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Chess in Armenia

Chess has been played in Armenia since the early Middle Ages; however, it was institutionalized during the early Soviet period. Highly popular in Armenia today, chess gained widespread recognition during the 1960s, when Soviet Armenian grandmaster Tigran Petrosian became the World Chess Champion. A country of about three million people, Armenia is considered one of the strongest chess nations today, and a chess superpower. Among countries, Armenia has one of the most chess grandmasters per capita.

Since the country's independence, the Armenian men's chess team has won the European Team Championship (1999), the World Team Championship (2011) and the Chess Olympiad (2006, 2008, 2012). The women's team had its crowning victory at the 2003 European Championship. As of August 2021, Armenia ranks seventh in the world by the average rating of its top players. Levon Aronian, formerly Armenia's best chess player, has placed as high as world No. 2 in the FIDE rankings, and has been a World Champion candidate on six occasions.

Since the 2011–12 school year, chess lessons have been made part of the curriculum in every public school in Armenia, making it the first country in the world to make chess mandatory in schools.

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Name

Until the early 20th century, chess was known in Armenian as čatrak (ճատրակ), from Middle Persian chatrang.1516 Another name was ճատրկուց, čatrkuts.17 Today, that term—pronounced jadrag18—is only used in Western Armenian, which is spoken in the Armenian diaspora.19 In modern Eastern Armenian, the variation used in Armenia, chess is known as šaxmat շախմատ ([ʃɑχmɑt]). It is derived from Russian šáxmaty (шахматы), itself a derivative from Persian šâh mât (شاه مات), literally meaning "the king is at a loss" or "the king is helpless."20 The latter Persian phrase is also the etymology of the English checkmate.21

History

Early history

In their 1936 book on the history of chess, historians Joseph Orbeli and Kamilla Trever suggest that chess was known in Armenia since at least the 9th century during the Arab rule. According to them, the game was brought to Armenia by the Arabs from India,22 where the game is believed to have been originated in the sixth century as Chaturanga.23 In 1967 chess pieces were excavated by archaeologists in the citadel of Dvin, the medieval Armenian capital.24 Chess is mentioned in manuscripts from the 12th–13th centuries, kept in the Matenadaran in Yerevan, including by Vardan Areveltsi and Mkhitar Anetsi.2526 Until the mid-20th century villagers in Shenavan, in the Aparan area, used homemade chess figures similar to medieval ones.2728

Soviet period

Chess in Armenia was institutionalized after the establishment of Soviet rule in 1920.29 In 1926-27, chemist Simon Hovyan (1869-1942) spearheaded an initiative to introduce sections dedicated to chess in numerous Armenian newspapers. He played a crucial role in the widespread popularization of the game by providing lectures on the rules and strategy of chess, as well as translating books by Emanuel Lasker, Ilya Maizelis (ru), and Yakov Rokhlin (ru) into Armenian.30

The first chess competitions were held in 1927, when the Armenian Chess Federation was founded.31 Until 1934 chess players from Armenia competed in the Transcaucasian championship. In 1934 the first Armenian Chess Championship was held in Yerevan.32 Genrikh Kasparyan became its winner. In later years Kasparyan won the championship nine times and became the most-titled Armenian chess player with ten national championship wins. The women's championship was also held the same year, Sirush Makints and Margarita Mirza-Avagian shared the champion title.3334 The first Armenian chess club was founded in Yerevan in 1936.35 Chess clubs were also founded in Leninakan (now Gyumri) and Kirovakan (now Vanadzor) in the 1950s.36 By the early 1980s all towns and districts (rayons) of Soviet Armenia had chess clubs.37

Chess became particularly popular with the unprecedented success of Tigran Petrosian in the 1960s. Born in Tiflis, the current capital of Armenia's neighbor Georgia, he started his ascent in Armenia with a 1946 victory at the national championship. He then won the Soviet champion title four times (1959, 1961, 1969, 1975). In 1963 Petrosian became the World Chess Champion, defeating Mikhail Botvinnik, another Soviet representative. Petrosian's victory not only popularized the game of chess, but also "led to an outpouring of patriotic fervour" in the smallest Soviet republic. "From that moment on, chess became a national obsession."38 Many couples named their sons Tigran, after Petrosian.39 Besides being World Champion for six years (1963 to 1969), Petrosian won the Chess Olympiad nine times with the Soviet team (1958 to 1974).40

The USSR Chess Championship was held in Yerevan twice, in 1962 and 1975.41

In 1962, there were 30,000 chess players in Soviet Armenia, as well as 3,000 instructors and judges. By 1986 the number of chess players had increased to 50,000, including three grandmasters: Rafael Vaganian, Smbat Lputian, and Arshak Petrosian.42 In the late Soviet period, Rafael Vaganian (1989)43 and Artashes Minasian (1991)44 became Soviet Champions. Vaganian also won the Olympiad with the Soviet team twice in 1984 and 1986.45

Independent Armenia

Armenia gained its independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. Since then, Armenian chess players have had the opportunity to represent the Republic of Armenia. Three major chess tournaments have taken place in independent Armenia: the 32nd Chess Olympiad was held at the Sports & Music Complex in Yerevan in 1996;46 the 2001 World Team Chess Championship and the 2014 European Individual Chess Championship were held at the Yerevan Opera Theater.4748

Armenia earned its first medal at the 1992 Chess Olympiad, finishing third.49 Armenia won bronze medals at the 2002 and 2004 Olympiads as well.5051 The Armenian team made a breakthrough with the sensational victory at the 2006 Chess Olympiad.52 They also won the 200853 and 2012 Chess Olympiads.54 Their record at the World Team Championships has been similarly outstanding, finishing third in 1997,55 2001,56 and 2005,57 and winning in 2011.58 At the European championships the team performed somewhat more poorly, placing third in 1997,59 first in 1999, and second in 2007.60

Chess in schools

In 2011, the Ministry of Education of Armenia made chess part of the primary school curriculum along with such standards as math and history for children over the age of 6.6162 Chess is compulsory for second, third and fourth graders.63 Over $1.5 million was spent on the program. The inclusion of chess in schools was generally received positively by the public, but some parents claimed that their children's school program was already complicated and overloaded.64 Grandmaster Smbat Lputian argued that "bringing chess into schools is the best way to build the future."65 Grandmaster Rafael Vaganian criticized the program as "farce."66

The decision was widely reported in the international media. Journalists, chess experts and officials in various countries praised the program and advised its adoption in their respective countries.6768 During his visit to Armenia in 2014 Magnus Carlsen stated: "I think Armenia's experience of teaching chess in schools is a great example for the whole world."69 As of 2020, chess is taught in grades 2 to 4 with two classes a week.70

Chess players in Armenia
YearNumber
2005711,846
2010722,893
2021734,969

Recent developments

On December 12, 2019 the United Nations (UN) designated 20 July as World Chess Day as proposed by the Armenian delegation. It marks the date in 1924 when the International Chess Federation was established.74

As of 2021, Armenia's statistics agency recorded 4,969 chess players (including 1,318 females), up from 1,846 (375 females) in 2005 and 184 coaches (including 36 females) up from 87 (17 females) in 2005.7576

In August 2022, when he met with the men's team that won a silver medal at the 44th Chess Olympiad, Armenia's Prime Minister Nikol Pashinyan said Armenia should aim to win the World Chess Championship by 2050. His government has listed it as a strategic goal for Armenia.77

At the FIDE 100 Awards in September 2024 Armenia was honored as the "Best Male Team" by the International Chess Federation (FIDE).78

Armenian diaspora

A number of ethnic Armenian chess players have achieved success outside of Armenia. Most notably, in 1985, Garry Kasparov, born in Baku, Soviet Azerbaijan to an Armenian mother and Russian Jewish father,79 became World Champion. Although he never represented Armenia and is only half-Armenian, some sources preferred to call him Armenian,80 partly because his last name is the Russified form of his mother's Armenian last name Kasparyan.81

Other notable Armenian diaspora chess players include82 Sergei Movsesian (Czech Republic, Slovakia), Yury Dokhoian83 and David Paravyan (Russia), Levon Ashotovich Grigorian (Uzbekistan), Tatev Abrahamyan, Samuel Sevian, Varuzhan Akobian, Melikset Khachiyan and Levon Aronian (United States), Dina Kagramanov and Natalia Khoudgarian (Canada), José Bademian Orchanian (Uruguay), Krikor Mekhitarian (Brazil), Knarik Mouradian (Lebanon).

Institutions

The national governing body for chess, the Armenian Chess Federation, was founded in 1927.84 Serzh Sargsyan, then Defense Minister, was elected its president in 2004 and was reelected in 2011.85 Sargsyan "is known for enthusiastically supporting Armenian chess players."86 On one occasion, Sargsyan stated that "We don't want people to know Armenia just for the earthquake and the genocide. We would rather it was famous for its chess."87 The Armenian government provides grandmasters with salaries and perks.8889

The Chess Academy of Armenia (Հայաստանի շախմատի ակադեմիա) is a leading education institutions of chess in Armenia. It was founded in 2002 by the initiative of Grandmaster Smbat Lputian and supported by then-Prime Minister Andranik Margaryan. The academy has also organized international and national chess tournaments.90

National championship

Main article: Armenian Chess Championship

The first Armenian championship occurred in 1934 when it was part of the Transcaucasian SFSR. Championships were held sporadically in the Armenian SSR until 1945, when they became an annual event; this practice has been continued in independent Armenia. Genrikh Kasparyan has won it the most times (10 times), followed by Ashot Anastasian (8 times), Levon Grigorian (6 times) and Artashes Minasian (6 times).91

The first woman's championship also took place in 1934, but was not held again till 1939. Some of the most notable women champions include Elina Danielian (6 times), Lilit Mkrtchian (4 times) and Siranush Andriasian (3 times).92

Media

In 1972, the magazine Chess in Armenia (Շախմատային Հայաստան Shakhmatayin Hayastan) was founded by Gaguik Oganessian. It was published monthly until 1997, when it became a weekly magazine.93 In 1972, the TV show Chess-64 (originally named Chess School) started to be aired by the Public Television of Armenia. Hosted by Gaguik Oganessian, it is the "longest lived program series" in the channel's history.94 Another more recently created show, Chess World, is aired after the First News.95

Individual statistics

FIDE, the World Chess Federation, lists 24 active Armenian grandmasters, 4 woman grandmasters, 17 international masters and 4 woman international masters.96

Men

The Top 10 Armenian grandmasters as of October 2024 are listed below.97

See also: List of Armenian chess players

#PlayerBirth yearGM TitleRatingWorld rank98
1Haik M. Martirosyan20002017267651
2Shant Sargsyan20022019265570
3Gabriel Sargissian19832002264093
4Hrant Melkumyan198920082636106
5Manuel Petrosyan199820172631111
6Aram Hakobyan200120182617135
7Sergei Movsesian197819972616137
8Robert Hovhannisyan199120102612144
9Samvel Ter-Sahakyan199320092609148
10Karen H. Grigoryan199520132582220

Women

The Top 10 women Armenian chess players are listed below as of October 2024.99

#PlayerBirth yearTitleRatingWorld rank100
1Elina Danielian1978GM239160
2Lilit Mkrtchian1982IM238862
3Anna M. Sargsyan2001IM237869
4Mariam Mkrtchyan2004WIM2325
5Maria Gevorgyan1994WGM2225-
6Susanna Gaboyan2001WIM2181-
7Anna Khachatryan2002WFM2079-
8Mariam Avetisyan2000WFM2055-
7Polina Kobak2008WFM2041-
10Ani Avetisyan2009-2010-

Team records

Chess Olympiads

See also: Chess Olympiad

Open (Men's)
YearEventLocationPlayersPositionRef
199230th Chess Olympiad Manila, PhilippinesVaganian, Akopian, Lputian, Minasian, A. Petrosian, Anastasian101
199431st Chess Olympiad Moscow, RussiaVaganian, Akopian, Lputian, Anastasian, Minasian, Yegiazarian13102
199632nd Chess Olympiad Yerevan, ArmeniaAkopian, Vaganian, Lputian, Minasian, Anastasian, A. Petrosian5103
199833rd Chess Olympiad Elista, RussiaVaganian, Lputian, Akopian, Minasian, Asrian, Anastasian16104
200034th Chess Olympiad Istanbul, TurkeyVaganian, Lputian, Minasian, Anastasian, Asrian, Sargissian17105
200235th Chess Olympiad Bled, SloveniaAkopian, Lputian, Asrian, Sargissian, Minasian, Anastasian106
200436th Chess Olympiad Calviá, SpainAkopian, Aronian, Vaganian, Lputian, Sargissian, Minasian107
200637th Chess Olympiad Turin, ItalyAronian, Akopian, Asrian, Lputian, Sargissian, Minasian108
200838th Chess Olympiad Dresden, GermanyAronian, Akopian, Sargissian, T. Petrosian, Minasian109
201039th Chess Olympiad Khanty-Mansiysk, RussiaAronian, Akopian, Sargissian, Pashikian, Grigoryan7110
201240th Chess Olympiad Istanbul, TurkeyAronian, Movsesian, Akopian, Sargissian, T. Petrosian111
201441st Chess Olympiad Tromsø, NorwayAronian, Sargissian, Movsesian, Akopian, Kotanjian8112
201642nd Chess Olympiad Baku, Azerbaijandid not participate——
201843rd Chess Olympiad Batumi, GeorgiaAronian, Sargissian, Melkumyan, Hovhannisyan, Martirosyan8113
202244th Chess Olympiad Chennai, IndiaSargissian, Melkumyan, Ter-Sahakyan, Petrosyan, R. Hovhannisyan114
Women's
YearEventLocationPlayersPositionRef
199230th Chess Olympiad Manila, PhilippinesAslanian, Khalafian, Danielian, Karakashian33115
199431st Chess Olympiad Moscow, RussiaDanielian, Aslanian, Grigorian, Airapetian24116
199632nd Chess Olympiad Yerevan, ArmeniaDanielian, Hlgatian, Mkrtchian, Khalafian20117
199833rd Chess Olympiad Elista, RussiaDanielian, Hlgatian, Mkrtchian, Aginian21118
200034th Chess Olympiad Istanbul, TurkeyDanielian, Mkrtchian, Hlgatian, Aginian10119
200235th Chess Olympiad Bled, SloveniaDanielian, Mkrtchian, Hlgatian, Galojan15120
200436th Chess Olympiad Calviá, SpainDanielian, Mkrtchian, Aginian, Andriasian11121
200637th Chess Olympiad Turin, ItalyMkrtchian, Danielian, Aginian, Andriasian8122
200838th Chess Olympiad Dresden, GermanyDanielian, Mkrtchian, Aginian, Galojan, Andriasian6123
201039th Chess Olympiad Khanty-Mansiysk, RussiaDanielian, Mkrtchian, Galojan, Aginian, Kharatian11124
201240th Chess Olympiad Istanbul, TurkeyDanielian, Mkrtchian, Galojan, Kursova, Hairapetian6125
201441st Chess Olympiad Tromsø, NorwayDanielian, Mkrtchian, Galojan, Kursova, Sargsyan5126
201642nd Chess Olympiad Baku, Azerbaijandid not participate
201843rd Chess Olympiad Batumi, GeorgiaDanielian, Mkrtchian, Sargsyan, Kursova, Ghukasyan6127

World Team Championships

See also: World Team Chess Championship

Men's
YearLocationPlayersPositionRef
1993 Lucerne, SwitzerlandVaganian, Akopian, Lputian, Minasian, Anastasian, Petrosian4128
1997 Lucerne, SwitzerlandAkopian, Vaganian, Lputian, Minasian, Anastasian, Khachiyan129
2001 Yerevan, ArmeniaAkopian, Vaganian, Lputian, Asrian, Anastasian, Minasian130
2005 Beersheba, IsraelAronian, Akopian, Asrian, Vaganian, Lputian, Anastasian131
2010 Bursa, TurkeyAronian, Akopian, Sargissian, Pashikian, Petrosian, Kotanjian5132
2011 Ningbo, ChinaAronian, Movsesian, Akopian, Sargissian, Hovhannisyan133
2013 Antalya, TurkeyAronian, Movsesian, Akopian, Sargissian, Petrosian5134
2015 Tsaghkadzor, ArmeniaAronian, Sargissian, Movsesian, Akopian, Melkumyan135
2017 Khanty-Mansiysk, Russiadid not participate
2019 Astana, Kazakhstandid not participate
Women's
YearLocationPlayersPositionRef
2007 Yekaterinburg, RussiaDanielian, Mkrtchian, Aginian, Andriasian, Aghabekian8136
2009 Ningbo, ChinaDanielian, Mkrtchian, Galojan, Aginian, Andriasian5137
2011 Mardin, TurkeyDanielian, Mkrtchian, Galojan, Kursova, Aginian6138
2013 Astana, Kazakhstandid not participate139
2015 Chengdu, ChinaDanielian, Mkrtchian, Galojan, Kursova, Gaboyan7
2017 Khanty-Mansiysk, Russiadid not participate
2019 Astana, Kazakhstan8140

European Team Championships

Men's

See also: European Team Chess Championship

YearLocationPlayersPositionRef
1992 Debrecen, HungaryVaganian, Akopian, Lputian, Minasian, Anastasian19141
1997 Pula, CroatiaAkopian, Vaganian, Lputian, Minasian, Anastasian142
1999 Batumi, GeorgiaLputian, Minasian, Anastasian, Petrosian143
2001 León, Spaindid not participate144
2003 Plovdiv, Bulgariadid not participate145
2005 Gothenburg, SwedenAkopian, Aronian, Vaganian, Lputian, Anastasian12146
2007 Heraklion, GreeceAronian, Akopian, Sargissian, Asrian, Lputian147
2009 Novi Sad, SerbiaAronian, Akopian, Sargissian, Pashikian, Petrosian4148
2011 Porto Carras, GreeceAronian, Movsesian, Akopian, Sargissian, Hovhannisyan4149
2013 Warsaw, PolandAronian, Movsesian, Akopian, Sargissian, Petrosian4150
2015 Reykjavík, IcelandAronian, Sargissian, Movsesian, Melkumyan, Grigoryan151
2017 Halkidiki, Greece
Women's
YearLocationPlayersPositionRef
1992 Debrecen, HungaryAslanian, Hlgatian, Grigorian19152
1997 Pula, CroatiaDanielian, Hlgatian, Mkrtchian5153
1999 Batumi, GeorgiaDanielian, Mkrtchian, Hlgatian5154
2001 León, Spaindid not participate155
2003 Plovdiv, BulgariaDanielian, Mkrtchian, Aginian156
2005 Gothenburg, SwedenDanielian, Mkrtchian, Aginian, Andriasian, Galojan6157
2007 Heraklion, GreeceDanielian, Mkrtchian, Aginian, Andriasian, Aghabekian158
2009 Novi Sad, SerbiaDanielian, Mkrtchian, Galojan, Aginian, Andriasian5159
2011 Porto Carras, GreeceDanielian, Mkrtchian, Galojan, Kursova, Aginian7160
2013 Warsaw, PolandDanielian, Mkrtchian, Galojan, Kursova, Hairapetian5161

Club championships

In 1995, the Yerevan city club won the European Chess Club Cup men's tournament.162 In 2006, the Yerevan MIKA club won the European Club Cup women's tournament.163

See also

  • Chess portal

Notes

Citations

References

  1. "In Armenia chess is king and grandmasters are stars". The Independent. 13 May 2010. Archived from the original on 15 September 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140915235449/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/in-armenia-chess-is-king-and-grandmasters-are-stars-1972407.html ↩

  2. "Compulsory chess lessons might be making Armenia's kids supersmart". msnNOW. Microsoft. 25 March 2013. Archived from the original on 28 September 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20130928213708/http://now.msn.com/chess-lessons-in-armenia-having-positive-effect-on-children ↩

  3. Shahrigian, Shant; Werman, Marco (1 November 2011). "Learning Chess in Elementary School". The World. Public Radio International. Archived from the original on 15 September 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140915210141/http://www.pri.org/stories/2011-11-01/slideshow-learning-chess-elementary-school ↩

  4. Garry Kasparov has compared the popularity of chess in Armenia with the popularity of football (soccer) in Latin America. "Garry Kasparov: "There's No Doubt That Carlsen Is the Strongest Player"". Chess-News.ru. 1 October 2012. Archived from the original on 15 September 2014. In Armenia chess became something like soccer in Latin America and it's even an obvious subject at schools. /wiki/Garry_Kasparov ↩

  5. "In Armenia chess is king and grandmasters are stars". The Independent. 13 May 2010. Archived from the original on 15 September 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140915235449/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/in-armenia-chess-is-king-and-grandmasters-are-stars-1972407.html ↩

  6. Parkinson, Joe (3 December 2012). "Winning Move: Chess Reigns as Kingly Pursuit in Armenia". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 8 August 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210808133102/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424127887324020804578147393825457694 ↩

  7. Moss, Stephen (16 November 2011). "Armenia's killer chess move". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 11 May 2021. Armenia is an obsessive chess-playing country, one of the strongest in the world despite a population that is the same as – yes, you guessed it – Wales. https://web.archive.org/web/20210511223040/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/nov/16/armenia-killer-chess-move ↩

  8. "Armenia: the cleverest nation on earth". BBC World Service. 19 October 2009. Archived from the original on 3 May 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210503153450/https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p004j7zg ↩

  9. Chakelian, Anoosh (May 24, 2014). "Armenia Is an International Superpower—at Chess". The New Republic. Archived from the original on 4 September 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220904105432/https://newrepublic.com/article/117888/armenias-chess-dominance ↩

  10. "Speech by President Sargsyan on the occasion of the gold victory of the men's national chess team at the World Chess Olympiad". president.am. The Office to the President of the Republic of Armenia. 26 November 2008. Archived from the original on 28 February 2021. The Armenian chess players through their splendid performance, talent and will power proved once again that our country is a chess superpower. https://web.archive.org/web/20210228091208/https://www.president.am/en/statements-and-messages/item/2008/11/26/news-24/ ↩

  11. "Armenia Wins World Chess Title, Ukraine Takes Third". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. 27 July 2011. Archived from the original on 5 May 2021. Chess has been one of Armenia's most popular sports since Tigran Petrosian, a Tbilisi-born Armenian, became a world champion in 1963. The country currently boasts one of the largest per capita numbers of chess grandmasters in the world. https://web.archive.org/web/20210505160643/https://www.rferl.org/a/armenia_wins_world_team_chess_title/24278984.html ↩

  12. "Federations Ranking". fide.com. World Chess Federation. Archived from the original on 2017-12-27. Retrieved 2012-09-19. http://ratings.fide.com/topfed.phtml ↩

  13. Akhmeteli, Nina (19 January 2012). "Chess lessons introduced to the curriculum in Armenian schools". BBC News. Archived from the original on 8 November 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20201108092306/https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-europe-16629820 ↩

  14. Parameswaran; Gaedtke, Gayatri; Felix (24 March 2013). "Chess mania captures Armenia's attention". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 11 November 2020.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) https://web.archive.org/web/20201111224142/https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2013/03/24/chess-mania-captures-armenias-attention/ ↩

  15. Adjarian, Hrachia (1926). Հայերեն Արմատական Բառարան [Armenian Etymological Dictionary] (in Armenian). Vol. 3. Yerevan University Press. p. 190. /wiki/Hrachia_Adjarian ↩

  16. Petrosian, Tigran; Hakobian, G. (1982). "Շախմատ [Chess]". Soviet Armenian Encyclopedia (in Armenian). Vol. 8. Yerevan: Armenian Encyclopedia. pp. 414–415. /wiki/Tigran_Petrosian ↩

  17. Petrosian, Tigran; Hakobian, G. (1982). "Շախմատ [Chess]". Soviet Armenian Encyclopedia (in Armenian). Vol. 8. Yerevan: Armenian Encyclopedia. pp. 414–415. /wiki/Tigran_Petrosian ↩

  18. Awde, Nicholas; Davidian, Vazken-Khatchig (2006). Western Armenian Dictionary & Phrasebook. New York: Hippocrene Books. p. 168. ISBN 978-0-7818-1048-7. 978-0-7818-1048-7 ↩

  19. Kouyoumdjian, Mesrob G. (1981). Ընդարձակ Բառարան Անգլիերէնէ Հայերէն [A Comprehensive English - Armenian Dictionary]. Beirut: G. Doniguian & Fils. p. 226. http://www.nayiri.com/imagedDictionaryBrowser.jsp?dictionaryId=2&dt=EN_HY&query=chess&forceIndex=yes ↩

  20. Chess: East and West, Past and Present. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. 1968. p. xxv. /wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art ↩

  21. "checkmate (n.)". etymonline.com. Online Etymology Dictionary. Archived from the original on 6 March 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210306182646/https://www.etymonline.com/word/checkmate ↩

  22. Orbeli, Joseph; Trever, Kamilla (1936). Шатранг. Книга о шахматах [Shatrang: The Book of Chess] (in Russian). Saint Petersburg: State Hermitage. p. 195. OCLC 82233681. Archived from the original on 2023-12-06. Шатранг. Книга о шахматах ↩

  23. United States Chess Federation; Kurzdorfer, Peter (2003). The Everything Chess Basics Book. Avon, Massachusetts: Adams Media. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-4405-2229-1. Chess is a descendant of a game called Chaturanga believed to have originated in India in the sixth century and which may have been related to a much older Chinese game. 978-1-4405-2229-1 ↩

  24. Ghafadarian, Karo (1970). "Հնագիտական աշխատանքը Հայաստանում սովետական շրջանում [Archaeological Research in Armenia in Soviet Years]". Patma-Banasirakan Handes (in Armenian) (3). Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences: 16. Archived from the original on 2018-09-20. Retrieved 2013-12-07. /wiki/Karo_Ghafadaryan ↩

  25. Thomson, Robert W. (1989). "The Historical Compilation of Vardan Arewelcʿi". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 43: 192. doi:10.2307/1291609. JSTOR 1291609. /wiki/Robert_W._Thomson ↩

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