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Canol Project
Former pipeline in Canada and Alaska

The Canol Project was an oil pipeline project constructed during World War II to ensure a supply of oil for the defense of Alaska and the North American west coast. The project included a section of crude petroleum transport by barge, a refinery, and a 4-inch pipeline. It was completed in two years at great cost and was abandoned less than a year later.

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History

During World War II the United States was concerned about Japan attacking the west coast and cutting off supply lines to Alaska. They built the Alaska Highway to connect Alaska to the rest of the United States and conceived the CANOL (Canadian Oil) project to ensure a supply of oil from Norman Wells in the Canadian Northwest Territories. The US War Department decided to construct the project in April 1942 and it was assigned to the United States Army Corps of Engineers.1

The construction of infrastructure to Alaska via Norman Wells was first raised by the arctic explorer Vilhjalmur Stefansson, who proposed a water connection from the railhead at Waterways, Alberta to Norman Wells, and then a road to Fairbanks via Dawson City as an alternative to the Alaska Highway.2

Oil in the Norman Wells area was noted as far back at 1789 when the explorer Alexander Mackenzie noted seepage of oil along the river that would later bear his name.3 Claims for oil were staked by the geologist T.O. Bosworth, and they were subsequently acquired by Imperial Oil, which drilled three producing wells and built a small refinery by 1924. Local demand was so small that refinery soon closed, but it re-opened in the early 1930s to supply the Eldorado Mine at Port Radium.4

The order to construct a pipeline from Norman Wells to Whitehorse was issued by Brigadier General Brehon B. Somervell, head of the Construction Division of the Quartermaster Corps, based on the recommendation of Colonel James Graham, the Dean of Engineering at the University of Kentucky. Graham based his recommendation on a one-day conference he organized, attended mostly by Army officials, where no one present was familiar with the area the pipeline was to be built.5

Construction

W.A. Bechtel Co, H. Price & Co. and W. E. Callahan Construction Co. formed a consortium to construct the project. Known as Bechtel-Price-Callahan (BPC) it also included six associated companies. Standard Oil Company was a consultant on the project and would operate the refinery in Whitehorse. Imperial Oil owned the Norman Wells field and would be responsible for the supply of oil. J. Gordon Turnbull and Sverdrup and Parcel were chosen to the project's architect and engineer of record.6

The eventual scope of the project included:7

  • An 1,100-mile-long (1,800 km) barge supply route from Waterways, Alberta to Norman Wells
  • A series of ten airfields stretching from Edmonton to Norman Wells
  • An 1,000-mile-long (1,600 km) winter road from Peace River, Alberta to Norman Wells
  • A water and rail-based supply route via Prince Rupert and Skagway, Alaska
  • An all-weather road between Norman Wells and Johnson's Crossing, Yukon
  • A refinery in Whitehorse, Yukon
  • A total of 1,600 miles (2,600 km) of pipelines connecting Whitehorse to:
    • Norman Wells (Canol No. 1)
    • Skagway (Canol No.2)
    • Watson Lake (Canol No.3), and
    • Fairbanks (Canol No. 4)
  • A telegraph system connecting all key points of the project

Survey

In 1942, Europeans had limited knowledge of the area between Norman Wells and Whitehorse, as the Mountain Dene or Shutagot'ine would come down from the mountains to trade with European traders along the Mackenzie River.8 BPC hired a land surveyor named Guy Blanchet to identify a route. Interviews with Dene from Fort Norman (now Tulita) identified a trail through the Mackenzie Mountains that was the most suitable, and in October 1942 Blanchet, four guides from Fort Norman (Fred Andrew, Little Edward Blondin, George Blondin, and Paul Wright)91011 and two others set out by dog sled to survey the route that would eventually become the crossing of the pipeline over the Mackenzie Mountains. (though construction on the road had already begun by then) Subsequent surveys along this route by teams using heavy equipment were abandoned as the extreme cold caused machinery to fail. While there were several aerial photo projects, they were inconsistent and it is not clear how much they were used to guide location. Typically, much of the route decisions were made during construction, resulting in numerous "false starts" and reroutes of the road.12

The pipeline was just 4 inches (10 cm) in diameter. The low gravity crude oil from Norman Wells had a pour point well below the freezing mark and could be run through a narrow pipeline without being heated.13 The pipeline was laid on the surface of the ground to simplify construction and maintenance.14 Ten pump stations were needed to move the crude oil to Whitehorse. The pumps were specially designed to be able to use the Norman Wells crude as fuel. An additional 19 pump stations moved the refined fuel along the Alaska Highway from Whitehorse as far as Watson Lake and Fairbanks.15

The Whitehorse refinery was purchased used and shipped up from Corpus Christi, Texas.16. It was operated by Standard Oil and located in the Maxwell Industrial Area north of present-day Downtown Whitehorse.17

The final construction cost for the Canol Project construction has been estimated at US$133 million (equivalent to $2,375,646,503 in 2024) and may have been closer to $300 million when military personnel are included.1819

Operation

The last pipeline weld was completed on February 16, 1944, near Macmillan Pass. Oil first entered the pipeline at Norman Wells on 19 December 1943, but due to construction issues oil did not reach the Whitehorse refinery until 1 April 1945.20 The grand opening was held on April 30.21 Initially only able to produce gasoline, it was finally able to produce aviation gas in November 1944.22

Over the life of the Canol No.1 pipeline 1,161,394 US barrels (138,485,200 L) were pumped into the line at Norman Wells. Only 83.7% of that arrived in Whitehorse. Most of the remaining 189,709 US barrels (22,621,000 L) is believed to have been lost due to pipeline breaks. 23 The pipeline had been fully operational for 331 days when it was shut down on 13 March 1945. 24

Camps and pump stations

The Canol System had a network of manned pump stations, maintenance camps,

Canol No. 1 Pumping stations and camps
Name25LocationNotesStatus
Pump Station No. 1 "Camp Canol"Mile 0Base camp on the Mackenzie River, included airstrip26Demolished by Imperial Oil in 197727
Pump Station No. 2 "Dodo Canyon"Mile 36.5?
Little Keele RiverMile 50Highway Maintenance Camp28?
Little Keele RiverMile 67.5Highway Maintenance Camp29?
Pump Station No. 3 "Plains of Abraham"Mile 74.5Highway Maintenance Camp30?
Plains of AbrahamMile 80Highway Maintenance Camp31?
Pump Station No. 4 "Bolstead Creek"Mile 108?
Keele RiverMile 130Highway Maintenance Camp32?
Pump Station No. 5 "Egouchie River"Mile 170?
Pump Station No. 6 "lntga River"Mile 208?
Tsichy RiverMile 222Highway Maintenance Camp33?
Macmillan RiverMile 238.5Highway Maintenance Camp34?
Macmillan RiverMile 246Highway Maintenance Camp35?
Macmillan RiverMile 279Highway Maintenance Camp36?
Pump Station No. 7 "Macmillan River"Mile 280?
Sheldon LakeMile 299Highway Maintenance Camp37?
Ross RiverMile 372.4Highway Maintenance Camp38?
Pump Station No. 8 "Orchie Lake"Mile 337?
Pump Station No. 9 "Lapie River"Mile 387?
Murphy CreekMile 491Highway Maintenance Camp39?
Pump Station No. 10 "Gravel Creek"Mile 437?
Camp Canol "Johnson's Crossing"Mile 513 60°29′23″N 133°17′43″E / 60.4897°N 133.2953°E / 60.4897; 133.2953 (Johnson's Crossing)40Highway Maintenance Camp41?
Canol No. 2 Pumping stations
Name42LocationNotesStatus
CarcrossMP66 Klondike Highwayalso part of Canol No. 3?
SummitSummit of White Pass?
Canol No. 3 Pumping stations
Name43LocationNotesStatus
CarcrossMP66 Klondike Highwayalso part of Canol No. 2?
Station WMP855 Alaska Highway?
Station XMP794 Alaska HighwaySite destroyed in a forest fire in 195644
Station YMP748 Alaska Highway 59°53′20″N 131°27′05″W / 59.8888°N 131.4513°W / 59.8888; -131.4513 (Station Y)45?
Station ZMP693 Alaska Highway?
Canol No. 4 Pumping stations
Name46LocationNotesStatus
Station AWhitehorse?
Station BMP957 Alaska Highway60°47′30″N 136°00′30″W / 60.7916°N 136.0083°W / 60.7916; -136.0083 (Station B)47?
Station CMP1000 Alaska Highway 60°51′25″N 137°07′30″W / 60.8569°N 137.125°W / 60.8569; -137.125 (Station C)48?
Station DMP1036 Alaska Highway 60°55′30″N 137°55′45″W / 60.925°N 137.9291°W / 60.925; -137.9291 (Station D)49?
Station EMP1081 Alaska Highway (Destruction Bay) 61°13′45″N 138°45′00″W / 61.2291°N 138.75°W / 61.2291; -138.75 (Station E)50Site repurposed for Haines-Fairbanks Pipeline pumping station.51
Station FMP1126 Alaska Highway?
Station GMP1166 Alaska Highway 62°26′30″N 140°51′30″W / 62.4416°N 140.8583°W / 62.4416; -140.8583 (Station G)52?
Station HMP1206 Alaska Highway (Beaver Creek)Last station in Canada?
Station I62°52′17″N 141°28′54″W / 62.8714°N 141.4816°W / 62.8714; -141.4816 (Station I)53?
Station J63°12′33″N 142°11′47″W / 63.2091°N 142.1963°W / 63.2091; -142.1963 (Station J)54?
Station KTanacross 63°21′46″N 143°21′04″W / 63.3629°N 143.3511°W / 63.3629; -143.3511 (Station K)55?
Station LDot Lake63°40′45″N 144°09′21″W / 63.6792°N 144.1559°W / 63.6792; -144.1559 (Station L)56?
Station MDelta Junction 63°53′27″N 145°11′55″W / 63.8908°N 145.1985°W / 63.8908; -145.1985 (Station M)57?
Station NBig Delta 64°15′46″N 146°05′53″W / 64.2629°N 146.0981°W / 64.2629; -146.0981 (Station N)58?
Station OSalcha64°28′57″N 146°58′26″W / 64.4825°N 146.9738°W / 64.4825; -146.9738 (Station N)59?

Decommissioning

Due to its remoteness and challenging conditions the costs to provide fuel from the Canol were considerably higher than having fuel arrive via tanker. On March 8, 1945, the US War Department made the decision to shut the project down. Work began immediately to winterize all equipment, clean and stock camps and remove all personnel.60

The Canadian government had right of first refusal to purchase the pipeline, but prior to shutdown had already concluded that the cost of operating the project was far greater then shipping in oil.61. The U.S. Army hoped to find a private-sector buyer for the entire project, but was unsuccessful. Instead the project was sold off in pieces while Canol No. 1 was sold for scrap and abandoned.62

Imperial Oil purchased equipment at Norman Wells for $3 million.63 Imperial also paid $1 million for the Whitehorse refinery, which had been installed at a cost of $27 million, which they then dismantled and shipped to Alberta. The salvage rights for the remainder of the line were sold for $700,000 and carried out by George Price of Dawson Creek, British Columbia.64 Some valuable equipment was salvaged but much of the pipeline, telegraph wire, vehicles and buildings were left in place.

The Skagway-Whitehorse (Canol No.2) and Whitehorse-Fairbanks (Canol No.4) sections remained in use for fuel delivery from tankers at the Port of Skagway to Whitehorse and Fairbanks until 1958, when it was replaced by the larger Haines-Fairbanks Pipeline.65 It was then sold to the White Pass & Yukon Company (WPY).66 WPY dismantled the Canol No.4 by 1962, but continued to operate Canol No.2 until 1994.67

The Whitehorse refinery was dismantled in 1948 and shipped to Edmonton to process oil from the recent discovery at Leduc.68

Current status

The Canol Road is still seasonally maintained within the Yukon and is known as Highway 6. A ferry in the community of Ross River, Yukon is used to cross the Pelly River. There are several old vehicle dumps remaining on the Yukon side and an old pipeline crossing remains in Ross River. The bridge has been used as a footbridge and was recently refurbished.69

In the Northwest Territories the road is no longer maintained and is now the Canol Heritage Trail. It is estimated that 46,000 barrels of crude oil were spilled along the pipeline route.70 Many of the abandoned buildings and vehicles contain hazardous materials and telegraph wire has entangled animals such as moose and caribou.71 Clean-up of telegraph wire began in 2015 and most of the wire along the trail has been coiled up for removal.7273 Remediation work began in 2018 to remove contaminants, telegraph wire and other safety hazards along the trail and expected to be completed in 2020.74 Remediation of the trail will allow the creation of Doi T'oh territorial park to proceed as set out in the Sahtu Dene and Metis Comprehensive Land Claim Agreement.75

Cleanup began in 2018 at the former site of the refinery in Whitehorse, known locally as the Marwell tar pit. Work was expected to be completed in 2020 at a cost of almost $7 million.76

See also

References

  1. Finnie, Richard (1945). CANOL: The sub-Arctic Pipeline and Refinery Project constructed by Bechtel-Price-Callahan for the Corps of Engineers United States Army 1942-1944 (PDF). San Francisco: Ryder & Ingram. Retrieved 21 December 2020. http://assets.yukonarchives.ca/Finnie_Canol_1945.pdf ↩

  2. Diubaldo, Richard J. (1977). ""The Canol Project in Canadian-American Relations"" (PDF). Historical Papers / Communications historique. 12 (1): 178–195. Retrieved 6 June 2025. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/59313023.pdf ↩

  3. Berger, Thomas R. (1977). Northern frontier, northern homeland :the report of the Mackenzie Valley Pipeline Inquiry, volume one (PDF). Toronto: Minister of Supply and Services Canada. p. 117. ISBN 0-660-00775-4. Retrieved 9 June 2025. 0-660-00775-4 ↩

  4. Berger 1977, p. 13 - Berger, Thomas R. (1977). Northern frontier, northern homeland :the report of the Mackenzie Valley Pipeline Inquiry, volume one (PDF). Toronto: Minister of Supply and Services Canada. p. 117. ISBN 0-660-00775-4. Retrieved 9 June 2025. https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2015/bcp-pco/CP32-25-1977-1-eng.pdf ↩

  5. Diubaldo, Richard J. (1977). ""The Canol Project in Canadian-American Relations"" (PDF). Historical Papers / Communications historique. 12 (1): 178–195. Retrieved 6 June 2025. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/59313023.pdf ↩

  6. Finnie, Richard (1945). CANOL: The sub-Arctic Pipeline and Refinery Project constructed by Bechtel-Price-Callahan for the Corps of Engineers United States Army 1942-1944 (PDF). San Francisco: Ryder & Ingram. Retrieved 21 December 2020. http://assets.yukonarchives.ca/Finnie_Canol_1945.pdf ↩

  7. Finnie, Richard (1945). CANOL: The sub-Arctic Pipeline and Refinery Project constructed by Bechtel-Price-Callahan for the Corps of Engineers United States Army 1942-1944 (PDF). San Francisco: Ryder & Ingram. Retrieved 21 December 2020. http://assets.yukonarchives.ca/Finnie_Canol_1945.pdf ↩

  8. Hanks, Christopher; Cross, Sue; Irving, Susan (1993). Architectural and Archaeological Survey of the Canol Road, 1989. Yellowknife, NT: Prince of Wales Northern Heritage Centre. p. 6-7. ISBN 0770800890. 0770800890 ↩

  9. Kershaw, G. Peter (1983-04-22). Long-term ecological consequences in tundra environments of the CANOL Crude Oil Pipeline Project, N.W.T. (PhD Thesis thesis). University of Alberta. p. 51. doi:10.7939/R3XD0R395. https://era.library.ualberta.ca/items/945ba39e-3d69-4bb2-a9f2-0ec2c5552228 ↩

  10. NWT Cultural Places Program (2017). Gazetteer of the Northwest Territories. Yellowknife, NT: Prince of Wales Northern Heritage Centre. p. 74. ↩

  11. Hanks, Christopher; Cross, Sue; Irving, Susan (1993). Architectural and Archaeological Survey of the Canol Road, 1989. Yellowknife, NT: Prince of Wales Northern Heritage Centre. p. 6-7. ISBN 0770800890. 0770800890 ↩

  12. Kershaw 1983, p. 51-57 - Kershaw, G. Peter (1983-04-22). Long-term ecological consequences in tundra environments of the CANOL Crude Oil Pipeline Project, N.W.T. (PhD Thesis thesis). University of Alberta. p. 51. doi:10.7939/R3XD0R395. https://era.library.ualberta.ca/items/945ba39e-3d69-4bb2-a9f2-0ec2c5552228 ↩

  13. Gage, S.R. (1990). A walk on the Canol Road. Mosaic Press. ISBN 0-88962-439-9. 0-88962-439-9 ↩

  14. Finnie, Richard (1945). CANOL: The sub-Arctic Pipeline and Refinery Project constructed by Bechtel-Price-Callahan for the Corps of Engineers United States Army 1942-1944 (PDF). San Francisco: Ryder & Ingram. Retrieved 21 December 2020. http://assets.yukonarchives.ca/Finnie_Canol_1945.pdf ↩

  15. Gage, S.R. (1990). A walk on the Canol Road. Mosaic Press. ISBN 0-88962-439-9. 0-88962-439-9 ↩

  16. Investigation of the national defense program. Hearings before a Special Committee Investigating the National Defense Program, Part 22: The Canol Project. Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office. 1943. p. 9310. Retrieved 3 June 2025. https://archive.org/details/investigationofn22unit/page/n3/mode/2up ↩

  17. Midnight Arts (April 1999). Maxwell Industrial Area (PDF). Whitehorse, YK: Government of Yukon. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 April 2024. Retrieved 3 June 2025. https://web.archive.org/web/20240405055914/https://emrlibrary.gov.yk.ca/environment/marwell-industrial-area-historical-research-project-1999.pdf ↩

  18. Gage, S.R. (1990). A walk on the Canol Road. Mosaic Press. ISBN 0-88962-439-9. 0-88962-439-9 ↩

  19. Ueda, Herbert T.; Garfield, Donald E.; Hayes, F. Donald. "The Canol Pipeline Project: A Historical Review". Special Report. 77 (34). Cold Regions Research and Engineering Labratory, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Retrieved 2 June 2025. https://erdc-library.erdc.dren.mil/server/api/core/bitstreams/81b728f8-a7c7-4ef8-e053-411ac80adeb3/content ↩

  20. Kershaw 1983, p. 66 - Kershaw, G. Peter (1983-04-22). Long-term ecological consequences in tundra environments of the CANOL Crude Oil Pipeline Project, N.W.T. (PhD Thesis thesis). University of Alberta. p. 51. doi:10.7939/R3XD0R395. https://era.library.ualberta.ca/items/945ba39e-3d69-4bb2-a9f2-0ec2c5552228 ↩

  21. Gage, S.R. (1990). A walk on the Canol Road. Mosaic Press. ISBN 0-88962-439-9. 0-88962-439-9 ↩

  22. Midnight Arts (April 1999). Maxwell Industrial Area (PDF). Whitehorse, YK: Government of Yukon. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 April 2024. Retrieved 3 June 2025. https://web.archive.org/web/20240405055914/https://emrlibrary.gov.yk.ca/environment/marwell-industrial-area-historical-research-project-1999.pdf ↩

  23. Kershaw 1983, p. 66-71 - Kershaw, G. Peter (1983-04-22). Long-term ecological consequences in tundra environments of the CANOL Crude Oil Pipeline Project, N.W.T. (PhD Thesis thesis). University of Alberta. p. 51. doi:10.7939/R3XD0R395. https://era.library.ualberta.ca/items/945ba39e-3d69-4bb2-a9f2-0ec2c5552228 ↩

  24. Kershaw 1983, p. 67 - Kershaw, G. Peter (1983-04-22). Long-term ecological consequences in tundra environments of the CANOL Crude Oil Pipeline Project, N.W.T. (PhD Thesis thesis). University of Alberta. p. 51. doi:10.7939/R3XD0R395. https://era.library.ualberta.ca/items/945ba39e-3d69-4bb2-a9f2-0ec2c5552228 ↩

  25. K.Bisset & Associates 1995, p. 61-62 - K.Bisset & Associates (April 1995). Research of Former Military Sites and Activities in the Yukon (PDF). Ottawa, ON: Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 January 2025. Retrieved 6 June 2025. https://web.archive.org/web/20250109131639/https://emrlibrary.gov.yk.ca/cw/research-former-military-sites/report.pdf?__cf_chl_rt_tk=5b5G8fe5lc44aw3J3r_OozDX24rbvM0AZJvmI_HbyQY-1736428599-1.0.1.1-lxrlrsYe7FQjeL3PZkKiY66SqXkkzHusVN7FdAUJmGM ↩

  26. Hanks 1993, p. 23 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHanks1993 (help) ↩

  27. Hanks 1993, p. 23 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHanks1993 (help) ↩

  28. K.Bisset & Associates 1995, p. 61-62 - K.Bisset & Associates (April 1995). Research of Former Military Sites and Activities in the Yukon (PDF). Ottawa, ON: Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 January 2025. Retrieved 6 June 2025. https://web.archive.org/web/20250109131639/https://emrlibrary.gov.yk.ca/cw/research-former-military-sites/report.pdf?__cf_chl_rt_tk=5b5G8fe5lc44aw3J3r_OozDX24rbvM0AZJvmI_HbyQY-1736428599-1.0.1.1-lxrlrsYe7FQjeL3PZkKiY66SqXkkzHusVN7FdAUJmGM ↩

  29. K.Bisset & Associates 1995, p. 61-62 - K.Bisset & Associates (April 1995). Research of Former Military Sites and Activities in the Yukon (PDF). Ottawa, ON: Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 January 2025. Retrieved 6 June 2025. https://web.archive.org/web/20250109131639/https://emrlibrary.gov.yk.ca/cw/research-former-military-sites/report.pdf?__cf_chl_rt_tk=5b5G8fe5lc44aw3J3r_OozDX24rbvM0AZJvmI_HbyQY-1736428599-1.0.1.1-lxrlrsYe7FQjeL3PZkKiY66SqXkkzHusVN7FdAUJmGM ↩

  30. K.Bisset & Associates 1995, p. 61-62 - K.Bisset & Associates (April 1995). Research of Former Military Sites and Activities in the Yukon (PDF). Ottawa, ON: Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 January 2025. Retrieved 6 June 2025. https://web.archive.org/web/20250109131639/https://emrlibrary.gov.yk.ca/cw/research-former-military-sites/report.pdf?__cf_chl_rt_tk=5b5G8fe5lc44aw3J3r_OozDX24rbvM0AZJvmI_HbyQY-1736428599-1.0.1.1-lxrlrsYe7FQjeL3PZkKiY66SqXkkzHusVN7FdAUJmGM ↩

  31. K.Bisset & Associates 1995, p. 61-62 - K.Bisset & Associates (April 1995). Research of Former Military Sites and Activities in the Yukon (PDF). Ottawa, ON: Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 January 2025. Retrieved 6 June 2025. https://web.archive.org/web/20250109131639/https://emrlibrary.gov.yk.ca/cw/research-former-military-sites/report.pdf?__cf_chl_rt_tk=5b5G8fe5lc44aw3J3r_OozDX24rbvM0AZJvmI_HbyQY-1736428599-1.0.1.1-lxrlrsYe7FQjeL3PZkKiY66SqXkkzHusVN7FdAUJmGM ↩

  32. K.Bisset & Associates 1995, p. 61-62 - K.Bisset & Associates (April 1995). Research of Former Military Sites and Activities in the Yukon (PDF). Ottawa, ON: Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 January 2025. Retrieved 6 June 2025. https://web.archive.org/web/20250109131639/https://emrlibrary.gov.yk.ca/cw/research-former-military-sites/report.pdf?__cf_chl_rt_tk=5b5G8fe5lc44aw3J3r_OozDX24rbvM0AZJvmI_HbyQY-1736428599-1.0.1.1-lxrlrsYe7FQjeL3PZkKiY66SqXkkzHusVN7FdAUJmGM ↩

  33. K.Bisset & Associates 1995, p. 61-62 - K.Bisset & Associates (April 1995). Research of Former Military Sites and Activities in the Yukon (PDF). Ottawa, ON: Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 January 2025. Retrieved 6 June 2025. https://web.archive.org/web/20250109131639/https://emrlibrary.gov.yk.ca/cw/research-former-military-sites/report.pdf?__cf_chl_rt_tk=5b5G8fe5lc44aw3J3r_OozDX24rbvM0AZJvmI_HbyQY-1736428599-1.0.1.1-lxrlrsYe7FQjeL3PZkKiY66SqXkkzHusVN7FdAUJmGM ↩

  34. K.Bisset & Associates 1995, p. 61-62 - K.Bisset & Associates (April 1995). Research of Former Military Sites and Activities in the Yukon (PDF). Ottawa, ON: Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 January 2025. Retrieved 6 June 2025. https://web.archive.org/web/20250109131639/https://emrlibrary.gov.yk.ca/cw/research-former-military-sites/report.pdf?__cf_chl_rt_tk=5b5G8fe5lc44aw3J3r_OozDX24rbvM0AZJvmI_HbyQY-1736428599-1.0.1.1-lxrlrsYe7FQjeL3PZkKiY66SqXkkzHusVN7FdAUJmGM ↩

  35. K.Bisset & Associates 1995, p. 61-62 - K.Bisset & Associates (April 1995). Research of Former Military Sites and Activities in the Yukon (PDF). Ottawa, ON: Indian and Northern Affairs Canada. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 January 2025. Retrieved 6 June 2025. https://web.archive.org/web/20250109131639/https://emrlibrary.gov.yk.ca/cw/research-former-military-sites/report.pdf?__cf_chl_rt_tk=5b5G8fe5lc44aw3J3r_OozDX24rbvM0AZJvmI_HbyQY-1736428599-1.0.1.1-lxrlrsYe7FQjeL3PZkKiY66SqXkkzHusVN7FdAUJmGM ↩

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