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DVD
Optical disc format for the storage and playback of digital video and other digital data

The DVD (digital versatile disc) is a digital optical disc format developed in 1995 and first released in Japan in 1996. It stores various types of digital data, including video programs viewed on DVD players, software, and other files. DVDs offer higher storage capacity than compact discs, with single-layer discs holding 4.7 GB and dual-layer up to 8.5 GB. Prerecorded DVDs, made using molding machines, are read-only, while blank recordable DVDs (DVD-R/DVD+R) can be written once, and rewritable DVDs (DVD-RW/DVD+RW/DVD-RAM) allow multiple recordings. DVDs serve in formats like DVD-Video, DVD-Audio, and high definition AVCHD recordings.

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Etymology

The Oxford English Dictionary comments that, "In 1995, rival manufacturers of the product initially named digital video disc agreed that, in order to emphasize the flexibility of the format for multimedia applications, the preferred abbreviation DVD would be understood to denote digital versatile disc." The OED also states that in 1995, "The companies said the official name of the format will simply be DVD. Toshiba had been using the name 'digital video disc', but that was switched to 'digital versatile disc' after computer companies complained that it left out their applications."4

"Digital versatile disc" is the explanation provided in a DVD Forum Primer from 20005 and in the DVD Forum's mission statement, which the purpose is to promote broad acceptance of DVD products on technology, across entertainment, and other industries.6

Because DVDs became highly popular for the distribution of movies in the 2000s, the term DVD became popularly used in English as a noun to describe specifically a full-length movie released on the format; for example the sentence to "watch a DVD" describes watching a movie on DVD.7

History

Development and launch

Released in 1987, CD Video used analog video encoding on optical discs matching the established standard 120 mm (4.7 in) size of audio CDs. Video CD (VCD) became one of the first formats for distributing digitally encoded films in this format, in 1993.8 In the same year, two new optical disc storage formats were being developed. One was the Multimedia Compact Disc (MMCD), backed by Philips and Sony (developers of the CD and CD-i), and the other was the Super Density (SD) disc, supported by Toshiba, Time Warner, Matsushita Electric, Hitachi, Mitsubishi Electric, Pioneer, Thomson, and JVC. By the time of the press launches for both formats in January 1995, the MMCD nomenclature had been dropped, and Philips and Sony were referring to their format as Digital Video Disc (DVD).910

On May 3, 1995, an ad hoc, industry technical group formed from five computer companies (IBM, Apple, Compaq, Hewlett-Packard, and Microsoft) issued a press release stating that they would only accept a single format.1112 The group voted to boycott both formats unless the two camps agreed on a single, converged standard. They recruited Lou Gerstner, president of IBM, to pressure the executives of the warring factions. In one significant compromise, the MMCD and SD groups agreed to adopt proposal SD 9, which specified that both layers of the dual-layered disc be read from the same side—instead of proposal SD 10, which would have created a two-sided disc that users would have to turn over. Philips/Sony strongly insisted on the source code, EFMPlus, that Kees Schouhamer Immink had designed for the MMCD, because it makes it possible to apply the existing CD servo technology. Its drawback was a loss from 5 to 4.7 Gbyte of capacity.1314

As a result, the DVD specification provided a storage capacity of 4.7 GB (4.38 GiB)15 for a single-layered, single-sided disc and 8.5 GB (7.92 GiB) for a dual-layered, single-sided disc.16 The DVD specification ended up similar to Toshiba and Matsushita's Super Density Disc, except for the dual-layer option. MMCD was single-sided and optionally dual-layer, whereas SD was two half-thickness, single-layer discs which were pressed separately and then glued together to form a double-sided disc.17

Philips and Sony decided that it was in their best interests to end the format war, and on September 15, 1995 agreed to unify with companies backing the Super Density Disc to release a single format, with technologies from both.18 After other compromises between MMCD and SD, the group of computer companies won the day, and a single format was agreed upon. The computer companies also collaborated with the Optical Storage Technology Association (OSTA) on the use of their implementation of the ISO-13346 file system (known as Universal Disk Format) for use on the new DVDs. The format's details were finalized on December 8, 1995.19

In November 1995, Samsung announced it would start mass-producing DVDs by September 1996.20 The format launched on November 1, 1996, in Japan, mostly with music video releases. The first major releases from Warner Home Video arrived on December 20, 1996, with four titles being available.2122 The format's release in the U.S. was delayed multiple times, from August 1996,23 to October 1996,24 November 1996,25 before finally settling on early 1997.26 Players began to be produced domestically that winter, with March 24, 1997, as the U.S. launch date of the format proper in seven test markets.272829 Approximately 32 titles were available on launch day, mainly from the Warner Bros., MGM, and New Line libraries,3031 with the notable inclusion of the 1996 film Twister.32 However, the launch was planned for the following day (March 25), leading to a distribution change with retailers and studios to prevent similar violations of breaking the street date.33 The nationwide rollout for the format happened on August 22, 1997.34[better source needed]

DTS announced in late 1997 that they would be coming onto the format. The sound system company revealed details in a November 1997 online interview, and clarified it would release discs in early 1998.35 However, this date would be pushed back several times before finally releasing their first titles at the 1999 Consumer Electronics Show.36

In 2001, blank DVD recordable discs cost the equivalent of $27.34 US dollars in 2022.3738

Adoption

Movie and home entertainment distributors adopted the DVD format to replace the ubiquitous VHS tape as the primary consumer video distribution format.39

Immediately following the formal adoption of a unified standard for DVD, two of the four leading video game console companies (Sega and The 3DO Company) said they already had plans to design a gaming console with DVDs as the source medium.40 Sony stated at the time that they had no plans to use DVD in their gaming systems, despite being one of the developers of the DVD format and eventually the first company to actually release a DVD-based console.41 Game consoles such as the PlayStation 2, Xbox, and Xbox 360 use DVDs as their source medium for games and other software. Contemporary games for Windows were also distributed on DVD. Early DVDs were mastered using DLT tape,42 but using DVD-R DL or +R DL eventually became common.43 TV DVD combos, combining a standard definition CRT TV or an HD flat panel TV with a DVD mechanism under the CRT or on the back of the flat panel, and VCR/DVD combos were also available for purchase.44

For consumers, DVD soon overtook VHS as the favored choice for home movie releases. In 2001, DVD players outsold VCRs for the first time in the United States. At that time, one in four American households owned a DVD player.45 By 2007, about 80% of Americans owned a DVD player, a figure that had surpassed VCRs; it was also higher than personal computers or cable television.46

Specifications

The DVD specifications created and updated by the DVD Forum are published as so-called DVD Books (e.g. DVD-ROM Book, DVD-Audio Book, DVD-Video Book, DVD-R Book, DVD-RW Book, DVD-RAM Book, DVD-AR (Audio Recording) Book, DVD-VR (Video Recording) Book, etc.).474849 DVD discs are made up of two discs; normally one is blank, and the other contains data. Each disc is 0.6 mm thick, and they are glued together to form a DVD disc. The gluing process must be done carefully to make the disc as flat as possible to avoid both birefringence and "disc tilt", which is when the disc is not perfectly flat, preventing it from being read.5051

Some specifications for mechanical, physical and optical characteristics of DVD optical discs can be downloaded as freely available standards from the ISO website.52 There are also equivalent European Computer Manufacturers Association (Ecma) standards for some of these specifications, such as Ecma-267 for DVD-ROMs.53 Also, the DVD+RW Alliance publishes competing recordable DVD specifications such as DVD+R, DVD+R DL, DVD+RW or DVD+RW DL. These DVD formats are also ISO standards.54555657

Some DVD specifications (e.g. for DVD-Video) are not publicly available and can be obtained only from the DVD Format/Logo Licensing Corporation (DVD FLLC) for a fee of US$5000.5859 Every subscriber must sign a non-disclosure agreement as certain information on the DVD Books is proprietary and confidential.60

In January 2025, the DVD FLLC announced its own dissolution on January 31, 2025 (together with the DVD Forum itself, according to its charter61) and the deposit of the DVD specifications at the National Diet Library of Japan in early 2025.62

As of March 2025, the specification documents are marked as "No Materials available" in the catalogue of the National Diet Library.63

Double-sided discs

Main article: Double-sided disk

Borrowing from the LaserDisc format, the DVD standard includes DVD-10 discs (Type B in ISO) with two recorded data layers such that only one layer is accessible from either side of the disc. This doubles the total nominal capacity of a DVD-10 disc to 9.4 GB (8.75 GiB), but each side is locked to 4.7 GB. Like DVD-5 discs, DVD-10 discs are defined as single-layer (SL) discs.64

Dual-layer discs

DVD hardware accesses the additional layer (layer 1) by refocusing the laser through an otherwise normally-placed, semitransparent first layer (layer 0). This laser refocus—and the subsequent time needed to reacquire laser tracking—can cause a noticeable pause in A/V playback on earlier DVD players, the length of which varies between hardware.65 A printed message explaining that the layer-transition pause was not a malfunction became standard on DVD keep cases. During mastering, a studio could make the transition less obvious by timing it to occur just before a camera angle change or other abrupt shift, an early example being the DVD release of Toy Story.66 Later in the format's life, larger data buffers and faster optical pickups in DVD players made layer transitions effectively invisible regardless of mastering.

Dual-layer DVDs are recorded using Opposite Track Path (OTP).67

Combinations of the above

The DVD Book also permits an additional disc type called DVD-14: a hybrid double-sided disc with one dual-layer side, one single-layer side, and a total nominal capacity of 12.3 GB.68 DVD-14 has no counterpart in ISO.69

Both of these additional disc types are extremely rare due to their complicated and expensive manufacturing.70 For this reason, some DVDs that were initially issued as double-sided discs were later pressed as two-disc sets.

Note: The above sections regarding disc types pertain to 12 cm discs. The same disc types exist for 8 cm discs: ISO standards still regard these discs as Types A–D, while the DVD Book assigns them distinct disc types. DVD-14 has no analogous 8 cm type. The comparative data for 8 cm discs is provided further down.

DVD recordable and rewritable

Main article: DVD recordable

HP initially developed recordable DVD media from the need to store data for backup and transport.71 DVD recordables are now also used for consumer audio and video recording. Three formats were developed: DVD-R/RW, DVD+R/RW (plus), and DVD-RAM. DVD-R is available in two formats, General (650 nm) and Authoring (635 nm), where Authoring discs may be recorded with CSS encrypted video content but General discs may not.72

Dual-layer recording

Dual-layer recording (occasionally called double-layer recording) allows DVD-R and DVD+R discs to store nearly double the data of a single-layer disc—8.5 and 4.7 gigabyte capacities, respectively.73 The additional capacity comes at a cost: DVD±DLs have slower write speeds as compared to DVD±R.74 DVD-R DL was developed for the DVD Forum by Pioneer Corporation; DVD+R DL was developed for the DVD+RW Alliance by Mitsubishi Kagaku Media (MKM) and Philips.75

Recordable DVD discs supporting dual-layer technology are backward-compatible with some hardware developed before the recordable medium.76

Capacity

Capacity and nomenclature7778SS = single-sided, DS = double-sided, SL = single-layer, DL = dual-layer
DesignationSidesLayers(total)Diameter(cm)Capacity
(GB)
DVD-179SS SL1181.46
DVD-2SS DL1282.65
DVD-3DS SL2282.92
DVD-4DS DL2485.31
DVD-5SS SL11124.70
DVD-9SS DL12128.54
DVD-10DS SL22129.40
DVD-1480DS SL+DL231213.24
DVD-18DS DL241217.08
All units are expressed with SI/IEC prefixes (i.e., 1 Gigabyte = 1,000,000,000 bytes). Capacity and nomenclature of (re)writable discs
DesignationSidesLayers(total)Diameter(cm)Capacity
(GB)
DVD-RSS SL (1.0)11123.95
DVD-RSS SL (2.0)11124.70
DVD-RWSS SL11124.70
DVD+RSS SL11124.70
DVD+RWSS SL11124.70
DVD-RSS DL12128.50
DVD-RWSS DL12128.54
DVD+RSS DL12128.54
DVD+RWSS DL12128.54
DVD-RAMSS SL1181.46*
DVD-RAMDS SL2182.47*
DVD-RAMSS SL (1.0)11122.58
DVD-RAMSS SL (2.0)11124.70
DVD-RAMDS SL (1.0)21125.15
DVD-RAMDS SL (2.0)21129.39*
All units are expressed with SI/IEC prefixes (i.e., 1 Gigabyte = 1,000,000,000 bytes). Capacity differences of writable DVD formats
TypeSectorsByteskBMBGB
DVD-R SL2,298,4964,707,319,8084,707,3204,7074.7
DVD+R SL2,295,1044,700,372,9924,700,3734,7004.7
DVD-R DL4,171,7128,543,666,1768,543,6668,5448.5
DVD+R DL4,173,8248,547,991,5528,547,9928,5488.5
All units are expressed with SI/IEC prefixes (i.e., 1 Gigabyte = 1,000,000,000 bytes).

DVD drives and players

See also: Optical disc drive and DVD player

DVD drives are devices that can read DVD discs on a computer. DVD players are a particular type of devices that do not require a computer to work, and can read DVD-Video and DVD-Audio discs.

Transfer rates

See also: DVD recordable § Transfer rates; and CD and DVD writing speed § CD, DVD and Blu-ray writing speeds

Read and write speeds for the first DVD drives and players were 1,385 kB/s (1,353 KiB/s); this speed is usually called "1×". More recent models, at 18× or 20×, have 18 or 20 times that speed. For CD drives, 1× means 153.6 kB/s (150 KiB/s), about one-ninth as swift.8182

DVD drive speeds
Drive speed (not rotations)Data rate~Write time (minutes)83Revolutions per minute (constant linear velocity, CLV)848586
Mbit/sMB/sSingle-LayerDual-Layer
1×111.4571031400 (inner) 580 (outer)87
2×222.828512800 (inner) 1160 (outer)
2.4×273.324433360 (inner) 1392 (outer)
2.6×293.622403640 (inner) 1508 (outer)
3×334.119344200 (inner) 2320 (outer)
4×445.514265600 (inner) 2900 (outer)
6×678.39178400 (inner) 3480 (outer)
8×8911.17134640 (CAV; no longer uses pure CLV)
10×11113.96105800
12×13316.6596960
16×17722.2469280
18×19924.93610440
20×22227.73511600
22×24430.53512760
24×26633.22413920

DVDs can spin at much higher speeds than CDs – DVDs can spin at up to 32000 RPM vs 23000 for CDs.88 In practice, they are not spun by optical drives anywhere close to these speeds to provide a safety margin. DVD drives limit reading speed to 16× (constant angular velocity), which means 9280 rotations per minute. Early-generation drives released before the mid-2000s have lower limits.899091

DVD recordable and rewritable discs can be read and written using either constant angular velocity (CAV), constant linear velocity (CLV), Partial constant angular velocity (P-CAV) or Zoned Constant Linear Velocity (Z-CLV or ZCLV).92

Due to the slightly lower data density of dual layer DVDs (4.25 GB instead of 4.7 GB per layer), the required rotation speed is around 10% faster for the same data rate, which means that the same angular speed rating equals a 10% higher physical angular rotation speed. For that reason, the increase of reading speeds of dual layer media has stagnated at 12× (constant angular velocity) for half-height optical drives released since around 2005,93 and slim type optical drives are only able to record dual layer media at 6× (constant angular velocity), while reading speeds of 8× are still supported by such.949596

Disc quality measurements

Main article: Optical disc § Surface error scanning

The quality and data integrity of optical media is measureable, which means that future data losses caused by deteriorating media can be predicted well in advance by measuring the rate of correctable data errors.97

The types of errors that can occur on a DVD are a PIE (Parity Inner Error), PIF (Parity Inner Failure), POE (Parity Outer Error), and POF (Parity Outer Failure), of which only the last indicates data loss. Too many small errors within a small space create a POF condition.9899100101102103

Support of measuring the disc quality varies among optical drive vendors and models.104105 Unreadable data can be found using any drive using general-purpose tools like badblocks.

DVD-Video

Main article: DVD-Video

DVD-Video is a standard for distributing video/audio content on DVD media. The format went on sale in Japan on November 1, 1996,106 in the United States on March 24, 1997, to line up with the 69th Academy Awards that day;107 in Canada, Central America, and Indonesia later in 1997; and in Europe,108 Australia, and Africa in 1998. DVD-Video became the dominant form of home video distribution in Japan when it first went on sale on November 1, 1996, but it shared the market for home video distribution in the United States for several years; it was June 15, 2003, when weekly DVD-Video in the United States rentals began outnumbering weekly VHS cassette rentals.109 DVD-Video is still the dominant form of home video distribution worldwide except for in Japan where it was surpassed by Blu-ray Disc when Blu-ray first went on sale in Japan on March 31, 2006.

Security

Main article: Content Scramble System

The purpose of CSS is twofold:

  1. CSS prevents byte-for-byte copies of an MPEG (digital video) stream from being playable since such copies do not include the keys that are hidden on the lead-in area of the restricted DVD.
  2. CSS provides a reason for manufacturers to make their devices compliant with an industry-controlled standard, since CSS scrambled discs cannot in principle be played on noncompliant devices; anyone wishing to build compliant devices must obtain a license, which contains the requirement that the rest of the DRM system (region codes, Macrovision, and user operation prohibition) be implemented.110

Successors and decline

In 2006, two new formats called HD DVD and Blu-ray Disc were released as the successor to DVD. HD DVD competed unsuccessfully with Blu-ray Disc in the format war of 2006–2008. A dual layer HD DVD can store up to 30 GB and a dual layer Blu-ray disc can hold up to 50 GB.111112

However, unlike previous format changes, e.g., vinyl to Compact Disc or VHS videotape to DVD, initially there was no immediate indication that production of the standard DVD will gradually wind down, as at the beginning of the 2010s they still dominated, with around 75% of video sales and approximately one billion DVD player sales worldwide as of April 2011. In fact, experts claimed that the DVD would remain the dominant medium for at least another five years as Blu-ray technology was still in its introductory phase, write and read speeds being poor and necessary hardware being expensive and not readily available.113114

Consumers initially were also slow to adopt Blu-ray due to the cost.115 By 2009, 85% of stores were selling Blu-ray Discs. A high-definition television and appropriate connection cables are also required to take advantage of Blu-ray disc. Some analysts suggested that the biggest obstacle to replacing DVD was due to its installed base; a large majority of consumers were satisfied with DVDs.116

DVDs started to face competition from video on demand services around 2015 or 2016.117118119120 With increasing numbers of homes having high speed Internet connections, many people had the option to either rent or buy video from an online service, and view it by streaming it directly from that service's servers, meaning they no longer need any form of permanent storage media for video at all. By 2017, digital streaming services had overtaken the sales of DVDs and Blu-rays for the first time.121

Until the end of the 2010s, manufacturers continued to release standard DVD titles, and the format remained the preferred one for the release of older television programs and films. Shows that were shot and edited entirely on film, such as Star Trek: The Original Series, could not be released in high definition without being re-scanned from the original film recordings.122 Shows that were made between the early 1980s and the early 2000s were generally shot on film, then transferred to video tape, and then edited natively in either NTSC or PAL; this makes high-definition transfers impossible, as these SD standards were baked into the final cuts of the episodes. Star Trek: The Next Generation was the only such show that had a Blu-ray release, as prints were re-scanned and edited from the ground up.123

By the beginning of the 2020s, sales of DVD had dropped 86% with respect to the peak of DVD sales around 2005, while on-demand sales and, overall, subscription streaming of TV shows and movies grew by over 1,200%. At its peak, DVD sales represented almost two thirds of video market in the US; approximately 15 years later, around 2020, they fell to only 10% of the market.124

By 2022, there was an increased demand of high definition media, where Ultra HD Blu-ray and regular Blu-ray formats made up for almost half of the US market while sales of physical media continued to shrink in favor of streaming services.125

The decline continued further into the 2020s with the closure of RedBox in 2024, Best Buy and Target stopped selling DVDs in 2023, and the cease of by mail service by Netflix in 2025.

Longevity

Longevity of a storage medium is measured by how long the data remains readable, assuming compatible devices exist that can read it: that is, how long the disc can be stored until data is lost. Numerous factors affect longevity: composition and quality of the media (recording and substrate layers), humidity and light storage conditions, the quality of the initial recording (which is sometimes a matter of mutual compatibility of media and recorder), etc.126 According to NIST, "[a] temperature of 64.4 °F (18 °C) and 40% RH [Relative Humidity] would be considered suitable for long-term storage. A lower temperature and RH is recommended for extended-term storage."127

As with CDs, the information and data storage will begin to degrade over time with most standard DVDs lasting up to 30 years depending on the type of environment they are stored and whether they are full with data.128

According to the Optical Storage Technology Association (OSTA), "Manufacturers claim lifespans ranging from 30 to 100 years for DVD, DVD-R and DVD+R discs and up to 30 years for DVD-RW, DVD+RW and DVD-RAM."129

According to a NIST/LoC research project conducted in 2005–2007 using accelerated life testing, "There were fifteen DVD products tested, including five DVD-R, five DVD+R, two DVD-RW and three DVD+RW types. There were ninety samples tested for each product. ... Overall, seven of the products tested had estimated life expectancies in ambient conditions of more than 45 years. Four products had estimated life expectancies of 30–45 years in ambient storage conditions. Two products had an estimated life expectancy of 15–30 years and two products had estimated life expectancies of less than 15 years when stored in ambient conditions." The life expectancies for 95% survival estimated in this project by type of product are tabulated below:130[dubious – discuss]

Disc type0–15 years15–30 years30–45 yearsover 45 years
DVD-R20%20%0%60%
DVD+R20%0%40%40%
DVD-RW0%0%50%50%
DVD+RW0%33.3%33.3%33.3%131
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 DVD-R DVD+R DVD-RW DVD+RW
  •   0–15 years
  •   15–30 years
  •   30–45 years
  •   over 45 years

See also

Notes

Further reading

Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Inside DVD-Video/MPEG Format Wikimedia Commons has media related to DVD.

References

  1. Popular Mechanics, June 1997, p. 69; ↩

  2. Jim Taylor, DVD demystified, McGraw Hill, 1998, 1st edition, p. 405 ↩

  3. "CD/DVD comparison chart". h71036.www7.hp.com. Archived from the original on June 30, 2022. Retrieved January 26, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220630133910/https://h71036.www7.hp.com/hho/cache/315534-0-0-225-121.html ↩

  4. Oxford English Dictionary, DVD. /wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary ↩

  5. "DVD Primer". DVD Forum. September 6, 2000. Archived from the original on June 9, 2010. Retrieved December 14, 2013. http://www.dvdforum.org/faq-dvdprimer.htm#1 ↩

  6. "DVD Forum's Mission". DVD Forum. January 14, 2010. Archived from the original on May 10, 2014. Retrieved June 11, 2014. http://www.dvdforum.org/about-mission.htm ↩

  7. "DVD noun". Oxford Learner's Dictionaries. Archived from the original on March 6, 2023. Retrieved December 6, 2022. https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/dvd ↩

  8. Super Video Compact Disc, A Technical Explanation (PDF), Philips System Standards and Licensing, 1998, p. 2, archived from the original (PDF) on May 28, 2008, retrieved February 13, 2008 https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20080528131354/http://www.ip.philips.com/view_attachment/2450/sl00812.pdf ↩

  9. "WCES: The Calm Before the Storm". Next Generation (3). Imagine Media: 18. March 1995. /wiki/Next_Generation_(magazine) ↩

  10. "DVD Plagued by Double Standards". Next Generation (6). Imagine Media: 16–17. June 1995. /wiki/Next_Generation_(magazine) ↩

  11. "Requirements for Future High-Capacity Compact-Disc Format Announced by Computer Industry Technical Group". Apple Computer. May 3, 1995. Archived from the original on December 2, 1998. Retrieved December 1, 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/19981202113012/http://product.info.apple.com/pr/press.releases/1995/q3/950503.pr.rel.cd.html ↩

  12. "Electronic Giants Battle On". Next Generation (11). Imagine Media: 19. November 1995. /wiki/Next_Generation_(magazine) ↩

  13. Kees Schouhamer Immink (1995). "EFMPlus: The Coding Format of the MultiMedia Compact Disc". IEEE Transactions on Consumer Electronics. CE-41: 491–497. A high-density alternative to EFM is described. /wiki/Kees_Schouhamer_Immink ↩

  14. U.S. patent 5,696,505, EFMPlus Patent, applied in DVD, DVD±RW, SACD https://patents.google.com/patent/US5696505 ↩

  15. 1 GB is one billion bytes ↩

  16. "DVD: coming soon to your PC?". Computer Shopper. 16 (3): 189. March 1, 1996. /wiki/Computer_Shopper_(US_magazine) ↩

  17. "DVD Plagued by Double Standards". Next Generation (6). Imagine Media: 16–17. June 1995. /wiki/Next_Generation_(magazine) ↩

  18. "Nokia Welcomes Single Standard for Next Generation High Density Optical Disc Format" (Press release). Nokia. September 26, 1995. Archived from the original on December 20, 1996. Retrieved October 6, 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/19961220013314/http://www.nokia.com/news/news_htmls/nokia_950926.html ↩

  19. "DVD Format Unification" (Press release). Toshiba. December 8, 1995. Archived from the original on May 1, 1997. Retrieved October 6, 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/19970501192002/http://www.toshiba.co.jp/about/press/1995_12/pr0802.htm ↩

  20. Souter, Gerry (2017) [1997]. "DVD: The Five-Inch Digital Video Disc". Buying and Selling Multimedia Services. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-136-13437-1. Archived from the original on March 13, 2023. Retrieved April 11, 2020. 978-1-136-13437-1 ↩

  21. The four titles being The Fugitive, Blade Runner: Director's Cut, Eraser, and Assassins. /wiki/The_Fugitive_(1993_film) ↩

  22. Taylor, Jim (March 21, 1997). "DVD Frequently Asked Questions (with answers!)". Video Discovery. Archived from the original on March 29, 1997. Retrieved August 20, 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/19970329103433/http://www.videodiscovery.com/vdyweb/dvd/dvdfaq.html ↩

  23. "DVD Is Go!". Japan Press Network. January 17, 1996. Archived from the original on January 16, 1999. Retrieved October 6, 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/19990116230413/http://www.iac.co.jp/%7Ejpn/jan96/jp3.html ↩

  24. Elrich, David J. (July 11, 1996). "DVD Introduction Announced". E-Town News. Archived from the original on February 13, 1997. Retrieved October 6, 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/19970213073811/http://e-town.myriadagency.com/news/articles/panasonicdvdlaunch.html ↩

  25. "Matsushita Electronics to launch DVDs in November". CNN. August 31, 1996. Archived from the original on January 14, 2000. Retrieved October 6, 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20000114144253/http://cnn.com/TECH/9608/31/newsreel/index.html ↩

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