Menu
Home Explore People Places Arts History Plants & Animals Science Life & Culture Technology
On this page
Extinct language
Language that no longer has any speakers

An extinct language, or dead language, has no living native speakers, though some, called dormant languages, still hold ethnic significance and undergo revitalisation. In contrast, living languages have active native speakers. Extinction often results from cultural assimilation and language shift, where a native tongue is replaced by a foreign lingua franca. As of the 2000s, about 7,000 natively spoken languages existed, but estimates suggest that 90% may disappear by 2050, highlighting the urgency of preservation efforts.

Related Image Collections Add Image
Profiles
1 Image
We don't have any YouTube videos related to Extinct language yet.
We don't have any PDF documents related to Extinct language yet.
We don't have any Books related to Extinct language yet.

Language death

Main article: Language death

Normally the transition from a spoken to an extinct language occurs when a language undergoes language death by being directly replaced by a different one. For example, many Native American languages were replaced by Dutch, English, French, Portuguese, or Spanish as a result of European colonization of the Americas.8

After a language has ceased to be spoken as a first language, it may continue to exist as learned, second language, such as Latin.9

In a view that prioritizes written representation over natural language acquisition and evolution, historical languages with living descendants that have undergone significant language change may be considered "extinct", especially in cases where they did not leave a corpus of literature or liturgy that remained in widespread use (see corpus language), as is the case with Old English or Old High German relative to their contemporary descendants, English and German.10 This is accomplished by periodizing English and German as Old; for Latin, an apt clarifying adjective is Classical, which also normally includes designation of high or formal register.11

Minor languages are endangered mostly due to economic and cultural globalization, cultural assimilation, and development. With increasing economic integration on national and regional scales, people find it easier to communicate and conduct business in the dominant lingua francas of world commerce: English, Mandarin Chinese, Spanish, and French.12

In their study of contact-induced language change, American linguists Sarah Grey Thomason and Terrence Kaufman (1991) stated that in situations of cultural pressure (where populations are forced to speak a dominant language), three linguistic outcomes may occur: first – and most commonly – a subordinate population may shift abruptly to the dominant language, leaving the native language to a sudden linguistic death. Second, the more gradual process of language death may occur over several generations. The third and most rare outcome is for the pressured group to maintain as much of its native language as possible, while borrowing elements of the dominant language's grammar (replacing all, or portions of, the grammar of the original language).13 A now disappeared language may leave a substantial trace as a substrate in the language that replaces it. There have, however, also been cases where the language of higher prestige did not displace the native language but left a superstrate influence. The French language for example shows evidence both of a Celtic substrate and a Frankish superstrate.

Institutions such as the education system, as well as (often global) forms of media such as the Internet, television, and print media play a significant role in the process of language loss.14 For example, when people migrate to a new country, their children attend school in the country, and the schools are likely to teach them in the majority language of the country rather than their parents' native language.1516

Language death can also be the explicit goal of government policy. For example, part of the "kill the Indian, save the man" policy of American Indian boarding schools and other measures was to prevent Native Americans from transmitting their native language to the next generation and to punish children who spoke the language of their culture of origin.171819 The French vergonha policy likewise had the aim of eradicating minority languages.20

Language revival

Main article: Language revitalization

Language revival is the attempt to re-introduce an extinct language in everyday use by a new generation of native speakers. The optimistic neologism "sleeping beauty languages" has been used to express such a hope,21 though scholars usually refer to such languages as dormant.

In practice, this has only happened on a large scale successfully once: the revival of the Hebrew language. Hebrew had survived for millennia since the Babylonian exile as a liturgical language, but not as a vernacular language. The revival of Hebrew has been largely successful due to extraordinarily favourable conditions, notably the creation of a nation state (modern Israel in 1948) in which it became the official language, as well as Eliezer Ben-Yehuda's extreme dedication to the revival of the language, by creating new words for the modern terms Hebrew lacked.

Revival attempts for minor extinct languages with no status as a liturgical language typically have more modest results. The Cornish language revival has proven at least partially successful: after a century of effort there are 3,500 claimed native speakers, enough for UNESCO to change its classification from "extinct" to "critically endangered". A Livonian language revival movement to promote the use of the Livonian language has managed to train a few hundred people to have some knowledge of it.22

Recently extinct languages

Main article: List of languages by time of extinction

This is a list of languages reported as having become extinct since 2010. For a more complete list, see Lists of extinct languages.

DateLanguageLanguage familyRegionTerminal speakerNotes
by 8 March 2024TandiaAustronesianWest Papua, IndonesiaSpeakers shifted to Wandamen.2324
by 8 March 2024MawesNorthwest Papuan?West Papua, Indonesia25
by 8 March 2024LuhuAustronesianMaluku, Indonesia26
2 May 2023Columbia-MosesSalishanWashington (state), United StatesPauline Stensgar27
5 October 2022Mednyj AleutMixed Aleut–RussianCommander Islands, RussiaGennady Yakovlev28
16 February 2022YahganIsolateMagallanes, ChileCristina Calderón29
by 2022?MogholMongolicHerat Province, Afghanistan30
by 2022LachoudischIndo-EuropeanSchopfloch, Bavaria31
25 September 2021Wukchumni dialect of Tule-Kaweah YokutsYokutsCalifornia, United StatesMarie Wilcox32
27 August 2021YuchiIsolateTennessee (formerly), Oklahoma, United StatesMaxine Wildcat Barnett33
7 March 2021Bering AleutEskimo-AleutKamchatka Krai, RussiaVera Timoshenko34
17 February 2021JumaTupianRondônia, BrazilAruka Juma35
2 December 2020TuscaroraIroquoianNorth Carolina, United StatesKenneth Patterson36Under a process of revival.
4 April 2020Aka-Cari dialect of Northern AndamaneseGreat AndamaneseAndaman Islands, IndiaLicho37
23 March 2019NgandiGunwinyguanNorthern Territory, AustraliaC. W. Daniels3839
4 January 2019TehuelcheChonanPatagonia, ArgentinaDora Manchado4041
9 December 2016MandanSiouanNorth Dakota, United StatesEdwin Benson42
30 August 2016WichitaCaddoanOklahoma, United StatesDoris McLemore43
29 July 2016Gugu ThaypanPama-NyunganQueensland, AustraliaTommy George44
11 February 2016Nuchatlaht dialect of Nuu-chah-nulthWakashanBritish Columbia, CanadaAlban Michael45
4 January 2016WhulshootseedSalishanWashington, United StatesEllen Williams4647
4 February 2014KlallamSalishanWashington, United StatesHazel Sampson484950being taught as a second language on the Olympic Peninsula of Washington State
by 2014DemushboPanoanAmazon Basin, Brazil
by 2014SarghulamiIndo-EuropeanBadakhshanMay be spurious51
5 June 2013LivonianUralicLatviaGrizelda Kristiņa5253Under a process of revival.54
26 March 2013YurokAlgicCalifornia, United StatesArchie Thompson55Under a process of revival.56
by 2013SabümMon–KhmerPerak, Malaysia2013 extinction is based on ISO changing it from living to extinct in 2013
2 October 2012Cromarty dialect of ScotsIndo-EuropeanNorthern Scotland, United KingdomBobby Hogg57
11 July 2012Upper ChinookChinookanOregon, United StatesGladys Thompson58
10 March 2012HolikachukNa-DeneAlaska, United StatesWilson "Tiny" Deacon59
c. 2012DhungalooPama-NyunganQueensland, AustraliaRoy Hatfield60
c. 2012NgasaNiloticTanzaniaMost speakers have shifted to Chaga
by 2012MardijkerPortuguese-based CreoleJakarta, IndonesiaOma Mimi Abrahams61
10 April 2011ApiakáTupianMato Grosso, BrazilPedrinho Kamassuri62
2011Lower ArrerntePama-NyunganNorthern Territory, AustraliaBrownie Doolan Perrurle63
by 2011AnsermaChocoanAntioquia Department, Colombia
24 October 2010Pazeh dialect of PazehAustronesianTaiwanPan Jin-yu64
20 August 2010Cochin Indo-Portuguese CreolePortuguese-based CreoleSouthern IndiaWilliam Rozario65
26 January 2010Aka-BoAndamaneseAndaman Islands, IndiaBoa Sr.66

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Extinct languages.
  • Languages portal

Notes

Bibliography

  • Adelaar, Willem F. H.; & Muysken, Pieter C. (2004). The Languages of the Andes. Cambridge Language Surveys. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-36275-7.
  • Brenzinger, Matthias (ed.) (1992) Language Death: Factual and Theoretical Explorations with Special Reference to East Africa. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-013404-9.
  • Campbell, Lyle; & Mithun, Marianne (Eds.). (1979). The Languages of Native America: Historical and Comparative Assessment. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-74624-5.
  • Davis, Wade. (2009). The Wayfinders: Why Ancient Wisdom Matters in the Modern World. House of Anansi Press. ISBN 0-88784-766-8.
  • Dorian, Nancy C. (1978). 'Fate of Morphological Complexity in Language Death: Evidence from East Sutherland Gaelic.' Language, 54 (3), 590–609.
  • Dorian, Nancy C. (1981). Language Death: The Life Cycle of a Scottish Gaelic dialect. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-7785-6.
  • Dressler, Wolfgand & Wodak-Leodolter, Ruth (eds.) (1977) 'Language Death' (International Journal of the Sociology of Language vol. 12). The Hague: Mouton.
  • Gordon, Raymond G. Jr. (Ed.). (2005). Ethnologue: Languages of the World (15th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. ISBN 1-55671-159-X. (Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com).
  • Harrison, K. David. (2007) When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World's Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge. New York and London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518192-0.
  • Mithun, Marianne. (1999). The Languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23228-7 (hbk); ISBN 0-521-29875-X.
  • Mohan, Peggy; & Zador, Paul. (1986). 'Discontinuity in a Life Cycle: The Death of Trinidad Bhojpuri.' Language, 62 (2), 291–319.
  • Sasse, Hans-Jürgen (1992) 'Theory of Language Death', in Brenzinger (ed.) Language Death, pp. 7–30.
  • Schilling-Estes, Natalie; & Wolfram, Walt. (1999). 'Alternative Models of Dialect Death: Dissipation vs. Concentration.' Language, 75 (3), 486–521.
  • Sebeok, Thomas A. (Ed.). (1973). Linguistics in North America (parts 1 & 2). Current Trends in Linguistics (Vol. 10). The Hauge: Mouton. (Reprinted as Sebeok 1976).
  • Sharp, Joanne. (2008). Chapter 6: 'Can the Subaltern Speak?', in Geographies of Postcolonialism. Glasgow, UK: SAGE Publications Ltd. ISBN 978-1-4129-0779-8.
  • Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove. (2000). Linguistic Genocide in Education or Worldwide Diversity and Human Rights? Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 0-8058-3468-0.
  • Thomason, Sarah Grey & Kaufman, Terrence. (1991). Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-07893-4.
  • Timmons Roberts, J. & Hite, Amy. (2000). From Modernization to Globalization: Perspectives on Development and Social Change. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-21097-9.

References

  1. Matthews, P. H. (1 January 2007), "dead language", The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780199202720.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-920272-0, retrieved 14 November 2021 978-0-19-920272-0 ↩

  2. Lenore A. Grenoble, Lindsay J. Whaley, Saving Languages: An Introduction to Language Revitalization, Cambridge University Press (2006) p.18 ↩

  3. "What is the difference between a dormant language and an extinct language?". www.ethnologue.com. 15 February 2013. Archived from the original on 2 January 2022. Retrieved 29 July 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20220102160308/https://www.ethnologue.com/enterprise-faq/what-difference-between-dormant-language-and-extinct-language ↩

  4. Byram, Michael; Hu, Adelheid (26 June 2013). Routledge Encyclopedia of Language Teaching and Learning. Routledge. ISBN 978-1136235535. 978-1136235535 ↩

  5. Walt, Christa Van der (1 May 2007). Living Through Languages: An African Tribute to René Dirven. AFRICAN SUN MeDIA. ISBN 9781920109707. 9781920109707 ↩

  6. Hall, Christopher J.; Smith, Patrick H.; Wicaksono, Rachel (11 May 2015). Mapping Applied Linguistics: A Guide for Students and Practitioners. Routledge. ISBN 978-1136836237. 978-1136836237 ↩

  7. "Study by language researcher, David Graddol". NBC News. 26 February 2004. Retrieved 22 March 2012. Ian on Friday, January 16, 2009 61 comments (16 January 2009). "Research by Southwest University for Nationalities College of Liberal Arts". Chinasmack.com. Retrieved 22 March 2012.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link). Ethnologue records 7,358 living languages known,"Ethnologue". Ethnologue. Archived from the original on 5 October 2001. Retrieved 22 March 2012. but on 2015-05-20, Ethnologue reported only 7,102 known living languages; and on 2015-02-23, Ethnologue already reported only 7,097 known living languages. https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna4387421 ↩

  8. "How Colonialism Causes Language Endangerment". www.goethe.de. Retrieved 23 October 2024. https://www.goethe.de/prj/zei/en/art/22902448.html ↩

  9. Matthews, P. H. (1 January 2007), "dead language", The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780199202720.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-920272-0, retrieved 14 November 2021 978-0-19-920272-0 ↩

  10. "Library : Liturgical Languages". www.catholicculture.org. Retrieved 23 October 2024. https://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/view.cfm?recnum=2786 ↩

  11. Sichel, Barb (12 November 2019). "Understanding Extinct Languages: When and Why They Die Off - ILS Translations". Retrieved 23 October 2024. https://www.ilstranslations.com/blog/understanding-extinct-languages-when-and-why-they-die-off/ ↩

  12. Malone, Elizabeth (28 July 2008). "Language and Linguistics: Endangered Language". National Science Foundation. Archived from the original on 9 March 2010. Retrieved 23 October 2009. https://web.archive.org/web/20100309151300/http://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/linguistics/endangered.jsp ↩

  13. Thomason, Sarah Grey & Kaufman, Terrence. Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics, University of California Press (1991) p. 100. ↩

  14. Malone, Elizabeth (28 July 2008). "Language and Linguistics: Endangered Language". National Science Foundation. Archived from the original on 9 March 2010. Retrieved 23 October 2009. https://web.archive.org/web/20100309151300/http://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/linguistics/endangered.jsp ↩

  15. "Could social media save endangered languages?". www.humanities.ox.ac.uk. Retrieved 23 October 2024. https://www.humanities.ox.ac.uk/article/how-languages-become-endangeredand-how-social-media-could-save-them-0 ↩

  16. Atifnigar, Hamza (July–August 2021). "Exploring the Causes of Language Death: A Review Paper" (PDF). International Journal of Arts and Social Science. https://www.ijassjournal.com/2021/V4I4/4146575866.pdf ↩

  17. "The History of Native American Boarding Schools is Even More Complicated than a New Report Reveals". 17 May 2022. https://time.com/6177069/american-indian-boarding-schools-history/ ↩

  18. Levitt, Zach; Parshina-Kottas, Yuliya; Romero, Simon; Wallace, Tim (30 August 2023). "'War Against the Children'". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2023/08/30/us/native-american-boarding-schools.html ↩

  19. "Legacy of Trauma: The Impact of American Indian Boarding Schools…". PBS. https://www.pbs.org/native-america/blog/legacy-of-trauma-the-impact-of-american-indian-boarding-schools-across-generations ↩

  20. "La Vergonha and the Future of Occitan Language | Performing Trobar". https://trobar.stanford.edu/la-vergonha-and-future-occitan-language.html ↩

  21. See pp. 57 & 60 in Ghil'ad Zuckermann's A New Vision for "Israeli Hebrew": Theoretical and Practical Implications of Analysing Israel's Main Language as a Semi-Engineered Semito-European Hybrid Language, Journal of Modern Jewish Studies 5: 57–71 (2006). Dr Anna Goldsworthy on the Barngarla language reclamation, The Monthly, September 2014 /wiki/Ghil%27ad_Zuckermann ↩

  22. Ernštreits, Valts (14 December 2011). "Lībiešu valodas situācija". Livones.net (in Latvian). Archived from the original on 2 February 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140202235047/http://www.livones.net/valoda/?raksts=8701 ↩

  23. "Tandia" (in Indonesian). Ministry of Education and Culture. Retrieved 20 October 2024. https://petabahasa.kemdikbud.go.id/infobahasa.php?idb=708 ↩

  24. "11 Indigenous Languages Declared Extinct: Education Ministry". Jakarta Globe. 8 March 2024. Retrieved 10 September 2024. https://jakartaglobe.id/news/11-indigenous-languages-declared-extinct-education-ministry#:~:text=Muksin%20specifically%20mentioned%2011%20extinct,in%20different%20areas%20of%20Maluku. ↩

  25. "11 Indigenous Languages Declared Extinct: Education Ministry". Jakarta Globe. 8 March 2024. Retrieved 10 September 2024. https://jakartaglobe.id/news/11-indigenous-languages-declared-extinct-education-ministry#:~:text=Muksin%20specifically%20mentioned%2011%20extinct,in%20different%20areas%20of%20Maluku. ↩

  26. "11 Indigenous Languages Declared Extinct: Education Ministry". Jakarta Globe. 8 March 2024. Retrieved 10 September 2024. https://jakartaglobe.id/news/11-indigenous-languages-declared-extinct-education-ministry#:~:text=Muksin%20specifically%20mentioned%2011%20extinct,in%20different%20areas%20of%20Maluku. ↩

  27. "Last Fluent Speaker of Nxamxcin Language Dies at 96". The Spokesman. Spokane, Washington. https://www.spokesman.com/stories/2023/may/05/last-fluent-speaker-of-nxamxcin-language-dies-at-9/ ↩

  28. "Last Native Speaker Of Aleut Language In Russia Dies". RadioFreeEurope. 5 October 2022. https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-last-aleut-speaker-dies/32066540.html ↩

  29. S.A.P, El Mercurio (16 February 2022). "Fallece a los 93 años Cristina Calderón, la última hablante del idioma Yagán | Emol.com". Emol (in Spanish). Retrieved 16 February 2022. https://www.emol.com/noticias/Espectaculos/2022/02/16/1046945/fallece-cristina-calderon-pueblo-yagan.html ↩

  30. Mogholi at Ethnologue (25th ed., 2022) https://www.ethnologue.com/25/language/mhj ↩

  31. Eylon, Lili (25 June 2022). "The Judenrein town that spoke Hebrew". Times Of Israel. Retrieved 4 November 2024. Indeed, by 1994, reportedly only 12 people used some 200 Lachoudish words. The dialect Lachoudish had its day; it is now extinct https://blogs.timesofisrael.com/the-judenrein-town-that-spoke-hebrew ↩

  32. Seelye, Katharine Q. (6 October 2021). "Marie Wilcox, Who Saved Her Native Language From Extinction, Dies at 87". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 12 February 2022. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/10/06/us/marie-wilcox-dead.html ↩

  33. "'Race against time': Pandemic propels fight to save Native American languages". POLITICO. 13 April 2021. Retrieved 13 April 2021. https://www.politico.com/news/2021/04/13/pandemic-native-american-languages-481081 ↩

  34. "Last Native Speaker Of Rare Dialect Dies In Russia". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. 9 March 2021. Retrieved 18 March 2021. https://www.rferl.org/a/last-native-speaker-aleut-language-dies-russia/31139662.html ↩

  35. International, Survival (10 March 2021). "Aruká Juma, Last Man of His Tribe, Is Dead". NY Times. Retrieved 10 March 2021. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/10/obituaries/aruka-juma-coronavirus-dead.html ↩

  36. Anderson, Dale (11 December 2020). "Chief Kenneth Patterson, 93, leader in the Tuscarora Nation". The Buffalo News. Retrieved 19 March 2021. https://buffalonews.com/obituaries/features/chief-kenneth-patterson-93-leader-in-the-tuscarora-nation/article_68fe5b4e-3a7c-11eb-9de9-4b45ec69a428.html ↩

  37. International, Survival (1 June 2020). "The last speaker of the Sare language has died". Medium. Retrieved 28 June 2020. https://medium.com/@survivalinternational/the-last-speaker-of-the-sare-language-has-died-767013159e83 ↩

  38. "Preserving Indigenous languages". Monash Life. Monash University. 27 October 2019. Retrieved 12 August 2020. https://lens.monash.edu/@monash-life/2019/10/27/1377046/preserving-indigenous-languages ↩

  39. "Cherry Wulumirr Daniels laid to rest". Yugul Mangi Development Aboriginal Corporation. 24 April 2019. Retrieved 12 August 2020. https://yugulmangi.com.au/index.php/2019/04/24/cherry-wulumirr-daniels-laid-to-rest/ ↩

  40. Daigneault, Anna (6 November 2019). "Museums of the mind: Why we should preserve endangered languages". Global Voices. Retrieved 23 November 2019. https://globalvoices.org/2019/11/06/museums-of-the-mind-why-we-should-preserve-endangered-languages/ ↩

  41. Domingo, Javier (30 January 2019). "La imborrable obra de Dora Manchado: ¿la última guardiana de la lengua tehuelche?". Infobae (in Spanish). Retrieved 23 November 2019. https://www.infobae.com/cultura/2019/01/30/la-imborrable-obra-de-dora-manchado-la-ultima-guardiana-de-la-lengua-tehuelche/ ↩

  42. Joe Skurzewski (10 December 2016). "Edwin Benson, last known fluent speaker of Mandan, passes away at 85". KFYR-TV. Archived from the original on 23 September 2023. http://www.kfyrtv.com/content/news/Edwin-Benson-last-known-fluent-speaker-of-Mandan-passes-away-at-85-405723515.html ↩

  43. Daffron, Brian (6 October 2016). "Doris McLemore, Last Fluent Wichita Speaker, Walks On". Indian Country Media Network. Archived from the original on 4 August 2017. Retrieved 24 May 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170804054402/https://indiancountrymedianetwork.com/news/native-news/doris-mclemore-last-fluent-wichita-speaker-walks-on/ ↩

  44. "A "Legend", Indigenous Australian Leader, Knowledge Holder Tommy George Passes On". Snowchange Cooperative. 29 July 2016. Retrieved 24 May 2017. http://www.snowchange.org/2016/07/a-legend-indigenous-australian-leader-knowledge-holder-tommy-george-passes-on/ ↩

  45. Jack Knox (19 March 2016). "Jack Knox — A silenced tongue: the last Nuchatlaht speaker dies". Times Colonist. Archived from the original on 5 August 2021. http://www.timescolonist.com/news/local/jack-knox-a-silenced-tongue-the-last-nuchatlaht-speaker-dies-1.2201517 ↩

  46. Lacitis, Erik (8 February 2005). "Last few Whulshootseed speakers spread the word". Seattle Times. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 15 September 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20150402184221/http://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/last-few-whulshootseed-speakers-spread-the-word/ ↩

  47. Sweet Dorman, Lois (21 June 2005). "Lost in translation: a connection to the sacred". Seattle Times. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 15 September 2012. https://archive.seattletimes.com/archive/20050621/snoqualmie21/lost-in-translation-a-connection-to-the-sacred ↩

  48. Kaminsky, Jonathan (7 February 2014). "Last native speaker of Klallam language dies in Washington state". Reuters. Archived from the original on 19 July 2023. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-klallam-death-idUSBREA1605W20140207 ↩

  49. "Last native Klallam speaker dies in Port Angeles". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 8 February 2014. https://archive.today/20140208121303/http://www.washingtonpost.com/local/obituaries/last-native-klallam-speaker-dies-in-port-angeles/2014/02/06/d8108c14-8f70-11e3-878e-d76656564a01_story.html ↩

  50. Last surviving native speaker. ↩

  51. Kakar, Hasan Kawun (2014). Government and Society in Afghanistan: The Reign of Amir 'Abd al-Rahman Khan (5 ed.). University of Texas Press. ISBN 9780292729001. 9780292729001 ↩

  52. Charter, David. "Death of a language: last ever speaker of Livonian passes away aged 103". The Times. https://www.thetimes.com/comment/register/article/death-of-a-language-last-ever-speaker-of-livonian-passes-away-aged-103-8k0rlplv8xj?region=global ↩

  53. Last surviving native speaker; some children still learn it as a second language. ↩

  54. Ernštreits, Valts (14 December 2011). "Lībiešu valodas situācija". Livones.net (in Latvian). Archived from the original on 2 February 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140202235047/http://www.livones.net/valoda/?raksts=8701 ↩

  55. Romney, Lee. (2013, February 6). Revival of nearly extinct Yurok language is a success story. The Los Angeles Times. Retrieved February 7, 2013 http://www.latimes.com/news/local/la-me-yurok-language-20130207,0,776112.story ↩

  56. "Revival of nearly extinct Yurok language is a success story". Los Angeles Times. 6 February 2013. Retrieved 19 March 2021. https://www.latimes.com/local/la-xpm-2013-feb-06-la-me-yurok-language-20130207-story.html ↩

  57. Obituary: Robert (Bobby) Hogg, engineer and last speaker of the Cromarty dialect The Scotsman. 15 October 2012. https://web.archive.org/web/20171009135239/https://www.scotsman.com/news/obituaries/obituary-robert-bobby-hogg-engineer-and-last-speaker-of-the-cromarty-dialect-1-2576251 ↩

  58. Foden-Vencil, Kristian. "Last Fluent Speaker Of Oregon Tribal Language 'Kiksht' Dies". Oregon Public Broadcasting. Archived from the original on 10 October 2019. Retrieved 23 May 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20191010153203/https://www.opb.org/news/article/last-fluent-speaker-oregon-tribal-language-kiksht-dies/ ↩

  59. "Alaska Native Language Loses Last Fluent Speaker - Indian Country Media Network". indiancountrymedianetwork.com. Archived from the original on 8 June 2017. Retrieved 23 May 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170608165037/https://indiancountrymedianetwork.com/news/alaska-native-language-loses-last-fluent-speaker/ ↩

  60. "ISO 639-3 Registration Authority Request for New Language Code Element in ISO 639-3" (PDF). ISO 639-3. 23 January 2012. Retrieved 29 October 2023. https://iso639-3.sil.org/sites/iso639-3/files/change_requests/2012/2012-051_dhx.pdf ↩

  61. Dimas, Dimas. "PUNAHNYA BAHASA KREOL PORTUGIS". LIPI (in Indonesian). Archived from the original on 8 August 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200808003934/http://ipsk.lipi.go.id/index.php/kolom-peneliti/kolom-kemasyarakatan-dan-kebudayaan/417-punahnya-bahasa-kreol-portugis ↩

  62. "Falecimento - 12/10/2011". Projeto de Documentação de Línguas Indígenas. Retrieved 21 February 2018. http://prodoclin.museudoindio.gov.br/index.php/etnias/apiaka/noticias ↩

  63. "Another language faces sunset in dead centre". The Australian. || http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/another-language-faces-sunset-in-dead-centre/story-e6frg6po-1111114459448 ↩

  64. "An Indian language recently went extinct. Why were we not told about it?". write2kill.in - Select writings of Subir Ghosh. Archived from the original on 18 February 2013. https://archive.today/20130218065930/http://www.write2kill.in/critiques/people/376.html ↩

  65. "An Indian language recently went extinct. Why were we not told about it?". write2kill.in - Select writings of Subir Ghosh. Archived from the original on 18 February 2013. https://archive.today/20130218065930/http://www.write2kill.in/critiques/people/376.html ↩

  66. "Ancient Indian language dies out". 4 February 2010 – via news.bbc.co.uk. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8498534.stm ↩