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Conservative liberalism
Political ideology representing the conservative wing of the liberal movement

Conservative liberalism, also referred to as right-liberalism, is a variant of liberalism combining liberal values and policies with conservative stances, or simply representing the right wing of the liberal movement. In the case of modern conservative liberalism, scholars sometimes see it as a less radical variant of classical liberalism; it is also referred to as an individual tradition that distinguishes it from classical liberalism and social liberalism. Conservative liberal parties tend to combine economically liberal policies with more traditional stances and personal beliefs on social and ethical issues.[specify] Ordoliberalism is an influential component of conservative-liberal thought, particularly in its German, British, Canadian, French, Italian, and American manifestations.

In general, liberal conservatism and conservative liberalism have different philosophical roots. Historically, liberal conservatism refers mainly to the case where conservatives embrace the elements of classical liberalism, and conservative liberalism refers to classical liberals who support a laissez-faire economy as well as socially conservative principles (for instance, Christian family values). Since classical liberal institutions were gradually accepted by conservatives, there is very little to distinguish liberal conservatives from conservative liberals. Neoconservatism has also been identified as an ideological relative or twin to conservative liberalism, and some similarities exist also between conservative liberalism and national liberalism.

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Overview

Conservative liberalism emerged in late 18th-century France and the United Kingdom, when the moderate bourgeoisie supported the monarchy within the liberal camp. Representatively, Doctrinaires, which existed during the Bourbon Restoration was a representative conservative-liberal party.12 Radicalism, the leftward flank of liberalism during the late 18th and early 19th centuries that is referred to as classical radicalism, emerged as an opposition against the moderateness of these conservative liberals. Whiggism, or Whig liberalism, in the United Kingdom also forms early conservative liberalism and is distinguished from the Radicals (radical liberalism).13

According to Robert Kraynak, a professor at Colgate University, rather than "following progressive liberalism (i.e. social liberalism), conservative liberals draw upon pre-modern sources, such as classical philosophy (with its ideas of virtue, the common good, and natural rights), Christianity (with its ideas of natural law, the social nature of man, and original sin), and ancient institutions (such as common law, corporate bodies, and social hierarchies). This gives their liberalism a conservative foundation. It means following Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, St. Augustine, St. Thomas Aquinas, and Edmund Burke rather than Locke or Kant; it usually includes a deep sympathy for the politics of the Greek polis, the Roman Republic, and Christian monarchies. But, as realists, conservative liberals acknowledge that classical and medieval politics cannot be restored in the modern world. And, as moralists, they see that the modern experiment in liberty and self-government has the positive effect of enhancing human dignity as well as providing an opening (even in the midst of mass culture) for transcendent longings for eternity. At its practical best, conservative liberalism promotes ordered liberty under God and establishes constitutional safeguards against tyranny. It shows that a regime of liberty based on traditional morality and classical-Christian culture is an achievement we can be proud of, rather than merely defensive about, as trustees of Western civilization."14

In the European context, conservative liberalism should not be confused with liberal conservatism, which is a variant of conservatism combining conservative views with liberal policies in regards to the economy, social and ethical issues.15 The roots of conservative liberalism are to be found at the beginning of the history of liberalism. Until the two world wars, the political class in most European countries from Germany to Italy was formed by conservative liberals. The events such as World War I occurring after 1917 brought the more radical version of classical liberalism to a more conservative (i.e. more moderate) type of liberalism.16 Conservative liberal parties have tended to develop in those European countries where there was no strong secular conservative party and where the separation of church and state was less of an issue. In those countries, where the conservative parties were Christian democratic, this conservative brand of liberalism developed.17

Political stance

Conservative liberalism is generally a liberal ideology that contrasts with social liberalism.18 Conservative liberalism, along with social liberalism and classical liberalism, is mentioned as the main liberal ideology of European politics.19 While there are conservative liberals who are located on the right-wing political position, conservative liberalism is often used to describe liberalism close to the political centre to the centre-right of the political spectrum.2021

Social, classical and conservative liberalism

Social liberalism is a combination of economic Keynesianism and cultural liberalism. Classical liberalism is economic liberalism that partially embraces cultural liberalism. Conservative liberalism is an ideology that highlights the conservative aspect of liberalism, so it can appear in a somewhat different form depending on the local reality. Conservative liberalism refers to ideologies that show relatively conservative tendencies within the liberal camp, so it has some relative meaning. In the United States, conservative liberals mean de facto classical liberals;22 in Europe, Christian democrats and ordoliberals can also be included. Christian democracy is a mainstream European conservative ideology, so there are cases where it supports free markets, such as Röpke.23

By country

France

Alexis de Tocqueville and Adolphe Thiers were representative French conservative liberals.2425 They were classified as centre-left liberals (progressive-Orléanists) during the July Monarchy alone;2627 after the French Revolution of 1848, the now French Second Republic entered and they were relegated to conservative liberals.

Germany

Before World War II, conservative liberalism or right-liberalism (German: Rechtsliberalismus) was often used in a similar sense to national-liberalism (German: Nationalliberalismus). National Liberal Party during the German Empire and German People's Party during the Weimar Republic are representative. "Right-liberalism" and "national liberalism" are used in similar meanings in Germany. According to the German Wikipedia, most of the national liberals during the Weimar Republic joined the CDU, a liberal-conservative party. For this reason, the terms "conservative liberalism" are not often used in Germany.

Ordoliberalism is more a variant of conservative liberalism than classical liberalism, which is economic liberalism that embraces cultural liberalism, or social liberalism, in principle because it is influenced by the notion of social justice based on traditional Catholic teachings. After the war, Germany pursued economic growth based on the social market economy, which is deeply related to ordoliberalism.28

United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom, David Hume, Adam Smith, and Edmund Burke have been identified as conservative liberals.29

United States

In the United States, liberal usually refers to a social liberal form. As such, those referred to as conservative liberals in Europe are often simply referred to as conservatives in the United States. Milton Friedman and Irving Kristol are mentioned as representative conservative liberal scholars.3031

Political scientists evaluate all politicians in the United States as liberals in the academic sense.32 In general, rather than the Democratic Party, which is close to social liberalism, the Republican Party is evaluated as a conservative-liberal party.33 In the case of the Democratic Party, the Blue Dog Coalition is evaluated as close to conservative-liberal in fiscal policy,34 and as moderate to liberal on cultural issues.35 Unlike classical liberals, conservative liberals in Europe, such as Finland's Centre Party, sometimes criticize cultural liberalism.36

American neoconservatives might be classified as conservative liberals according to Peter Lawler, a professor at Berry College, who argued:

[I]n America today, responsible liberals—who are usually called neoconservatives—see that liberalism depends on human beings who are somewhat child-centered, patriotic, and religious. These responsible liberals praise these non-individualistic human propensities in an effort to shore up liberalism. One of their slogans is "conservative sociology with liberal politics." The neoconservatives recognize that the politics of free and rational individuals depends upon a pre-political social world that is far from free and rational as a whole.37

Notable thinkers

  • Leon A. Weinstein ( born September 17 1949)-political scientist,video blogger, writer.

List of conservative-liberal parties or parties with conservative-liberal factions

Current parties

Historical parties

See also

  • Liberalism portal

Notes

Bibliography

References

  1. Nelson, Keith L. (2019). The Making of Détente: Soviet-American Relations in the Shadow of Vietnam. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-1421436210. ... and even today our political parties can most appropriately be described as "right liberal" (those who fear government) and "left liberal" (those who fear concentrated wealth). 978-1421436210 ↩

  2. Orlowski, Paul (21 June 2011). Teaching About Hegemony: Race, Class and Democracy in the 21st Century. Springer Science+Business Media. p. 110. ISBN 978-9400714182. This pull-yourself-up-by-the-bootstraps idea is part of the conservative and right liberal ideologies. 978-9400714182 ↩

  3. Mair, Peter; Gallagher, Michael; Laver, Michael (2001). Representative Government in Modern Europe: Institutions, Parties, and Governments (3rd ed.). McGraw Hill Education. p. 221. ISBN 0072322675. Retrieved 22 March 2025. Within the first strand, an emphasis on individual rights has led to a concern for fis- cal rectitude and opposition to all but minimal state intervention in the economy. This right-wing strand of liberalism has been particularly important in Austria, where the Freedom party used to be regarded as the most rightist of European liberal parties, but is now better grouped with the extreme right (we discuss this later in this chapter). The right-wing strand is also important in Belgium, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and Switzerland, and this is the position toward which the Progressive Democrats in Ireland have now gravitated. Thus, this brand of liberalism has tended to emerge in countries that are also characterized by strong Christian democratic parties and hence where the anticlerical component of liberalism was once important. Indeed, anticlericalism in these countries has two distinct forms, being represented on the left by socialist and/or communist parties and on the right by secular liberal parties. 0072322675 ↩

  4. Allen, R. T. Beyond Liberalism: The Political Thought of F. A. Hayek and Michael Polanyi. Transaction Publishers. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-4128-1807-0. 978-1-4128-1807-0 ↩

  5. Emilie van Haute; Caroline Close, eds. (2019). Liberal Parties in Europe. Routledge. p. 326. ↩

  6. "Content". Parties and Elections in Europe. 2020. Retrieved 23 June 2023. Liberal conservatism: Liberal conservative parties combine conservative policies with more liberal stances on social and ethical issues. http://www.parties-and-elections.eu/content.html ↩

  7. Kenneth Dyson (2021). "Introduction". In Kenneth Dyson (ed.). Conservative Liberalism, Ordo-liberalism, and the State: Discipling Democracy and the Market. Oxford University Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-19-885428-9. 978-0-19-885428-9 ↩

  8. Johnston, Larry (2007). Politics: An Introduction to the Modern Democratic State (3rd ed.). Peterborough, Ont.: University of Toronto Press. pp. 154–155. ISBN 978-1442600409. 978-1442600409 ↩

  9. Roger Scruton. "Liberal Conservatism, Not Conservative Liberalism" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 October 2017. Retrieved 21 October 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20171021111705/https://isistatic.org/journal-archive/ir/39_01_2/lawler.pdf ↩

  10. Telos. Telos Press. 1998. p. 72. ↩

  11. Shannan Lorraine Mattiace, ed. (1998). Peasant and Indian: Political Identity and Indian Autonomy in Chiapas, Mexico, 1970–1996. University of Texas at Austin. ↩

  12. Robert Tombs, ed. (2014). France 1814–1914. Routledge. ISBN 978-1317871439. ... The conservative liberal Doctrinaires argued that the classe moyenne (their preferred term) was the representative part of the nation, and could legitimately govern on behalf of all. All this placed the idea of class at the centre of ... 978-1317871439 ↩

  13. Efraim Podoksik, ed. (2013). In Defence of Modernity: Vision and Philosophy in Michael Oakeshott. Imprint Academic. p. 14. ISBN 9781845404680. ... For Whig liberalism is also known as 'conservative liberalism' ... 9781845404680 ↩

  14. Kraynak, Robert (December 2005). "Living with liberalism". The New Criterion. Archived from the original on 1 March 2021. Retrieved 23 June 2023. https://newcriterion.com/issues/2005/12/living-with-liberalism ↩

  15. "Content". Parties and Elections in Europe. 2020. Retrieved 23 June 2023. Liberal conservatism: Liberal conservative parties combine conservative policies with more liberal stances on social and ethical issues. http://www.parties-and-elections.eu/content.html ↩

  16. R.T. Allen, Beyond Liberalism, p. 13. https://books.google.com/books?id=1wiNKcJzwYQC&dq=Beyond%20Liberalism&pg=PA2 ↩

  17. Mair, Peter; Gallagher, Michael; Laver, Michael (2001). Representative Government in Modern Europe: Institutions, Parties, and Governments (3rd ed.). McGraw Hill Education. p. 221. ISBN 0072322675. Retrieved 22 March 2025. Within the first strand, an emphasis on individual rights has led to a concern for fis- cal rectitude and opposition to all but minimal state intervention in the economy. This right-wing strand of liberalism has been particularly important in Austria, where the Freedom party used to be regarded as the most rightist of European liberal parties, but is now better grouped with the extreme right (we discuss this later in this chapter). The right-wing strand is also important in Belgium, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and Switzerland, and this is the position toward which the Progressive Democrats in Ireland have now gravitated. Thus, this brand of liberalism has tended to emerge in countries that are also characterized by strong Christian democratic parties and hence where the anticlerical component of liberalism was once important. Indeed, anticlericalism in these countries has two distinct forms, being represented on the left by socialist and/or communist parties and on the right by secular liberal parties. 0072322675 ↩

  18. Hans Slomp, ed. (2011). Europe, A Political Profile: An American Companion to European Politics, Volume 1. ABC-CLIO. p. 107. ISBN 978-0313391811. Although businesspeople are more inclined to conservative liberalism, professionals and intellectuals constitute the backbone of social liberalism. 978-0313391811 ↩

  19. Emilie van Haute; Caroline Close, eds. (2019). Liberal Parties in Europe. Routledge. p. 326. ↩

  20. Immanuel Wallerstein, ed. (2011). The Modern World-System IV: Centrist Liberalism Triumphant, 1789–1914. University of California Press. ↩

  21. Emilie van Haute; Caroline Close, eds. (2019). Liberal Parties in Europe. Routledge. pp. 338–339. ↩

  22. David Cayla, ed. (2021). Populism and Neoliberalism. Routledge. p. 62. ISBN 978-1000366709. He demonstrates that the concept of "neoliberalism" did not emerge in the American context and that it was thereby not invented to distinguish Paul Krugman's left-wing liberalism from Milton Friedman's conservative liberalism. 978-1000366709 ↩

  23. Kenneth Dyson, ed. (2021). Conservative Liberalism, Ordo-liberalism, and the State: Disciplining Democracy and the Market. Oxford University Press. ↩

  24. Martin Fitzpatrick; Peter Jones, eds. (2017). The Reception of Edmund Burke in Europe. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1350012554. ... If Burke is a liberal conservative, Tocqueville is a conservative liberal.49 Bénéton then silently excludes French liberalism from conservatism, and concentrates on a definition of a genuine conservatism proceeding from the ... 978-1350012554 ↩

  25. Andrew Cleveland Gould, ed. (1992). Politicians, Peasants and Priests: Conditions for the Emergence of Liberal Dominance in Western Europe, 1815–1914. University of California. p. 82. Conservative liberal Adolphe Thiers , advocate of peace and liberal opposition leader under ... ↩

  26. Jennings, Jeremy (2011). Revolution and the Republic: A History of Political Thought in France Since the Eighteenth Century. Oxford University Press. p. 188. ISBN 978-0198203131. 978-0198203131 ↩

  27. Agulhon, Maurice (1983). The Republican Experiment, 1848–1852. Cambridge University Press. p. 135. ↩

  28. Kenneth Dyson, ed. (2021). Conservative Liberalism, Ordo-liberalism, and the State: Disciplining Democracy and the Market. Oxford University Press. ↩

  29. Klein, Daniel B. (1 March 2021). "Conservative liberalism: Hume, Smith, and Burke as policy liberals and polity conservatives". Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization. 183: 861–873. doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2020.11.021. ISSN 0167-2681. S2CID 233880111. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167268120304285 ↩

  30. David Cayla, ed. (2021). Populism and Neoliberalism. Routledge. p. 62. ISBN 978-1000366709. He demonstrates that the concept of "neoliberalism" did not emerge in the American context and that it was thereby not invented to distinguish Paul Krugman's left-wing liberalism from Milton Friedman's conservative liberalism. 978-1000366709 ↩

  31. Otis L. Graham Jr., ed. (1976). Toward a Planned Society: From Roosevelt to Nixon. Oxford University Press. p. 1911. ISBN 978-0199923212. The journal The Public Interest in recent years has published notable essays by the skeptics of the planning and Planning impulse, by conservative liberal writers like Aaron Wildavsky, James O. Wilson, and Irving Kristol. 978-0199923212 ↩

  32. Adams, Ian (2001). Political Ideology Today (reprinted, revised ed.). Manchester: Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0719060205. 978-0719060205 ↩

  33. Slomp 2011, p. 107. - Slomp, Hans (2011). Europe, a Political Profile: An American Companion to European Politics. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0313391828. https://books.google.com/books?id=LmfAPmwE6YYC ↩

  34. Educating for Social Justice: Field Notes from Rural Communities. Brill. 2020. p. 93. ISBN 978-9004432864. It is entirely feasible that a Liberal, for example, might hold Conservative views when it comes to financial policy (a fiscally conservative liberal—or "blue dog Democrat"). 978-9004432864 ↩

  35. "Centrist Democrats are back. But these are not your father's Blue Dogs". Christian Science Monitor. 4 June 2019. Retrieved 3 January 2021. Progressives like Mr. Lawson disagree; he says many Blue Dogs today use socially liberal views to win support from Democratic voters, despite the fact that on economic matters they represent corporate interests. https://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Politics/2019/0604/Centrist-Democrats-are-back.-But-these-are-not-your-father-s-Blue-Dogs ↩

  36. "Väyrynen ryöpyttää keskustan liberaaleja". Kaleva.fi. Archived from the original on 1 October 2011. Retrieved 24 February 2015. http://www.kaleva.fi/uutiset/vayrynen-ryopyttaa-keskustan-liberaaleja/548907 ↩

  37. Lawler, Peter (2002). "Liberal Conservatism, Not Conservative Liberalism" (PDF). The Intercollegiate Review. 39 (1): 59–60. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 July 2011. Retrieved 5 March 2025. /wiki/Peter_Lawler_(academic) ↩

  38. Klein, Daniel B. (1 March 2021). "Conservative liberalism: Hume, Smith, and Burke as policy liberals and polity conservatives". Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization. 183: 861–873. doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2020.11.021. ISSN 0167-2681. S2CID 233880111. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167268120304285 ↩

  39. Klein, Daniel B. (1 March 2021). "Conservative liberalism: Hume, Smith, and Burke as policy liberals and polity conservatives". Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization. 183: 861–873. doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2020.11.021. ISSN 0167-2681. S2CID 233880111. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167268120304285 ↩

  40. Klein, Daniel B. (1 March 2021). "Conservative liberalism: Hume, Smith, and Burke as policy liberals and polity conservatives". Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization. 183: 861–873. doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2020.11.021. ISSN 0167-2681. S2CID 233880111. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0167268120304285 ↩

  41. Andrew Cleveland Gould, ed. (1992). Politicians, Peasants and Priests: Conditions for the Emergence of Liberal Dominance in Western Europe, 1815–1914. University of California. p. 82. Conservative liberal Adolphe Thiers , advocate of peace and liberal opposition leader under ... ↩

  42. Martin Fitzpatrick; Peter Jones, eds. (2017). The Reception of Edmund Burke in Europe. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1350012554. ... If Burke is a liberal conservative, Tocqueville is a conservative liberal.49 Bénéton then silently excludes French liberalism from conservatism, and concentrates on a definition of a genuine conservatism proceeding from the ... 978-1350012554 ↩

  43. Kansas State College of Pittsburg, ed. (1945). The Educational Leader. Kansas State College. p. 67. The greatest leader of the English Liberal Party in the last century, William E. Gladstone, was in principle and practice a conservative liberal. As leader of the party from 1868 to 1894, he was directly ... ↩

  44. Kenneth Dyson, ed. (2021). Conservative Liberalism, Ordo-liberalism, and the State: Disciplining Democracy and the Market. Oxford University Press. ↩

  45. Kenneth Dyson, ed. (2021). Conservative Liberalism, Ordo-liberalism, and the State: Disciplining Democracy and the Market. Oxford University Press. ↩

  46. Kenneth Dyson, ed. (2021). Conservative Liberalism, Ordo-liberalism, and the State: Disciplining Democracy and the Market. Oxford University Press. ↩

  47. Paul Kelly, ed. (2005). Liberalism. Polity. p. 71. ISBN 978-0745632902. Conservative liberal critics of social justice, such as Friedrich Hayek, have sought to reject precisely this distinction. 978-0745632902 ↩

  48. In Defense of Decadent Europe. Transaction Publishers. 1996. p. XI. ISBN 978-1412826044. ... Aron was a conservative liberal who appreciated that a true affirmation of political liberty required the ... 978-1412826044 ↩

  49. David Cayla, ed. (2021). Populism and Neoliberalism. Routledge. p. 62. ISBN 978-1000366709. He demonstrates that the concept of "neoliberalism" did not emerge in the American context and that it was thereby not invented to distinguish Paul Krugman's left-wing liberalism from Milton Friedman's conservative liberalism. 978-1000366709 ↩

  50. Otis L. Graham Jr., ed. (1976). Toward a Planned Society: From Roosevelt to Nixon. Oxford University Press. p. 1911. ISBN 978-0199923212. The journal The Public Interest in recent years has published notable essays by the skeptics of the planning and Planning impulse, by conservative liberal writers like Aaron Wildavsky, James O. Wilson, and Irving Kristol. 978-0199923212 ↩

  51. Phillip Darby, ed. (1997). At the Edge of International Relations: Postcolonialism, Gender, and Dependency. Pinter. p. 62. ... Instead, in the late twentieth century a conservative liberal, Francis Fukuyama, comfortably pronounces the victory of ... ↩

  52. Pion-Berlin, David (1997), Through Corridors of Power: Institutions and Civil-military Relations in Argentina, Pennsylvania State University Press, p. 66 ↩

  53. "Quién es quién. Los partidos políticos argentinos" (PDF). Corbière, Emilio J. (in Spanish). August 1983. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 July 2010. Retrieved 20 October 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20100706194524/http://www.nuso.org/upload/articulos/1091_1.pdf ↩

  54. "Documento Final del Congreso Ideológico Nacional del PDC". Partido Demócrata Cristiano (in Spanish). 6 July 2014. Archived from the original on 1 October 2015. Retrieved 24 October 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20151001081733/http://www.democraciacristiana.com.ar/2014/07/06/3070/ ↩

  55. Peter Starke; Alexandra Kaasch; Franca Van Hooren (2013). The Welfare State as Crisis Manager: Explaining the Diversity of Policy Responses to Economic Crisis. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 191–192. ISBN 978-1137314840. 978-1137314840 ↩

  56. Mair, Peter; Gallagher, Michael; Laver, Michael (2001). Representative Government in Modern Europe: Institutions, Parties, and Governments (3rd ed.). McGraw Hill Education. p. 221. ISBN 0072322675. Retrieved 22 March 2025. Within the first strand, an emphasis on individual rights has led to a concern for fis- cal rectitude and opposition to all but minimal state intervention in the economy. This right-wing strand of liberalism has been particularly important in Austria, where the Freedom party used to be regarded as the most rightist of European liberal parties, but is now better grouped with the extreme right (we discuss this later in this chapter). The right-wing strand is also important in Belgium, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and Switzerland, and this is the position toward which the Progressive Democrats in Ireland have now gravitated. Thus, this brand of liberalism has tended to emerge in countries that are also characterized by strong Christian democratic parties and hence where the anticlerical component of liberalism was once important. Indeed, anticlericalism in these countries has two distinct forms, being represented on the left by socialist and/or communist parties and on the right by secular liberal parties. 0072322675 ↩

  57. Peter Starke; Alexandra Kaasch; Franca Van Hooren (2013). The Welfare State as Crisis Manager: Explaining the Diversity of Policy Responses to Economic Crisis. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 191–192. ISBN 978-1137314840. 978-1137314840 ↩

  58. Slomp 2011, p. 465. - Slomp, Hans (2011). Europe, a Political Profile: An American Companion to European Politics. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0313391828. https://books.google.com/books?id=LmfAPmwE6YYC ↩

  59. Mair, Peter; Gallagher, Michael; Laver, Michael (2001). Representative Government in Modern Europe: Institutions, Parties, and Governments (3rd ed.). McGraw Hill Education. p. 221. ISBN 0072322675. Retrieved 22 March 2025. Within the first strand, an emphasis on individual rights has led to a concern for fis- cal rectitude and opposition to all but minimal state intervention in the economy. This right-wing strand of liberalism has been particularly important in Austria, where the Freedom party used to be regarded as the most rightist of European liberal parties, but is now better grouped with the extreme right (we discuss this later in this chapter). The right-wing strand is also important in Belgium, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and Switzerland, and this is the position toward which the Progressive Democrats in Ireland have now gravitated. Thus, this brand of liberalism has tended to emerge in countries that are also characterized by strong Christian democratic parties and hence where the anticlerical component of liberalism was once important. Indeed, anticlericalism in these countries has two distinct forms, being represented on the left by socialist and/or communist parties and on the right by secular liberal parties. 0072322675 ↩

  60. Peter Starke; Alexandra Kaasch; Franca Van Hooren (2013). The Welfare State as Crisis Manager: Explaining the Diversity of Policy Responses to Economic Crisis. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 191–192. ISBN 978-1137314840. 978-1137314840 ↩

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  71. Mair, Peter; Gallagher, Michael; Laver, Michael (2001). Representative Government in Modern Europe: Institutions, Parties, and Governments (3rd ed.). McGraw Hill Education. p. 221. ISBN 0072322675. Retrieved 22 March 2025. Within the first strand, an emphasis on individual rights has led to a concern for fis- cal rectitude and opposition to all but minimal state intervention in the economy. This right-wing strand of liberalism has been particularly important in Austria, where the Freedom party used to be regarded as the most rightist of European liberal parties, but is now better grouped with the extreme right (we discuss this later in this chapter). The right-wing strand is also important in Belgium, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and Switzerland, and this is the position toward which the Progressive Democrats in Ireland have now gravitated. Thus, this brand of liberalism has tended to emerge in countries that are also characterized by strong Christian democratic parties and hence where the anticlerical component of liberalism was once important. Indeed, anticlericalism in these countries has two distinct forms, being represented on the left by socialist and/or communist parties and on the right by secular liberal parties. 0072322675 ↩

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