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Sultanate of Bijapur
Muslim dynasty (1490–1686)

The Sultanate of Bijapur was an early modern kingdom in the western Deccan and South India, ruled by the Adil Shahi dynasty after gaining independence from the Bahmani Kingdom in 1490. Rising under Yusuf Adil Shah, Bijapur became a powerful Deccan sultanate known for its conflicts with neighbours like the Vijayanagara Empire—notably at the Battle of Talikota in 1565—and expansion into regions such as the Raichur Doab. Its capital, Bijapur, was extensively developed with iconic mosques and palaces exemplifying Deccani and Indo-Islamic architecture. Ultimately, Bijapur fell to the Mughal Empire under Aurangzeb in 1686 after enduring pressures from Mughals and the rising Maratha Confederacy.

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History

The founder of the dynasty, Yusuf Adil Shah, may have been a Georgian slave3 who was purchased by Mahmud Gawan.4 Other historians have said that he is of Persian5 or Turkmen origin.67 According to the contemporary historian Firishta, Yusuf was a son of the Ottoman Sultan Murad II; however, this is disputed by modern historians.89 Another theory is that he was an Aq Qoyunlu Turkman.101112

Founding and consolidation (1490–1580)

Yusuf impressed Bahmani Sultan Muhammad Shah III, and he was appointed governor of Bijapur.1314 Yusuf took advantage of Bahmani decline to establish himself as an independent sultan at Bijapur in 1490, pursuing the same goal Malik Ahmad Nizam Shah I had that year.1516 He proclaimed Shia Islam as the official religion of his territorial holdings in 1503,1718 following the lead of Shah Ismail of the Safavid dynasty.19 Yusuf conquered and annexed the Bahmani taraf of Gulbarga the following year2021 and reinstated his Shia mandate shortly afterwards, a year after he revoked it under threat of invasion.22 A Portuguese Empire colonial expedition led by Afonso de Albuquerque exerted pressure on the major Adil Shahi port of Goa, conquering it in 1510;23 Yusuf retook the settlement two months later, but the Portuguese again conquered it in November of that year.24

Yusuf died in 1510, between these two clashes with the Portuguese,25 when his son Ismail Adil Shah26 was a boy. Ismail's regent, Kamal Khan, staged an unsuccessful coup against him; he was killed, and Ismail became the absolute ruler of Bijapur.27 In 1514, a dispute over Gulbaraga province led the rulers of the Ahmednagar, Golconda, and Bidar Sultanates to unsuccessfully invade Ismail Adil Shah's provinces.28 Krishnadevaraya, ruler of Vijayanagara, laid siege to the Bijapuri fort of Raichur in 1520. The siege continued for three months until the emperor's encounter with Ismail, who attempted to end it. Ismail was defeated by Krishnadevaraya in the Battle of Raichur; initially successful, with an advantage in artillery29 (in its first major appearance in a South Asian battle),30 Ismail was routed by the Vijayanagara forces in a surprise counter-attack which scattered much of his forces.31 Soon after Ismail's retreat, Krishnadevaraya captured the Raichur fort.32 In a later diplomatic conflict, Krishnadevaraya occupied Bijapur for an extended period and the sultan refused to see him.33 Ismail invaded the territory of Amir Barid I of Bidar in 1529, besieging his capital; Aladdin Imad Shah of Berar unsuccessfully tried to mediate the conflict.34 Amir Barid surrendered the fort of Bidar, which was looted by Ismail and his troops. Ismail recaptured Raichur and Mudgal from Vijayanagara the following year, after the death of Krishnadevaraya.35 Amir Barid agreed with Ismail to cede him the forts of Kalyani and Qandhar in exchange for Ismail's surrender of Bidar.36

Ismail was succeeded in 1534 by Mallu Adil Shah, whose reign was short-lived. Installed by a prominent Bijapuri noble, Asad Khan, he is noted for incompetence; Vijayanagara invaded the sultanate and seize the Raichur Doab from the Adil Shahis. Mallu Adil Shah was soon blinded and removed from power.3738

Ibrahim Adil Shah I, Ismail's son, succeeded Mallu the following year.39 He established Sunni Islam as the state religion40 and made anti-Westerner changes,41 abolishing the use of Persian in some administrative tasks (although it remained the sultanate's official language)42 and replacing many Westerners with Deccanis.4344 Ibrahim also invaded the Vijayanagara Empire; he pillaged a number of cities and besieged the capital, Vijayanagara, but did not seize any territory in the long term and returned home with only non-territorial rewards.45 In another conflict with the Portuguese, Ibrahim ceded two ports in the fear that trade through Goa might be cut off from the Adil Shahis.46 His kingdom was invaded four times by Ahmednagar Sultanate forces, the sultanate's greatest adversary. Sultan Burhan Nizam Shah I initially allied himself with Bidar in his first invasion (which saw no territorial losses for Bijapur) but Bidar, ruled by Ali Barid Shah I, allied itself with Bijapur in the second invasion: a quadruple alliance of Ahmednagar, Jamsheed Quli Qutb Shah of Golconda, Vijayanagara, and Darya Imad Shah of Berar.47 The war was a defeat for the Bijapuri–Bidar side, who ceded a northern district of the Bijapur Sultanate to Ahmednagar. Burhan and Ibrahim allowed Ahmednagar freedom to expand in Bidar if Bijapur had the same freedom to annex lands from Vijayanagara; Ibrahim imprisoned Ali Barid Shahi of Bidar despite their former alliance, although he was later freed by Jamsheed (who wanted a buffer state in the Deccan).48 Burhan Nizam Shah besieged the Bijapuri city of Solapur four times,49 but did not retain it until a third invasion which occupied territory on the southern border. Burhan advanced in a fourth invasion in 1553 with Vijayanagara almost to the Bijapuri capital, but retreated due to failing health.50

Ali Adil Shah I, who ascended the throne in 1558, reestablished Shia Islam as the state religion.51 He unsuccessfully asked Hussain Nizam Shah I for the return of Solapur and Kaliyani (both seized in Ahmednagari invasions)52 and then invaded the Nizam Shahi kingdom with assistance from Vijayanagara's de facto ruler Rama Raya and Ibrahim Qutb Shah, besieging Ahmednagar and other cities. Hussain sued for peace in 1561, submitting to Rama Raya and returning Kaliyani to Ali Adil Shah.5354 In 1563, Hussain attempted to regain Kaliyani and again besieged it. Ahmednagar was besieged by Ali, and Hussain was forced to abandon his siege of Kaliyani; the only beneficiary of the conflict was Vijayanagara, who gained territory from invading Golconda.5556 Vijayanagara negotiated additional land from Bijapur, including the cities of Yadgir and Bagalkote.57 Wary of Vijayanagara's growing power, Ali allied his forces with the sultans of Golconda, Ahmednagar and Bidar (despite past conflicts) and defeated the Vijayanagara Empire in the 1565 Battle of Talikota. Rama Raya was beheaded after his capture by Deccani forces. Vijayanagara and nearby cities were sacked and looted (Vijayanagara for five to six months),5859 and historian Hermann Goetz said that this prompted the emigration of much of Vijayanagara's population to Bijapur.60 The Raichur Doab and its surrounding area were returned to Bijapur. The Vijayanagara military was demolished, and the kingdom was a shell of its former self.6162 Ali I then fortified Bijapur with a wall, which facilitated the further centralization of authority. Subsequent architectural projects encouraged the growth of the city and its skilled class.63 Another conflict between Ahmednagar and Bijapur arose in 1567; although Ali invaded Ahmednagar and his forces occupied a number of forts, the war ended in a stalemate.64 A 1570 conflict with the Portuguese began with the hope of expelling them from India, but Ali was defeated after a number of encounters the following year.6566 He then annexed more land from Vijayanagara in a campaign which lasted until 1575, conquering Adoni and much of the Carnatic.67 Ali also began a campaign to capture the Karnatak;68 according to Richard M. Eaton, his "armies destroyed two to three hundred Hindu temples" which were replaced with Shia buildings.69 By 1576, land gained under Ali I had doubled the sultanate's holdings.70 He forged diplomatic relations with the Mughals, Ottomans, and Safavids during his reign, which Eaton says brought the sultanate into the dar al-islam.71

Peak and decline (1580–1686)

Ali I had no son, and his nine-year-old nephew Ibrahim II was set on the throne in 1580.72 Control of the regency was contested by Kamal Khan7374 and, later, by the Habshi Dilawar Khan (who reverted the state religion to Sunni Islam). Dilawar was deposed by Ibrahim II in 1590.75 Ibrahim's rule was characterised by prosperity and patronage;7677 Sufism thrived, with its adherents and others flocking to Bijapur7879 because of his talent as a musician and poet.80 Religious and cultural syncretism reached a zenith, and the capital was one of India's most prosperous;81 population estimates in the latter half of Ibrahim's rule are as high as one million,82 and accounts from a Jesuit in Ali I's rule and a Mughal diplomat in the same period of Ibrahim's rule indicate the increase of wealth of the commoners and city.83 Ibrahim suppressed a 1594 rebellion by his brother, Ismail, who was aided by Burhan II of Ahmednagar.84 Despite their past quarrels, the Adil Shahis formed an alliance in 1597 with Ahmednagar and Golconda to deter further Mughal advances in the Deccan. The alliance, led by a Bijapuri general, was defeated despite a three-to-one numerical advantage.8586 Ahmednagar fell to the Mughals in 1600,87 but Ibrahim continued to support the eventually-successful resistance of Malik Ambar.88 Ibrahim II founded the city of Nauraspur in 1599, three kilometers west of Bijapur,89 as a planned center of learning and art; never completed,90 it was destroyed in 1624 by Malik Ambar's forces.91 In 1618, the sultan lost the fortress of Janjira to the independent Habshi state of western India.92 The following year, Bijapur conquered the neighbouring Bidar Sultanate93 (although control of the state was achieved as early as 1580).94 This was preceded by an agreement between the rulers of Bijapur and the Ahmednagar Sultanate, who divided their spheres of influence; the Ahmednagar Sultanate could conquer the Berar Sultanate if the Adil Shahis could expand south into the decaying Vijayanagara Empire without hindrance from the Nizam Shahis.9596 Bidar was in neither sphere of influence and Malik Ambar, de facto ruler of Ahmednagar, invaded Bijapur; after reaching the capital relatively unopposed, he withdrew.97 In addition to his work on Nauraspur, the sultan built the Ibrahim Rauza.98

Muhammad Adil Shah succeeded his father, Ibrahim II, in 1627. Under Muhammad, the Sultanate of Bijapur reached its zenith.99100 The first Mughal invasion of the sultanate was in 1631 by Shah Jahan, who reached (and besieged) Bijapur but was ultimately unsuccessful.101 In 1636, Bijapur signed a treaty agreeing to pay tribute to the Mughal emperor102 and acknowledge Mughal authority.103 As a reward for this gesture, the recent Mughal conquest of Ahmednagar was partitioned between the two states.104 The treaty began a period of relative peace with the Mughals, allowing for more southern conquests;105106 Bijapur reached its territorial peak, with its borders stretching from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal. The sultanate began a rapid decline halfway through Muhammad's reign,107 primarily due to strained relations with nobles and landholders (many of whom later worked for the Mughals)108 and the revolt of Pune governor Shivaji,109 whose father was a Maratha commander for Muhammad Adil Shah (part of the Karnatak campaigns).110111 Muhammad Adil Shah died in 1656 after a decade-long, paralyzing illness.112

Ali Adil Shah II inherited a troubled kingdom which was invaded by Mughal forces in 1657 under viceroy Aurangzeb, who captured Bidar and other forts and reached Bijapur before retreating; Aurangzeb annexed much of the occupied territory, including Bidar.113114 The stability of the Bijapur Sultanate was again affected by trouble with the Marathas, who persisted with raids and rebellions.115 Bijapuri general Afzal Khan was sent to subdue Shivaji in 1659, but he was murdered and his home fort of Pratapgarh was captured in a confrontation with Shivaji.116 Despite further Maratha advances in the north, Ali continued his southern campaigns in the Karnatak and Carnatic and captured Thanjavur and other cities from the Nayakas from 1659 to 1663.117

Sikandar Adil Shah, the last Adil Shahi sultan, ruled for fourteen troubled years. His reign saw a number of civil wars, internal strife and unrest, particularly over his regency; he was four years old at his accession.118 Khawas Khan, Sikandar's first regent and leader of the Deccani faction,119 took control of the state before his removal from power.120 Shivaji founded an independent Maratha kingdom which became the Maratha Confederacy in 1674, with de facto control of much of the Adil Shahis' original territory in the Deccan. He undid almost all the southern Bijapuri conquests over the following years, annexing the territory121 and renewing efforts to conquer the remaining Muslim Deccan states after Shivaji's death in 1680.122 In April 1685, Mughal forces led by Aurangzeb began a siege of Bijapur;123 at its conclusion, on 12 September 1686,124 the Sultanate of Bijapur came to an end.125 The capital and its surrounding territory were annexed into an eponymous subah,126 and Sikandar was sent into Mughal captivity.127

Culture

See also: Deccan sultanates § Bijapur

Architecture

Main article: Architecture of the Deccan sultanates § Bijapur Sultanate

See also: Bijapur Fort

The sultanate's architecture, a subset of Deccani architecture, was a variant of Indo-Islamic architecture influenced by that of the Middle East.128 Adil Shahi architecture was of good quality with a localized, unique nature. It was characterised by large domes and dargahs (Sufi shrines), complex turrets,129 geometric and Arabic (or Persian) calligraphic designs,130131 and decorated friezes of tholobates.132

Yusuf Adil Shah, the first sultan, began by expanding two dargahs at Gulbarga with minarets.133 The first building characteristic of Adil Shahi architecture was a Jama Masjid built during the reign of Ibrahim Adil Shah I.134 The primary Jami Masjid of Bijapur, built under Ali I, was commissioned in 1576.135 The largest of any structure of its type in the Deccan when it was built,136 Eaton calls it "one of the most imposing and magnificent" in the region.137 Under Ibrahim II, the sultanate's most prolific patron,138 Adil Shahi architecture focused on intricate carvings and detail139 and adopted Hindu–Muslim syncretism;140 this change is seen in the Malika Jahan Begum mosque built by the sultan in 1586. His most notable commissioned work was the eponymous Ibrahim Rauza, completed in 1626, with a mosque built in honour of his wife and a mausoleum for his family.141 Mohammed Adil Shah facilitated the creation of the Gol Gumbaz, his mausoleum and one of Bijapur's greatest monuments. It is supported by large, arched recesses and a massive dome,142 the largest in the Islamic world143 when it was nearly completed at Muhammad's death in 1656.144 The last major Adil Shahi architectural project was the Bara Kaman, Ali Adil Shah II's unfinished mausoleum, which halted construction with his death in 1672.145

Painting and literature

The Adil Shahis used miniature painting from the Bijapur school of Deccan painting. Miniature painting was virtually nonexistent in the sultanate before the reign of Ali I, but became widespread under his rule and flourished under Ibrahim II and his successors.146147 The Bijapur school of painting was rooted in Persian miniature painting and culture, and was usually baroque in style.148 In contrast to North Indian contemporary painting, it seldom depicted events and scenes of war but focused on atmospheric, picturesque fantasies and dreams, avoiding logic in general.149

The Adil Shahi sultans promoted the development of writing in the Deccani language, and Bijapur was a center of its early literary evolution.150 Ibrahim II, a skilled writer of Deccani Urdu literature,151 was one of its earliest proponents. He wrote the Kitab-i Nauras, a Deccani musical poetry work,152 and patronized a number of poets and their work. His poet laureate, the Persian Muhammad Zuhuri,153154 wrote the Saqinama, a collection of lyric poetry.155 After entering Ibrahim's service in 1604 and gaining his trust, Firishta followed the sultan's suggestion and wrote the Tarikh-i Firishta, his history of the medieval Deccan which is the basis for much modern historiography on the region and period.156157 Nusrati, a noted Deccani poet, wrote the later romantic poem Gulshan-i 'Ishq and a narrative of the sultan's conquests under the patronage of Ali Adil Shah II.158

Rulers

Nine sultans ruled the Sultanate of Bijapur from 1490 to 1686, with the title of Sultan of Bijapur.159

Adil Shahi dynasty
Yusuf Adil Shah (1) R.1490–1510
Ismail Adil Shah (2) R.1510–1534
Mallu Adil Shah (3) R.1534–1535Ibrahim Adil Shah I (4) R.1534–1558
Ali Adil Shah I (5) R.1558–1580Tahmasp
Ibrahim Adil Shah II (6) R.1580–1627
Mohammed Adil Shah (7) R.1627–1656
Ali Adil Shah II (8) R.1656–1672
Sikandar Adil Shah (9) R.1672–1686
Titular NamePersonal NameReign
Independence from the Bahmani Sultanate (1490)
AmirأمیرYusuf Adil Shah یوسف عادل شاہ1490–1510
Adil Khaniعادل خانیIsmail Adil Shah اسماعیل عادل شاہ1510–1534
Adil Khaniعادل خانیMallu Adil Shahملو عادل شاہ1534–1535
Adil Khaniعادل خانیIbrahim Adil Shah I ابراہیم عادل شاہ اول1535–1558
Adil Khaniعادل خانیAli Adil Shah I علی عادل شاہ اول1558–1580
Adil Khaniعادل خانیIbrahim Adil Shah IIابراہیم عادل شاہ دوئم1580–1627
Adil Khaniعادل خانیMohammed Adil Shah محمد عادل شاہ 1627–1656
Adil Khaniعادل خانیAli Adil Shah II علی عادل شاہ دوئم1656–1672
Adil Khaniعادل خانیSikandar Adil Shah سکندر عادل شاہ 1672–1686
Conquered by Aurangzeb of the Mughal Empire in 1686.

See also

Notes

Citations

Sources

Further reading

  • Chapter on "Persian Literature in Bijapur Sultanate" in The Rise, Growth And Decline of Indo-Persian Literature by R.M. Chopra, Iran Culture House, New Delhi, 2012.
Wikiquote has quotations related to Adil Shahi dynasty. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bijapur Sultanate.

References

  1. Persian: عادل شاهیان /wiki/Persian_language

  2. Eaton 1978, p. xxiii. - Eaton, Richard M. (1978). The Sufis of Bijapur, 1300–1700. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9781400868155. https://books.google.com/books?id=j2F9BgAAQBAJ

  3. Subrahmanyam, Sanjay (2012). Courtly Encounters: Translating Courtliness and Violence in Early Modern Eurasia. Harvard University Press. p. 101. ISBN 978-0-674-06736-3. 978-0-674-06736-3

  4. Majumdar 1974, p. 445. - Majumdar, R.C., ed. (1974). "The Five Sultanates of the Deccan". The Mughul Empire. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. https://archive.org/details/mughal-empire-r.-c.-majumdar-1974

  5. Meri, Josef W. (2006). Medieval Islamic Civilization, Volume 1 An Encyclopedia. Routledge. p. 108. ISBN 978-0-415-96691-7. In 1481, Yusuf 'Adil Khan, a Persian slave who claimed to descend from the Ottoman sultan Murad III, became the governor of Bijapur. 978-0-415-96691-7

  6. Vernon O. Egger (2016). A History of the Muslim World since 1260: The Making of a Global Community. Routledge. ISBN 9781315511078. 9781315511078

  7. Clifford Edmund Bosworth (2007). Historic Cities of the Islamic World. Brill. p. 55. ISBN 978-9004153882. 978-9004153882

  8. Sherwani 1973, p. 291. - Sherwani, Haroon Khan (1973). History of Medieval Deccan (1295–1724) : Volume I. Government of Andhra Pradesh. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.142905

  9. Nikki R. Keddie,Rudi Matthee (2011). Iran and the Surrounding World: Interactions in Culture and Cultural Politics. University of Washington Press. p. 25. ISBN 9780295800240. 9780295800240

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  11. Farooqui, Salma Ahmed (2011). A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: From Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India. p. 174. ISBN 978-81-317-3202-1. 978-81-317-3202-1

  12. Nikki R. Keddie,Rudi Matthee (2011). Iran and the Surrounding World: Interactions in Culture and Cultural Politics. University of Washington Press. p. 25. ISBN 9780295800240. 9780295800240

  13. Sherwani 1946, p. 342. - Sherwani, Haroon Khan (1946). The Bahmanis of the Deccan – An Objective Study. Krishnavas International Printers, Hyderabad Deccan. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.68551

  14. Sherwani 1973, p. 291. - Sherwani, Haroon Khan (1973). History of Medieval Deccan (1295–1724) : Volume I. Government of Andhra Pradesh. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.142905

  15. Sherwani 1973, p. 291. - Sherwani, Haroon Khan (1973). History of Medieval Deccan (1295–1724) : Volume I. Government of Andhra Pradesh. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.142905

  16. Eaton 2019, p. 151. - Eaton, Richard M. (2019). India in the Persianate Age, 1000–1765. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520325128. https://books.google.com/books?id=EkkSEQAAQBAJ

  17. Eaton 2019, p. 151. - Eaton, Richard M. (2019). India in the Persianate Age, 1000–1765. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520325128. https://books.google.com/books?id=EkkSEQAAQBAJ

  18. Majumdar 1974, p. 446. - Majumdar, R.C., ed. (1974). "The Five Sultanates of the Deccan". The Mughul Empire. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. https://archive.org/details/mughal-empire-r.-c.-majumdar-1974

  19. Hutton, Deborah S. (2010). "ʿĀdil Shāhīs". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (3rd ed.). Brill Online. ISSN 1873-9830. https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/entries/EI3O/COM-23656.xml

  20. Haig 1925, p. 429. - Haig, Wolseley (1925). Cambridge History of India Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.46989

  21. Majumdar 1974, p. 446. - Majumdar, R.C., ed. (1974). "The Five Sultanates of the Deccan". The Mughul Empire. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. https://archive.org/details/mughal-empire-r.-c.-majumdar-1974

  22. Hutton, Deborah S. (2010). "ʿĀdil Shāhīs". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (3rd ed.). Brill Online. ISSN 1873-9830. https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/entries/EI3O/COM-23656.xml

  23. Chandra 2014, pp. 156–157. - Chandra, Satish (2014). History of Medieval India 800–1700 A.D. Orient BlackSwan. ISBN 9788125032267. https://archive.org/details/history-of-medieval-india-800-1700_202303/page

  24. Sherwani 1973, p. 303. - Sherwani, Haroon Khan (1973). History of Medieval Deccan (1295–1724) : Volume I. Government of Andhra Pradesh. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.142905

  25. Sherwani 1973, p. 303. - Sherwani, Haroon Khan (1973). History of Medieval Deccan (1295–1724) : Volume I. Government of Andhra Pradesh. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.142905

  26. Yusuf and his son, Ismail, generally used the title Adil Khan. "Khan" ("chief" in a number of Central Asian cultures and adopted in Persia) conferred lower status than "Shah", which indicated royal rank. With the rule of Yusuf's grandson, Ibrahim Adil Shah I (r. 1534–1558), the title "Adil Shah" became common, but Bijapur rulers recognized Safavid Persian suzerainty over their realm.[22] /wiki/Ismail_Adil_Shah

  27. Majumdar 1974, p. 447. - Majumdar, R.C., ed. (1974). "The Five Sultanates of the Deccan". The Mughul Empire. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. https://archive.org/details/mughal-empire-r.-c.-majumdar-1974

  28. Haig 1925, p. 430. - Haig, Wolseley (1925). Cambridge History of India Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.46989

  29. Eaton 2009, p. 299. - Eaton, Richard M. (2009). "'Kiss My Foot,' Said the King: Firearms, Diplomacy and the Battle for Raichur, 1520". Modern Asian Studies. 43 (1). Cambridge University Press: 289–313. doi:10.1017/S0026749X07003289. JSTOR 20488080. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20488080

  30. Eaton 2009, p. 289. - Eaton, Richard M. (2009). "'Kiss My Foot,' Said the King: Firearms, Diplomacy and the Battle for Raichur, 1520". Modern Asian Studies. 43 (1). Cambridge University Press: 289–313. doi:10.1017/S0026749X07003289. JSTOR 20488080. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20488080

  31. Eaton 2009, pp. 302–303. - Eaton, Richard M. (2009). "'Kiss My Foot,' Said the King: Firearms, Diplomacy and the Battle for Raichur, 1520". Modern Asian Studies. 43 (1). Cambridge University Press: 289–313. doi:10.1017/S0026749X07003289. JSTOR 20488080. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20488080

  32. Eaton 2009, pp. 304–305. - Eaton, Richard M. (2009). "'Kiss My Foot,' Said the King: Firearms, Diplomacy and the Battle for Raichur, 1520". Modern Asian Studies. 43 (1). Cambridge University Press: 289–313. doi:10.1017/S0026749X07003289. JSTOR 20488080. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20488080

  33. Eaton 2009, pp. 306–307. - Eaton, Richard M. (2009). "'Kiss My Foot,' Said the King: Firearms, Diplomacy and the Battle for Raichur, 1520". Modern Asian Studies. 43 (1). Cambridge University Press: 289–313. doi:10.1017/S0026749X07003289. JSTOR 20488080. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20488080

  34. Yazdani 1947, p. 12. - Yazdani, Ghulam (1947). Bidar, Its History and Monuments. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9788120810716. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.279710/page/n1

  35. Majumdar 1974, pp. 448–449. - Majumdar, R.C., ed. (1974). "The Five Sultanates of the Deccan". The Mughul Empire. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. https://archive.org/details/mughal-empire-r.-c.-majumdar-1974

  36. Yazdani 1947, p. 13. - Yazdani, Ghulam (1947). Bidar, Its History and Monuments. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9788120810716. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.279710/page/n1

  37. Majumdar 1974, p. 449. - Majumdar, R.C., ed. (1974). "The Five Sultanates of the Deccan". The Mughul Empire. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. https://archive.org/details/mughal-empire-r.-c.-majumdar-1974

  38. Flatt 2019, p. 140. - Flatt, Emma J. (2019). The Courts of the Deccan Sultanates: Living Well in the Persian Cosmopolis. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781108481939. https://books.google.com/books?id=HDGdDwAAQBAJ

  39. Flatt 2019, p. 140. - Flatt, Emma J. (2019). The Courts of the Deccan Sultanates: Living Well in the Persian Cosmopolis. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781108481939. https://books.google.com/books?id=HDGdDwAAQBAJ

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  41. The "Westerners", also known as the gharibs or afaqis, were a faction in the Deccani and Bahmani courts of anyone not native to the subcontinent ("west" of it) and were typically Persian-speaking and Shia Muslim.[35][36]

  42. Baqir, Muhammad. "BĪJĀPŪR". iranicaonline.org. Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 8 February 2017. The official language of the court at Bījāpūr during the ʿĀdelšāhī period and until the end of Mughal rule in 1274/1858 was Persian. Indeed, Yūsof ʿĀdelšāh (895–916/1489–1510) and his son Esmāʿīl themselves wrote poetry in Persian, Esmāʿīl under the pen name Wafāʾī. The ʿĀdelšāhīs established Shiʿism in Bījāpūr and actively encouraged the immigration of Persian writers and religious figures. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bijapur-capital-city-and-domain-of-the-adelsahi-dynasty

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