blank">https://www.academia.edu/691311/Tracing_the_Language_of_the_Vandals,</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Merrills & Miles 2010, pp. 49–50. - Merrills, Andy; Miles, Richard (2010). The Vandals. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-44431-807-4. <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Jordanes 1915, p. 98 [XXXIII.168]. - Jordanes (1915). The Gothic History of Jordanes. Translated by Charles C. Mierow. London: Oxford University Press. OCLC 463056290. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/463056290" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/463056290</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Kulikowski 2019, p. 196. - Kulikowski, Michael (2019). The Tragedy of Empire: From Constantine to the Destruction of Roman Italy. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-67466-013-7. <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Schwarcz 2004, p. 50. - Schwarcz, Andreas (2004). "The Settlement of Vandals in North Africa". In A.H. Merrills (ed.). Vandals, Romans and Berbers: New Perspectives on Late Antique North Africa. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-75464-145-2. <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Merrills & Miles 2010, pp. 52–54. - Merrills, Andy; Miles, Richard (2010). The Vandals. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-44431-807-4. <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>This figure is drawn from Hyd., Chron. 300.28 Lem. 77; Prosper 395.1278. Cf. also Chron. Gall 452.107.[8] Historian Peter Heather suggests a figure of 50,000 people—including more than 10,000 warriors—were moved to Africa in 429.[9] <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Merrills & Miles 2010, pp. 52–55. - Merrills, Andy; Miles, Richard (2010). The Vandals. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-44431-807-4. <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Pohl 2004, p. 38. - Pohl, Walter (2004). "The Vandals: Fragments of a Narrative". In A.H. Merrills (ed.). Vandals, Romans and Berbers: New Perspectives on Late Antique North Africa. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-75464-145-2. <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Wijnendaele 2014, pp. 89–92. - Wijnendaele, Jeroen W. P. (2014). The Last of the Romans: Bonifatius – Warlord and Comes Africae. London and New York: Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1-78093-847-9. <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Pohl 2004, p. 39. - Pohl, Walter (2004). "The Vandals: Fragments of a Narrative". In A.H. Merrills (ed.). Vandals, Romans and Berbers: New Perspectives on Late Antique North Africa. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-75464-145-2. <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Kulikowski 2019, p. 197. - Kulikowski, Michael (2019). The Tragedy of Empire: From Constantine to the Destruction of Roman Italy. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-67466-013-7. <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Pohl 2004, p. 40. - Pohl, Walter (2004). "The Vandals: Fragments of a Narrative". In A.H. Merrills (ed.). Vandals, Romans and Berbers: New Perspectives on Late Antique North Africa. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-75464-145-2. <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Heather 2005, p. 292. - Heather, Peter (2005). The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19515-954-7. <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Lee 2013, p. 116. - Lee, A.D. (2013). From Rome to Byzantium, AD 363 to 565: The Transformation of Ancient Rome. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-74862-790-5. <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Conant 2012, pp. 166–167. - Conant, Jonathan (2012). Staying Roman: Conquest and Identity in Africa and the Mediterranean, 439–700. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139048101. <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/staying-roman/C3C93E5592A6765714E7C6CB922A3557" target="_blank">https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/staying-roman/C3C93E5592A6765714E7C6CB922A3557</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Lee 2013, p. 116. - Lee, A.D. (2013). From Rome to Byzantium, AD 363 to 565: The Transformation of Ancient Rome. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-74862-790-5. <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Oost 1968, p. 259. - Oost, Stewart (1968). Galla Placidia Augusta: A Biographical Essay. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. OCLC 561770132. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/561770132" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/561770132</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Wickham 2005, p. 87. - Wickham, Chris (2005). Framing the Early Middle Ages: Europe and the Mediterranean, 400–800. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. OCLC 1025811203. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1025811203" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1025811203</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Pohl 2004, p. 40. - Pohl, Walter (2004). "The Vandals: Fragments of a Narrative". In A.H. Merrills (ed.). Vandals, Romans and Berbers: New Perspectives on Late Antique North Africa. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-75464-145-2. <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Heather 2022, p. 178. - Heather, Peter (2022). Christendom: The Triumph of a Religion, AD 300–1300. New York: Knopf. ISBN 978-0-45149-430-6. <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Heather 2022, pp. 178–179. - Heather, Peter (2022). Christendom: The Triumph of a Religion, AD 300–1300. New York: Knopf. ISBN 978-0-45149-430-6. <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Heather 2022, p. 179. - Heather, Peter (2022). Christendom: The Triumph of a Religion, AD 300–1300. New York: Knopf. ISBN 978-0-45149-430-6. <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Heather 2022, p. 180. - Heather, Peter (2022). Christendom: The Triumph of a Religion, AD 300–1300. New York: Knopf. ISBN 978-0-45149-430-6. <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Kulikowski 2019, pp. 204–205. - Kulikowski, Michael (2019). The Tragedy of Empire: From Constantine to the Destruction of Roman Italy. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-67466-013-7. <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Kulikowski 2019, p. 205. - Kulikowski, Michael (2019). The Tragedy of Empire: From Constantine to the Destruction of Roman Italy. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-67466-013-7. <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>Kulikowski 2019, p. 205. - Kulikowski, Michael (2019). The Tragedy of Empire: From Constantine to the Destruction of Roman Italy. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-67466-013-7. <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>Kulikowski 2019, p. 267. - Kulikowski, Michael (2019). The Tragedy of Empire: From Constantine to the Destruction of Roman Italy. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-67466-013-7. <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>Kulikowski 2019, p. 268. - Kulikowski, Michael (2019). The Tragedy of Empire: From Constantine to the Destruction of Roman Italy. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-67466-013-7. <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>Bury 1923, pp. 254. - Bury, J.B. (1923). History of the Later Roman Empire: From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian. Vol. I. New York: Macmillan. OCLC 963903029. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/963903029" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/963903029</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:32"><p>Lee 2013, p. 117. - Lee, A.D. (2013). From Rome to Byzantium, AD 363 to 565: The Transformation of Ancient Rome. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-74862-790-5. <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:33"><p>Lançon 2001, p. 40. - Lançon, Bertrand (2001). Rome in Late Antiquity: AD 312–609. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-41592-975-2. <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:34"><p>Bury 1923, pp. 283–290. - Bury, J.B. (1923). History of the Later Roman Empire: From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian. Vol. I. New York: Macmillan. OCLC 963903029. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/963903029" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/963903029</a> <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:35"><p>Lee 2013, p. 121. - Lee, A.D. (2013). From Rome to Byzantium, AD 363 to 565: The Transformation of Ancient Rome. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-74862-790-5. <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:36"><p>Kulikowski 2019, p. 215. - Kulikowski, Michael (2019). The Tragedy of Empire: From Constantine to the Destruction of Roman Italy. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-67466-013-7. <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:37"><p>Grant 1978, p. 432. - Grant, Michael (1978). History of Rome. New York: Scribner. ISBN 0-684-15986-4. <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:38"><p>Bury 1923, pp. 284–290. - Bury, J.B. (1923). History of the Later Roman Empire: From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian. Vol. I. New York: Macmillan. OCLC 963903029. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/963903029" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/963903029</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:39"><p>Nonetheless, Gaiseric's military success had long been and certainly remained dependent upon the continued support of not only his Vandal kin, but that of his allied Suebi, Alans, and Goths.[37] <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:40"><p>Merrills & Miles 2010, pp. 116–117. - Merrills, Andy; Miles, Richard (2010). The Vandals. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-44431-807-4. <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:41"><p>Merrills & Miles 2010, p. 118. - Merrills, Andy; Miles, Richard (2010). The Vandals. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-44431-807-4. <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:42"><p>Kulikowski 2019, pp. 214–215. - Kulikowski, Michael (2019). The Tragedy of Empire: From Constantine to the Destruction of Roman Italy. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-67466-013-7. <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:43"><p>Maximus was killed by a Roman mob outside the city, fatally struck it seems by a roof tile hurled at him and then his body torn limb for limb.[34] <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:44"><p>Kulikowski 2019, p. 215. - Kulikowski, Michael (2019). The Tragedy of Empire: From Constantine to the Destruction of Roman Italy. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-67466-013-7. <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:45"><p>Some of the treasures taken back to Carthage by Gaiseric included valuables acquired from the Roman sack of Jerusalem from 70 AD.[33] Additionally, Gaiseric led an incursion near Agrigento in 456 but was repulsed there and defeated by Ricimer in a naval battle off the coast of Corsica.[41] <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:46"><p>Bury 1923, pp. 287–290. - Bury, J.B. (1923). History of the Later Roman Empire: From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian. Vol. I. New York: Macmillan. OCLC 963903029. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/963903029" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/963903029</a> <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:47"><p>Lee 2013, p. 121. - Lee, A.D. (2013). From Rome to Byzantium, AD 363 to 565: The Transformation of Ancient Rome. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-74862-790-5. <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:48"><p>Two consecutive decades' worth of conflict between the Vandals and the two Empires followed the sack of Rome, until they eventually reached peace in 476. The subsequent deaths of both the last Roman Emperor of the West (Romulus) and Gaiseric—atop the succession of inept barbarian leadership—diminished the threats to the ever more powerful Byzantine Empire.[43] <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:49"><p>Kulikowski 2019, pp. 219–220. - Kulikowski, Michael (2019). The Tragedy of Empire: From Constantine to the Destruction of Roman Italy. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-67466-013-7. <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:50"><p>Kulikowski 2019, p. 220. - Kulikowski, Michael (2019). The Tragedy of Empire: From Constantine to the Destruction of Roman Italy. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-67466-013-7. <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:51"><p>Kulikowski 2019, p. 220. - Kulikowski, Michael (2019). The Tragedy of Empire: From Constantine to the Destruction of Roman Italy. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-67466-013-7. <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:52"><p>Kulikowski 2019, p. 221. - Kulikowski, Michael (2019). The Tragedy of Empire: From Constantine to the Destruction of Roman Italy. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-67466-013-7. <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:53"><p>The rogue military commander Marcellinus—who ruled in Dalmatia—even dealt a naval defeat to Gaiseric's fleet at Sicily in 464–465, albeit acting on his own accord.[47] <a href="/wiki/Marcellinus_(magister_militum)" target="_blank">/wiki/Marcellinus_(magister_militum)</a> <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:54"><p>He occupied Sicily in 468 for 8 years until the island was ceded in 476 to Odoacer except for a toehold on the far west coast, Lilybaeum, which was ceded in 491 to Theodoric.[48] <a href="/wiki/Odoacer" target="_blank">/wiki/Odoacer</a> <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:55"><p>Lee 2013, p. 121. - Lee, A.D. (2013). From Rome to Byzantium, AD 363 to 565: The Transformation of Ancient Rome. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-74862-790-5. <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:56"><p>According to Procopius, the total invasion force consisted of 100,000 men with a fleet drawn from the whole of the eastern Mediterranean. For more on this, see: Procopius, De Bello III.6.1. Translated by H.B. Dewing, Procopius (Cambridge: Loeb Classical Library, 1979), vol. 2 p. 55. <a href="/wiki/Procopius" target="_blank">/wiki/Procopius</a> <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:57"><p>Lee 2013, pp. 121–122. - Lee, A.D. (2013). From Rome to Byzantium, AD 363 to 565: The Transformation of Ancient Rome. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-74862-790-5. <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:58"><p>Kulikowski 2019, p. 241. - Kulikowski, Michael (2019). The Tragedy of Empire: From Constantine to the Destruction of Roman Italy. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-67466-013-7. <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:59"><p>Gordon 1966, p. 120fn. - Gordon, Colin D. (1966). The Age of Attila: Fifth Century Byzantium and the Barbarians. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. OCLC 314897401. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/314897401" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/314897401</a> <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:60"><p>See the translation of Priscus, fragment 42 and Candidus Isaurus in Gordon. <a href="/wiki/Priscus" target="_blank">/wiki/Priscus</a> <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:61"><p>Numismatic evidence indicates that Gaiseric had coins minted in his likeness. See: https://artgallery.yale.edu/collections/objects/126957 <a href="https://artgallery.yale.edu/collections/objects/126957" target="_blank">https://artgallery.yale.edu/collections/objects/126957</a> <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:62"><p>Greenhalgh & Eliopoulos 1986, p. 21. - Greenhalgh, Peter; Eliopoulos, Edward (1986). Deep into Mani: Journey to the Southern Tip of Greece. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 0-57113-524-2. <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:63"><p>Greenhalgh & Eliopoulos 1986, p. 21. - Greenhalgh, Peter; Eliopoulos, Edward (1986). Deep into Mani: Journey to the Southern Tip of Greece. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 0-57113-524-2. <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:64"><p>Conant 2012, p. 32. - Conant, Jonathan (2012). Staying Roman: Conquest and Identity in Africa and the Mediterranean, 439–700. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139048101. <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/staying-roman/C3C93E5592A6765714E7C6CB922A3557" target="_blank">https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/staying-roman/C3C93E5592A6765714E7C6CB922A3557</a> <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:65"><p>Conant 2012, p. 38. - Conant, Jonathan (2012). Staying Roman: Conquest and Identity in Africa and the Mediterranean, 439–700. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139048101. <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/staying-roman/C3C93E5592A6765714E7C6CB922A3557" target="_blank">https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/staying-roman/C3C93E5592A6765714E7C6CB922A3557</a> <a href="#fnref:65" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:66"><p>Merrills & Miles 2010, pp. 123–126. - Merrills, Andy; Miles, Richard (2010). The Vandals. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-44431-807-4. <a href="#fnref:66" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:67"><p>Kulikowski 2019, p. 244. - Kulikowski, Michael (2019). The Tragedy of Empire: From Constantine to the Destruction of Roman Italy. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-67466-013-7. <a href="#fnref:67" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>