Menu
Home Explore People Places Arts History Plants & Animals Science Life & Culture Technology
On this page

Sodium bicarbonate (IUPAC name: sodium hydrogencarbonate), commonly known as baking soda or bicarbonate of soda, is a chemical compound with formula NaHCO3. It is a salt made of a sodium cation (Na⁺) and a bicarbonate anion (HCO₃⁻). Usually found as a white, crystalline powder, it tastes slightly salty and alkaline, similar to sodium carbonate. Naturally occurring as the mineral nahcolite, it’s often sourced from trona. Known by various names worldwide, the term baking soda is common in the US, while bicarbonate of soda is preferred in the UK, Australia, and New Zealand. The prefix “bi-” reflects historical naming based on carbonate ratios, predating modern chemical understanding (see also bicarbonate).

Related Image Collections Add Image
Profiles
1 Image
We don't have any YouTube videos related to Sodium bicarbonate yet.
We don't have any PDF documents related to Sodium bicarbonate yet.
We don't have any Books related to Sodium bicarbonate yet.

Uses

Cooking

Main article: Leavening agent

Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on
  • Baking Soda

In cooking, baking soda is primarily used in baking as a leavening agent. When it reacts with acid or is heated, carbon dioxide is released, which causes expansion of the batter and forms the characteristic texture and grain in cakes, quick breads, soda bread, and other baked and fried foods. When an acid is used, the acid–base reaction can be generically represented as follows:6

NaHCO3 + H+ → Na+ + CO2 + H2O

Acidic materials that induce this reaction include hydrogen phosphates, cream of tartar, lemon juice, yogurt, buttermilk, cocoa, and vinegar. Baking soda may be used together with sourdough, which is acidic, making a lighter product with a less acidic taste.7 Since the reaction occurs slowly at room temperature, mixtures (cake batter, etc.) can be allowed to stand without rising until they are heated in the oven.

Heat can also by itself cause sodium bicarbonate to act as a raising agent in baking because of thermal decomposition, releasing carbon dioxide at temperatures above 80 °C (180 °F), as follows:8

2 NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2

When used this way on its own, without the presence of an acidic component (whether in the batter or by the use of a baking powder containing acid), only half the available CO2 is released (one CO2 molecule is formed for every two equivalents of NaHCO3). Additionally, in the absence of acid, thermal decomposition of sodium bicarbonate also produces sodium carbonate, which is strongly alkaline and gives the baked product a bitter, soapy taste and a yellow color.

Baking powder

Main article: Baking powder

Baking powder, also sold for cooking, contains around 30% of bicarbonate, and various acidic ingredients that are activated by the addition of water, without the need for additional acids in the cooking medium.91011 Many forms of baking powder contain sodium bicarbonate combined with calcium acid phosphate, sodium aluminium phosphate, or cream of tartar.12 Baking soda is alkaline; the acid used in baking powder avoids a metallic taste when the chemical change during baking creates sodium carbonate.13

Food additive

It is often used in conjunction with other bottled water food additives to add taste.14 Its European Union E number is E500.15

Pyrotechnics

Sodium bicarbonate is one of the main components of the common "black snake" firework. The effect is caused by the thermal decomposition, which produces carbon dioxide gas to produce a long snake-like ash as a combustion product of the other main component, sucrose.16 Sodium bicarbonate also delays combustion reactions through the release of carbon dioxide and water, both of which are flame retardants, when heated.

Mild disinfectant

It has weak disinfectant properties1718 and it may be an effective fungicide against some organisms.19

Fire extinguisher

Sodium bicarbonate can be used to extinguish small grease or electrical fires by being thrown over the fire, as heating of sodium bicarbonate releases carbon dioxide.20 However, it should not be applied to fires in deep fryers; the sudden release of gas may cause the grease to splatter.21 Sodium bicarbonate is used in BC dry chemical fire extinguishers as an alternative to the more corrosive monoammonium phosphate in ABC extinguishers. The alkaline nature of sodium bicarbonate makes it the only dry chemical agent, besides Purple-K, that was used in large-scale fire suppression systems installed in commercial kitchens.22

Sodium bicarbonate has several fire-extinguishing mechanisms that act simultaneously. It decomposes into water and carbon dioxide when heated, an endothermic reaction that deprives the fire of heat. In addition, it forms intermediates that can scavenge the free radicals which are responsible for the propagation of fire.23 With grease fires specifically, it also has a mild saponification effect, producing a soapy foam that can help smother the fire.24

Neutralization of acids

Sodium bicarbonate reacts spontaneously with acids, releasing CO2 gas as a reaction product. It is commonly used to neutralize unwanted acid solutions or acid spills in chemical laboratories.25 It is not appropriate to use sodium bicarbonate to neutralize base26 even though it is amphoteric, reacting with both acids and bases.27

Sports supplement

Sodium bicarbonate is taken as a sports supplement to improve muscular endurance.28 Studies conducted mostly in males have shown that sodium bicarbonate is most effective in enhancing performance in short-term, high-intensity activities.29

Agriculture

Sodium bicarbonate can prevent the growth of fungi when applied on leaves, although it will not kill the fungus. Excessive amounts of sodium bicarbonate can cause discolouration of fruits (two percent solution) and chlorosis (one percent solution).30 Sodium bicarbonate is also commonly used as a free choice dietary supplement in sheep to help prevent bloat.

Medical uses and health

See also: Intravenous sodium bicarbonate

Sodium bicarbonate mixed with water can be used as an antacid to treat acid indigestion and heartburn.3132 Its reaction with stomach acid produces salt, water, and carbon dioxide:

NaHCO3 + HCl → NaCl + H2O + CO2(g)

A mixture of sodium bicarbonate and polyethylene glycol such as PegLyte,33 dissolved in water and taken orally, is an effective gastrointestinal lavage preparation and laxative prior to gastrointestinal surgery, gastroscopy, etc.

Intravenous sodium bicarbonate in an aqueous solution is sometimes used for cases of acidosis, or when insufficient sodium or bicarbonate ions are in the blood.34 In cases of respiratory acidosis, the infused bicarbonate ion drives the carbonic acid/bicarbonate buffer of plasma to the left, and thus raises the pH. For this reason, sodium bicarbonate is used in medically supervised cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Infusion of bicarbonate is indicated only when the blood pH is markedly low (< 7.1–7.0).35

HCO3− is used for treatment of hyperkalemia, as it will drive K+ back into cells during periods of acidosis.36 Since sodium bicarbonate can cause alkalosis, it is sometimes used to treat aspirin overdoses. Aspirin requires an acidic environment for proper absorption, and a basic environment will diminish aspirin absorption in cases of overdose.37 Sodium bicarbonate has also been used in the treatment of tricyclic antidepressant overdose.38 It can also be applied topically as a paste, with three parts baking soda to one part water, to relieve some kinds of insect bites and stings (as well as accompanying swelling).39

Some alternative practitioners, such as Tullio Simoncini, have promoted baking soda as a cancer cure, which the American Cancer Society has warned against due to both its unproven effectiveness and potential danger in use.40 Edzard Ernst has called the promotion of sodium bicarbonate as a cancer cure "one of the more sickening alternative cancer scams I have seen for a long time".41

Sodium bicarbonate can be added to local anaesthetics, to speed up the onset of their effects and make their injection less painful.42 It is also a component of Moffett's solution, used in nasal surgery.43

It has been proposed that acidic diets weaken bones.44 One systematic meta-analysis of the research shows no such effect.45 Another also finds that there is no evidence that alkaline diets improve bone health, but suggests that there "may be some value" to alkaline diets for other reasons.46

Antacid (such as baking soda) solutions have been prepared and used by protesters to alleviate the effects of exposure to tear gas during protests.47

Similarly to its use in baking, sodium bicarbonate is used together with a mild acid such as tartaric acid as the excipient in effervescent tablets: when such a tablet is dropped in a glass of water, the carbonate leaves the reaction medium as carbon dioxide gas (HCO3− + H+ → H2O + CO2↑ or, more precisely, HCO3− + H3O+ → 2 H2O + CO2↑). This makes the tablet disintegrate, leaving the medication suspended and/or dissolved in the water together with the resulting salt (in this example, sodium tartrate).48

Personal hygiene

Sodium bicarbonate is also used as an ingredient in some mouthwashes. It has anticaries and abrasive properties.49 It works as a mechanical cleanser on the teeth and gums, neutralizes the production of acid in the mouth, and also acts as an antiseptic to help prevent infections.5051 Sodium bicarbonate in combination with other ingredients can be used to make a dry or wet deodorant.5253 Sodium bicarbonate may be used as a buffering agent, combined with table salt, when creating a solution for nasal irrigation.54

It is used in eye hygiene to treat blepharitis. This is done by adding a teaspoon of sodium bicarbonate to cool water that was recently boiled followed by gentle scrubbing of the eyelash base with a cotton swab dipped in the solution.5556

Veterinary uses

Sodium bicarbonate is used as a cattle feed supplement, in particular as a buffering agent for the rumen.57

Cleaning agent

Sodium bicarbonate is used in a process to remove paint and corrosion called sodablasting. As a blasting medium, sodium bicarbonate is used to remove surface contamination from softer and less resilient substrates such as aluminium, copper, or timber that could be damaged by silica sand abrasive media.58

A manufacturer recommends a paste made from baking soda with minimal water as a gentle scouring powder.59 Such a paste can be useful in removing surface rust because the rust forms a water-soluble compound when in a concentrated alkaline solution.60 Cold water should be used since hot-water solutions can corrode steel.61 Sodium bicarbonate attacks the thin protective oxide layer that forms on aluminium, making it unsuitable for cleaning this metal.62

A solution of baking soda in warm water will remove the tarnish from silver when the silver is in contact with a piece of aluminium foil.6364

Baking soda is commonly added to washing machines as a replacement for water softener and to remove odors from clothes. When diluted with warm water, it is also almost as effective in removing heavy tea and coffee stains from cups as sodium hydroxide.

During the Manhattan Project to develop the nuclear bomb in the early 1940s, the chemical toxicity of uranium was an issue. Uranium oxides were found to stick very well to cotton cloth and did not wash out with soap or laundry detergent. However, the uranium would wash out with a 2% solution of sodium bicarbonate. Clothing can become contaminated with toxic dust of depleted uranium (DU), which is very dense, hence it is used for counterweights in a civilian context and in armour-piercing projectiles. DU is not removed by normal laundering; washing with about 6 ounces (170 g) of baking soda in 2 gallons (7.5 L) of water will help wash it out.65

Odor control

It is often claimed that baking soda is an effective odor remover66[better source needed] and recommended that an open box be kept in the refrigerator to absorb odor.67 This idea was promoted by the leading U.S. brand of baking soda, Arm & Hammer, in an advertising campaign starting in 1972.68 Though this campaign is considered a classic of marketing, leading within a year to more than half of American refrigerators containing a box of baking soda,6970 there is little evidence that it is effective in this application.7172 However, baking soda may be effective in absorbing musty smells, leading to it becoming a reliable method for used booksellers when making books less malodorous.73

Education

An educational science experiment known as the "Baking Soda and Vinegar Volcano" uses the acid-base reaction with vinegar acid to mimic a volcanic eruption. The rapid production of CO2 causes the liquid to foam up and overflow its container. Other ingredients such as dish soap and food coloring can be added to enhance the visual effect.74 If this reaction is performed inside of a closed vessel (such as a bottle) with no way for gas to escape, it can cause an explosion if the pressure is high enough.

Chemistry

Sodium bicarbonate is an amphoteric compound.75 Aqueous solutions are mildly alkaline due to the formation of carbonic acid and hydroxide ion:76

HCO−3 + H2O → H2CO3 + OH−

Sodium bicarbonate can sometimes be used as a mild neutralization agent and a safer alternative to strong bases like sodium hydroxide.77 Reaction of sodium bicarbonate and an acid produces a salt and carbonic acid, which readily decomposes to carbon dioxide and water:78

NaHCO3 + HCl → NaCl + H2O + CO2 H2CO3 → H2O + CO2(g)

Sodium bicarbonate reacts with acetic acid (found in vinegar), producing sodium acetate, water, and carbon dioxide:

NaHCO3 + CH3COOH → CH3COONa + H2O + CO2(g)

Sodium bicarbonate reacts with bases such as sodium hydroxide to form carbonates:

NaHCO3 + NaOH → Na2CO3 + H2O

Thermal decomposition

At temperatures from 80–100 °C (176–212 °F), sodium bicarbonate gradually decomposes into sodium carbonate, water, and carbon dioxide. The conversion is faster at 200 °C (392 °F):79

2 NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2

Most bicarbonates undergo this dehydration reaction. Further heating converts the carbonate into the oxide (above 850 °C/1,560 °F):80

Na2CO3 → Na2O + CO2

The generation of carbon dioxide and water partially explain the fire-extinguishing properties of NaHCO3,81 although other factors like heat absorption and radical scavenging are more significant.82

Natural occurrence

In nature, sodium bicarbonate occurs almost exclusively as either nahcolite or trona. Trona is more common, as nahcolite is more soluble in water and the chemical equilibrium between the two minerals favors trona.83 Significant nahcolite deposits are in the United States, Botswana and Kenya, Uganda, Turkey, and Mexico.84 The biggest trona deposits are in the Green River basin in Wyoming.85

Nahcolite is sometimes found as a component of oil shale.86

Stability and shelf life

If kept cool (room temperature) and dry (an airtight container is recommended to keep out moist air), sodium bicarbonate can be kept without a significant amount of decomposition for at least two or three years.87888990

History

The word natron has been in use in many languages throughout modern times (in the forms of anatron, natrum and natron) and originated (like Spanish, French and English natron as well as 'sodium') via Arabic naṭrūn (or anatrūn; cf. the Lower Egyptian “Natrontal” Wadi El Natrun, where a mixture of sodium carbonate and sodium hydrogen carbonate for the dehydration of mummies was used91) from Greek nítron (νίτρον) (Herodotus; Attic lítron (λίτρον)), which can be traced back to ancient Egyptian ntr. The Greek nítron (soda, saltpeter) was also used in Latin (sal) nitrum and in German Salniter (the source of Nitrogen, Nitrat etc.).9293 The word saleratus, from Latin sal æratus (meaning "aerated salt"), was widely used in the 19th century for both sodium bicarbonate and potassium bicarbonate.94

In 1791, French chemist Nicolas Leblanc produced sodium carbonate (also known as soda ash). Pharmacist Valentin Rose the Younger is credited with the discovery of sodium bicarbonate in 1801 in Berlin. In 1846, two American bakers, John Dwight and Austin Church, established the first factory in the United States to produce baking soda from sodium carbonate and carbon dioxide.95

Saleratus, potassium or sodium bicarbonate, is mentioned in the novel Captains Courageous by Rudyard Kipling as being used extensively in the 1800s in commercial fishing to prevent freshly caught fish from spoiling.96

In 1919, US Senator Lee Overman declared that bicarbonate of soda could cure the Spanish flu. In the midst of the debate on 26 January 1919, he interrupted the discussion to announce the discovery of a cure. "I want to say, for the benefit of those who are making this investigation," he reported, "that I was told by a judge of a superior court in the mountain country of North Carolina they have discovered a remedy for this disease." The purported cure implied a critique of modern science and an appreciation for the simple wisdom of simple people. "They say that common baking soda will cure the disease," he continued, "that they have cured it with it, that they have no deaths up there at all; they use common baking soda, which cures the disease."97

Production

Sodium bicarbonate is produced industrially from sodium carbonate:98

Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O → 2 NaHCO3

It is produced on the scale of about 100,000 tonnes/year (as of 2001) [dubious – discuss]99 with a worldwide production capacity of 2.4 million tonnes per year (as of 2002).100 Commercial quantities of baking soda are also produced by a similar method: soda ash, mined in the form of the ore trona, is dissolved in water and treated with carbon dioxide. Sodium bicarbonate precipitates as a solid from this solution.

Regarding the Solvay process, sodium bicarbonate is an intermediate in the reaction of sodium chloride, ammonia, and carbon dioxide. The product however shows low purity (75pc).

NaCl + CO2 + NH3 + H2O → NaHCO3 + NH4Cl

Although of no practical value, NaHCO3 may be obtained by the reaction of carbon dioxide with an aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide:

CO2 + NaOH → NaHCO3

Mining

Naturally occurring deposits of nahcolite (NaHCO3) are found in the Eocene-age (55.8–33.9 Mya) Green River Formation, Piceance Basin in Colorado. Nahcolite was deposited as beds during periods of high evaporation in the basin. It is commercially mined using common underground mining techniques such as bore, drum, and longwall mining in a fashion very similar to coal mining.

It is also produced by solution mining, pumping heated water through nahcolite beds and crystallizing the dissolved nahcolite through a cooling crystallization process.

Since nahcolite is sometimes found in shale, it can be produced as a co-product of shale oil extraction, where it is recovered by solution mining.101

Sodium bicarbonate, as "bicarbonate of soda", was a frequent source of punch lines for Groucho Marx in Marx Brothers movies. In Duck Soup, Marx plays the leader of a nation at war. In one scene, he receives a message from the battlefield that his general is reporting a gas attack, and Groucho tells his aide: "Tell him to take a teaspoonful of bicarbonate of soda and a half a glass of water."102 In A Night at the Opera, Groucho's character addresses the opening night crowd at an opera by saying of the lead tenor: "Signor Lassparri comes from a very famous family. His mother was a well-known bass singer. His father was the first man to stuff spaghetti with bicarbonate of soda, thus causing and curing indigestion at the same time."103

In the Joseph L. Mankewicz classic All About Eve, the Max Fabian character (Gregory Ratoff) has an extended scene with Margo Channing (Bette Davis) in which, suffering from heartburn, he requests and then drinks bicarbonate of soda, eliciting a prominent burp. Channing promises to always keep a box of bicarb with Max's name on it.

See also

Bibliography

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sodium bicarbonate.

References

  1. Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry IUPAC Recommendations 2005 (PDF), IUPAC, p. 137, archived (PDF) from the original on 18 May 2017 http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/rbook/Red_Book_2005.pdf ↩

  2. Gärtner RS, Witkamp GJ (August 2007). "Mixed solvent reactive recrystallization of trona (sodium sesqui-carbonate) into soda (sodium carbonate anhydrate)". Hydrometallurgy. 88 (1–4): 75–91. Bibcode:2007HydMe..88...75G. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2007.03.006. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0304386X07000758 ↩

  3. "Baking powder, baking soda or bicarbonate of soda?". Reader's Digest Australia. Retrieved 2 June 2024. https://www.readersdigest.com.au/recipes/bicarb-soda-versus-baking-powder ↩

  4. PubChem. "Sodium bicarbonate". pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 25 January 2021. https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/516892 ↩

  5. Wollaston WH (January 1814). "I. A Synoptic scale of chemical equivalents". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 104: 1–22. doi:10.1098/rstl.1814.0001. S2CID 96774986. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstl.1814.0001 ↩

  6. Bent AJ, ed. (1997). The Technology of Cake Making (6 ed.). Springer. p. 102. ISBN 9780751403497. Retrieved 12 August 2009. 9780751403497 ↩

  7. Cascio J. "Sourdough" (PDF). University of Alaska Fairbanks Cooperative Extension Service. FNH-00061. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 March 2016. Retrieved 2 May 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20160327162100/https://www.uaf.edu/files/ces/publications-db/catalog/hec/FNH-00061.pdf ↩

  8. "The Many Practical Uses of Baking Soda in the Kitchen". About.com Food. Archived from the original on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 22 January 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170202011456/http://foodreference.about.com/od/Ingredients_Basics/a/What-Is-Baking-Soda.htm ↩

  9. Czernohorsky JH, Hooker R. "The Chemistry of Baking" (PDF). New Zealand Institute of Chemistry. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 November 2016. Retrieved 22 January 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20161127151812/http://nzic.org.nz/ChemProcesses/food/6D.pdf ↩

  10. "Baking Soda and Baking Powder". FineCooking.com. Archived from the original on 2 February 2017. Retrieved 22 January 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170202020545/http://www.finecooking.com/item/12173/baking-soda-and-baking-powder ↩

  11. "Baking Soda FAQs". Arm & Hammer Multi-Brand. Church & Dwight Company. What is the difference baking soda and baking powder?. Archived from the original on 27 June 2017. Retrieved 20 July 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170627082018/http://www.armandhammer.com/FAQ/bakingsoda.aspx ↩

  12. "Glossary Ingredients". Cooking.com. Archived from the original on 15 September 2008. https://web.archive.org/web/20080915045426/http://www.cooking.com/recipes-and-more/glossary.aspx?GlossName=Baking+powder ↩

  13. "Sodium Bicarbonate". BRP Adhikary. 11 July 2016. Retrieved 25 January 2021. http://brpadhikarychemicals.com/high-density-polyethylene-hdpe/ ↩

  14. Stanek B (24 July 2014). "Why Your Bottled Water Contains Four Different Ingredients". TIME. https://time.com/3029191/bottled-water-ingredients-nutrition-health/ ↩

  15. "Approved additives and E numbers". Food Standards Agency. Retrieved 7 December 2020. https://www.food.gov.uk/business-guidance/approved-additives-and-e-numbers ↩

  16. "Sugar snake". MEL Science. MEL Science 2015–2019. Archived from the original on 6 October 2019. Retrieved 28 October 2019. https://melscience.com/US-en/experiments/sugar-snake/ ↩

  17. Malik YS, Goyal SM (May 2006). "Virucidal efficacy of sodium bicarbonate on a food contact surface against feline calicivirus, a norovirus surrogate". International Journal of Food Microbiology. 109 (1–2): 160–3. doi:10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2005.08.033. PMID 16540196. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  18. Rutala WA, Barbee SL, Aguiar NC, Sobsey MD, Weber DJ (January 2000). "Antimicrobial activity of home disinfectants and natural products against potential human pathogens". Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology. 21 (1): 33–8. doi:10.1086/501694. PMID 10656352. S2CID 34461187. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  19. Zamani M, Sharifi Tehrani A, Ali Abadi AA (2007). "Evaluation of antifungal activity of carbonate and bicarbonate salts alone or in combination with biocontrol agents in control of citrus green mold". Communications in Agricultural and Applied Biological Sciences. 72 (4): 773–7. PMID 18396809. /wiki/PMID_(identifier) ↩

  20. "Arm & Hammer Baking Soda – Basics – The Magic of Arm & Hammer Baking Soda". armandhammer.com. Archived from the original on 31 August 2009. Retrieved 30 July 2009. https://web.archive.org/web/20090831133032/http://www.armhammer.com/basics/magic ↩

  21. "Arm & Hammer Baking Soda – Basics – The Magic of Arm & Hammer Baking Soda". armandhammer.com. Archived from the original on 31 August 2009. Retrieved 30 July 2009. https://web.archive.org/web/20090831133032/http://www.armhammer.com/basics/magic ↩

  22. Voelkert JC (2015). "Fire and Fire Extinguishment - A Brief Guide to Fire Chemistry and Extinguishment Theory for fire Equipment Service Technicians" (PDF). pp. 14–15. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 May 2024. Retrieved 22 September 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20240531221055/https://www.amerex-fire.com/upl/downloads/educational-documents/fire-and-fire-extinguishment-99cd88b2.pdf ↩

  23. Liu Y, Zhang Y, Meng X, Yan K, Wang Z, Liu J, Wang Z, Yang P, Dai W, Li F (April 2022). "Research on flame propagation and explosion overpressure of oil shale dust explosion suppression by NaHCO3". Fuel. 314: 122778. Bibcode:2022Fuel..31422778L. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2021.122778. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0016236121026417 ↩

  24. Voelkert JC (2015). "Fire and Fire Extinguishment - A Brief Guide to Fire Chemistry and Extinguishment Theory for fire Equipment Service Technicians" (PDF). pp. 14–15. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 May 2024. Retrieved 22 September 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20240531221055/https://www.amerex-fire.com/upl/downloads/educational-documents/fire-and-fire-extinguishment-99cd88b2.pdf ↩

  25. "Prepare for Emergencies from Uncontrolled Hazards". American Chemical Society. https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/chemical-safety/basics/prepare-for-emergencies.html ↩

  26. Hurum D. "Laboratory Safety" (PDF). Civil Engineering. Northwestern University. http://faculty.washington.edu/korshin/Class-486/AEESP-safety-notes.pdf ↩

  27. Davidson D (November 1955). "Amphoteric molecules, ions and salts". Journal of Chemical Education. 32 (11): 550. Bibcode:1955JChEd..32..550D. doi:10.1021/ed032p550. ISSN 0021-9584. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ed032p550 ↩

  28. Grgic J, Rodriguez RF, Garofolini A, Saunders B, Bishop DJ, Schoenfeld BJ, Pedisic Z (July 2020). "Effects of Sodium Bicarbonate Supplementation on Muscular Strength and Endurance: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis". Sports Medicine. 50 (7): 1361–1375. doi:10.1007/s40279-020-01275-y. PMID 32096113. S2CID 211254185. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32096113/ ↩

  29. Grgic J, Grgic I, Pedisic Z (2021). "Effects of sodium bicarbonate supplementation on exercise performance: an umbrella review". Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition. 18 (1): 71. doi:10.1186/s12970-021-00469-7. PMC 8600864. PMID 34794476. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8600864 ↩

  30. "Horticulture myths". University of Vermont Extension Department of Plant and Soil Science. Archived from the original on 7 August 2019. Retrieved 18 October 2021. http://www.uvm.edu/pss/ppp/articles/myths.html ↩

  31. "Sodium Bicarbonate". Jackson Siegelbaum Gastroenterology. 1998. Archived from the original on 5 October 2016. Retrieved 4 October 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20161005124933/http://gicare.com/medication/sodium-bicarbonate/ ↩

  32. "Sodium Bicarbonate (Oral Route, Intravenous Route, Subcutaneous Route) Side Effects - Mayo Clinic". www.mayoclinic.org. Retrieved 5 May 2023. https://www.mayoclinic.org/drugs-supplements/sodium-bicarbonate-oral-route-intravenous-route-subcutaneous-route/side-effects/drg-20065950?p=1 ↩

  33. "PegLyte". Pendo Phama. http://pendopharm.com/product/peglyte/ ↩

  34. "Sodium Bicarbonate Intravenous Infusion" (PDF). Consumer Medicine Information. Better Health Channel. 13 July 2004. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 August 2008. https://web.archive.org/web/20080822111454/http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcmed.nsf/pages/pucsodbi/$File/pucsodbi.pdf ↩

  35. "Respiratory Acidosis: Treatment & Medication". emedicine. 26 March 2020. http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/301574-treatment ↩

  36. Dart RC (2004). Medical Toxicology. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 910–. ISBN 978-0-7817-2845-4. 978-0-7817-2845-4 ↩

  37. Cloth Diapers. Donald C. Cooper PhD. pp. 46–. https://books.google.com/books?id=Nz4J9oSJT4IC&pg=PA46 ↩

  38. [needs update]Knudsen K, Abrahamsson J (April 1997). "Epinephrine and sodium bicarbonate independently and additively increase survival in experimental amitriptyline poisoning". Critical Care Medicine. 25 (4): 669–74. doi:10.1097/00003246-199704000-00019. PMID 9142034. /wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items ↩

  39. "Insect bites and stings: First aid". Mayo Clinic. 15 January 2008. http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/first-aid-insect-bites/fa00046 ↩

  40. "Sodium Bicarbonate". American Cancer Society. 28 November 2008. Archived from the original on 19 February 2013. Retrieved 19 February 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20130219044718/http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/herbsvitaminsandminerals/sodium-bicarbonate ↩

  41. Ernst E (3 February 2017). "This must be the most sickening cancer scam I have seen for a while". https://edzardernst.com/2017/02/this-must-be-the-most-sickening-cancer-scam-i-have-seen-for-a-while/ ↩

  42. Edgcombe H, Hocking G (6 October 2006). "Local Anaesthetic Pharmacology". Anaesthesia UK. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20151222085359/http://www.frca.co.uk/article.aspx?articleid=100505 ↩

  43. Benjamin E, Wong D, Choa D (2004). "'Moffett's' solution: a review of the evidence and scientific basis for the topical preparation of the nose". Clinical Otolaryngology and Allied Sciences. 29 (6): 582–587. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2273.2004.00894.x. PMID 15533141. https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2273.2004.00894.x ↩

  44. Fox D (15 December 2001). "Hard cheese". New Scientist. Retrieved 20 July 2017. https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg17223214-900-hard-cheese/ ↩

  45. Fenton TR, Tough SC, Lyon AW, Eliasziw M, Hanley DA (2011). "Causal assessment of dietary acid load and bone disease: A systematic review & meta-analysis applying Hill's epidemiologic criteria for causality". Nutrition Journal. 10: 41. doi:10.1186/1475-2891-10-41. PMC 3114717. PMID 21529374. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3114717 ↩

  46. Schwalfenberg GK (2012). "The Alkaline Diet: Is There Evidence That an Alkaline pH Diet Benefits Health?". Journal of Environmental and Public Health. 2012: 1–7. doi:10.1155/2012/727630. PMC 3195546. PMID 22013455. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3195546 ↩

  47. "Medical information from Prague 2000". Archived from the original on 18 October 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20141018221605/http://www.starhawk.org/activism/trainer-resources/teargas.html ↩

  48. Shirsand SB, Suresh S, Jodhana LS, Swamy PV (2010). "Formulation Design and Optimization of Fast Disintegrating Lorazepam Tablets by Effervescent Method". Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 72 (4): 431–436. doi:10.4103/0250-474X.73911. ISSN 0250-474X. PMC 3013557. PMID 21218052. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3013557 ↩

  49. Storehagen S, Ose N, Midha S. "Dentifrices and mouthwashes ingredients and their use" (PDF). Institutt for klinisk odontologi. Universitetet i Oslo. https://www.duo.uio.no/bitstream/handle/10852/33076/Storehagen_Ose_Midha.pdf?sequence=1 ↩

  50. US 4132770A, Barth J, "Oral Product", issued 18 June 1979 https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US4132770A ↩

  51. Iqbal K, Asmat M, Jawed S, Mushtaque A, Mohsin F, Hanif S, et al. (July 2011). "Role of different ingredients of tooth pastes and mouthwashes in oral health" (PDF). Journal of Pakistan Dental Association. 20 (3): 163–70. http://applications.emro.who.int/imemrf/J_Pak_Dent_Assoc/J_Pak_Dent_Assoc_2011_20_3_163_170.pdf ↩

  52. Lamb JH (1946). "Sodium Bicarbonate: An Excellent Deodorant". The Journal of Investigative Dermatology. 7 (3): 131–133. doi:10.1038/jid.1946.13. https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fjid.1946.13 ↩

  53. "Bicarb soda: natural body deodorant". sustainableecho.com. 10 March 2009. http://sustainableecho.com/bicarb-soda-natural-body-deodorant/ ↩

  54. Metson RB (2005). The Harvard Medical School Guide to Healing Your Sinues. McGraw Hill. p. 68. ISBN 9780071444699. 9780071444699 ↩

  55. "Blepharitis : Information for patients leaflet" (PDF). Ouh.nhs.uk. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 28 February 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20230326025203/https://www.ouh.nhs.uk/patient-guide/leaflets/files/101028blepharitis.pdf ↩

  56. "Blepharitis. Treatment and Causes. Eyelid inflammation | Patient". Patient. Archived from the original on 5 December 2015. Retrieved 31 May 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20151205071928/http://patient.info/health/blepharitis-leaflet ↩

  57. Paton LJ, Beauchemin KA, Veira DM, von Keyserlingk MA (2006). "Use of sodium bicarbonate, offered free choice or blended into the ration, to reduce the risk of ruminal acidosis in cattle". Canadian Journal of Animal Science. 86 (3): 429–437. doi:10.4141/A06-014. https://doi.org/10.4141%2FA06-014 ↩

  58. "Blast Away Grime With Baking Soda". Popular Mechanics. 5 August 2013. Retrieved 2 August 2020. https://www.popularmechanics.com/home/tools/reviews/a9280/blast-away-grime-with-baking-soda-15773126/ ↩

  59. "Arm & Hammer Baking Soda – Basics – The Magic of Arm & Hammer Baking Soda". armandhammer.com. Archived from the original on 31 August 2009. Retrieved 30 July 2009. https://web.archive.org/web/20090831133032/http://www.armhammer.com/basics/magic ↩

  60. Housecroft CE, Sharpe AG (2008). "Chapter 22: d-block metal chemistry: the first row elements". Inorganic Chemistry, 3rd Edition. Pearson. p. 716. ISBN 978-0-13-175553-6. 978-0-13-175553-6 ↩

  61. "Science Lab.com". MSDS- Sodium carbonate. sciencelab.com. Archived from the original on 5 September 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20120905154417/http://www.sciencelab.com/msds.php?msdsId=9927263 ↩

  62. "Finishing Techniques in Metalwork". Philadelphia Museum of Art. http://www.philamuseum.org/booklets/7_44_85_1.html?page=2 ↩

  63. "Finishing Techniques in Metalwork". Philadelphia Museum of Art. http://www.philamuseum.org/booklets/7_44_85_1.html?page=2 ↩

  64. "Put a Shine on It". scifun.chem.wisc.edu. Archived from the original on 31 July 2012. Retrieved 6 March 2011. https://archive.today/20120731071117/http://scifun.chem.wisc.edu/homeexpts/TARNISH.html ↩

  65. Orcutt JA. "Depleted Uranium and Health: Facts and Helpful Suggestions". Pharmacology and Toxicology of Uranium Compounds. McGraw-Hill. Archived from the original on 17 January 2013. Retrieved 21 March 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20130117213341/http://myweb.brooklyn.liu.edu/lawrence/duproject/duhealth.htm ↩

  66. Raymond J (10 June 2016). "Kitchen Odor Eliminating Candles, Products, and Tricks". cravedujour.com. Archived from the original on 7 August 2020. Retrieved 29 June 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20200807080836/http://cravedujour.com/kitchen-odor-eliminating-candles-products-tricks/#xxTICWbUEW5oLJeh.99 ↩

  67. Vicki Lansky, Martha Campbell, Baking Soda: Over 500 Fabulous, Fun, and Frugal Uses You've Probably Never Thought Of, 2009, ISBN 1931863733, p. 28 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  68. "A trusted solution for more than 170 years. Pure and simple.", Arm & Hammer "About Us" page https://www.armandhammer.com/en-ca/about-us ↩

  69. Keith Sawyer, Group Genius: The Creative Power of Collaboration, 2017, ISBN 0465093582, "keep food tasting fresh" /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  70. Clayton M. Christensen, Scott Cook, Taddy Hall, Marketing Malpractice: The Cause and the Cure, Harvard Business Review, December 2005, [1] /wiki/Harvard_Business_Review ↩

  71. "Myth #100: An Open Box of Baking Soda in the Fridge absorbs Odors", Bruce Weinstein, Mark Scarbrough, Lobsters Scream When You Boil Them; And 100 Other Myths About Food and Cooking, 2011, ISBN 1439195382, p. 312 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  72. "Baking Soda as Odor Absorber | Cook's Illustrated". Cooksillustrated.com. Retrieved 28 February 2022. http://www.cooksillustrated.com/how_tos/5510-baking-soda-as-odor-absorber ↩

  73. Altman G (22 May 2006). "Book Repair for BookThinkers: How To Remove Odors From Books". The BookThinker (69). http://www.bookthink.com/0069/69alt.htm ↩

  74. "7 Baking Soda & Vinegar STEM Activities & Experiments | ARM & HAMMER". www.armandhammer.com. Retrieved 27 November 2024. https://www.armandhammer.com/en/articles/fun-and-easy-stem-activities-with-baking-soda-and-vinegar#soda_volcano ↩

  75. Davidson D (November 1955). "Amphoteric molecules, ions and salts". Journal of Chemical Education. 32 (11): 550. Bibcode:1955JChEd..32..550D. doi:10.1021/ed032p550. ISSN 0021-9584. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ed032p550 ↩

  76. Davidson D (November 1955). "Amphoteric molecules, ions and salts". Journal of Chemical Education. 32 (11): 550. Bibcode:1955JChEd..32..550D. doi:10.1021/ed032p550. ISSN 0021-9584. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ed032p550 ↩

  77. Papuga A, Polańczyk A (6 December 2023). "Analysis of the latest guidelines for the neutralization of selected acids, including recommendations for emergency responders". Zeszyty Naukowe SGSP. 1 (88): 75–95. doi:10.5604/01.3001.0054.1220. ISSN 0239-5223. https://zeszytynaukowe-sgsp.pl/gicid/01.3001.0054.1220 ↩

  78. Papuga A, Polańczyk A (6 December 2023). "Analysis of the latest guidelines for the neutralization of selected acids, including recommendations for emergency responders". Zeszyty Naukowe SGSP. 1 (88): 75–95. doi:10.5604/01.3001.0054.1220. ISSN 0239-5223. https://zeszytynaukowe-sgsp.pl/gicid/01.3001.0054.1220 ↩

  79. "Decomposition of Carbonates". General Chemistry Online. Archived from the original on 2 October 1999. Retrieved 16 March 2010. https://web.archive.org/web/19991002045519/http://antoine.frostburg.edu/chem/senese/101/inorganic/faq/carbonate-decomposition.shtml ↩

  80. "Decomposition of Carbonates". General Chemistry Online. Archived from the original on 2 October 1999. Retrieved 16 March 2010. https://web.archive.org/web/19991002045519/http://antoine.frostburg.edu/chem/senese/101/inorganic/faq/carbonate-decomposition.shtml ↩

  81. Voelkert JC (2015). "Fire and Fire Extinguishment - A Brief Guide to Fire Chemistry and Extinguishment Theory for fire Equipment Service Technicians" (PDF). pp. 14–15. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 May 2024. Retrieved 22 September 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20240531221055/https://www.amerex-fire.com/upl/downloads/educational-documents/fire-and-fire-extinguishment-99cd88b2.pdf ↩

  82. Liu Y, Zhang Y, Meng X, Yan K, Wang Z, Liu J, Wang Z, Yang P, Dai W, Li F (April 2022). "Research on flame propagation and explosion overpressure of oil shale dust explosion suppression by NaHCO3". Fuel. 314: 122778. Bibcode:2022Fuel..31422778L. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2021.122778. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0016236121026417 ↩

  83. Gärtner RS, Witkamp GJ (August 2007). "Mixed solvent reactive recrystallization of trona (sodium sesqui-carbonate) into soda (sodium carbonate anhydrate)". Hydrometallurgy. 88 (1–4): 75–91. Bibcode:2007HydMe..88...75G. doi:10.1016/j.hydromet.2007.03.006. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0304386X07000758 ↩

  84. "Nahcolite". Encyclopedia Britannica. 2012. Retrieved 2 June 2024. https://www.britannica.com/science/nahcolite ↩

  85. Bolen WP (January 2024). Soda ash (PDF). U.S. Geological Survey. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2024. https://web.archive.org/web/20240304184031/https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2024/mcs2024-soda-ash.pdf ↩

  86. Johnson RC, Mercier TJ, Brownfield ME, Pantea MP, Self (2020). An Assessment of In-Place Oil Shale Resources in the Green River Formation, Piceance Basin, Colorado. U.S. Geological Survey. /wiki/U.S._Geological_Survey ↩

  87. PubChem. "Sodium bicarbonate". pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 16 May 2021. https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/516892 ↩

  88. "Sodium bicarbonate (S300) batch numbering and shelf life statement – Solvay Chemicals, Inc" (PDF). 31 January 2019. https://www.solvay.com/sites/g/files/srpend221/files/2019-06/SOLVAIR®%20S300%20BICAR%20Batch%20Numbering%20and%20Shelf%20Life%20Statement%20-%20Green%20River%20-%20US.pdf ↩

  89. "Re: Shelf Life – Sodium Bicarbonate (all grades) – Tronox Alkali Corporation" (PDF). 1 April 2015. https://alkali.genesisenergy.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/24/2015/05/Shelf-Life-Sodium-Bicarbonate-1.pdf ↩

  90. "Does Baking Soda Go Bad? How to Know If It's Still Good". The Spruce Eats. Retrieved 16 May 2021. https://www.thespruceeats.com/how-to-tell-if-baking-soda-is-still-good-1388327 ↩

  91. Renate Gerner: Instruments and substances used in mummification. In: Renate Gerner, Rosemarie Drenkhahn (ed.): Mumie und Computer. A multidisciplinary research project in Hanover. Special exhibition of the Kestner Museum Hanover from September 26, 1991 to January 19, 1992. Kestner Museum, Hanover 1991, ISBN 3-924029-17-2, p. 28 f. /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  92. Franz Dornseiff: "The Greek words in German." Walter de Gruyter & Co, Berlin 1950, p. 44. ↩

  93. Friedrich Kluge, Alfred Götze (Philologist): Etymological Dictionary of the German Language. 20th edition, ed. by Walther Mitzka, De Gruyter, Berlin / New York 1967; Reprint (“21st unchanged edition”) ibid 1975, ISBN 3-11-005709-3, p. 504. /wiki/Friedrich_Kluge ↩

  94. "Definition of SALERATUS". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 6 December 2020. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/saleratus ↩

  95. "Company History". Church & Dwight Co. Archived from the original on 16 October 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20111016003546/http://www.churchdwight.com/Company/corp_history.asp ↩

  96. Kipling R (1897). Captains Courageous. p. 25. /wiki/Captains_Courageous ↩

  97. Bristow NK (2012), American Pandemic: The Lost Worlds of the 1918 Influenza Epidemic, Oxford University Press, p. 178, ISBN 978-0199811342 978-0199811342 ↩

  98. Thieme C (2000). "Sodium Carbonates". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. doi:10.1002/14356007.a24_299. ISBN 3527306730. 3527306730 ↩

  99. Holleman AF, Wiberg E (2001). Inorganic Chemistry. San Diego: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-352651-5. 0-12-352651-5 ↩

  100. Page 45, section 3.6.2.1 of "Process Best Practices Reference Document (BREF) for Soda Ash," report produced by the European Soda Ash Producer's Association Archived 3 October 2006 at the Wayback Machine, March 2004. https://web.archive.org/web/20080407001754/http://www.cefic.be/files/Publications/ESAPA_Soda_Ash_Process_BREF3.pdf ↩

  101. Johnson RC, Mercier TJ, Brownfield ME, Pantea MP, Self (2020). An Assessment of In-Place Oil Shale Resources in the Green River Formation, Piceance Basin, Colorado. U.S. Geological Survey. /wiki/U.S._Geological_Survey ↩

  102. "Duck Soup (1933)". IMDb. Retrieved 4 August 2015. https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0023969/trivia?tab=qt ↩

  103. "A Night at the Opera (1935)". IMDb. Retrieved 4 August 2015. https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0026778/trivia?tab=qt&ref_=tt_trv_qu ↩