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Functional neurological symptom disorder
Medical condition

Functional neurological symptom disorder (FNSD), also referred to as dissociative neurological symptom disorder (DNSD), is a condition in which patients experience neurological symptoms such as weakness, movement problems, sensory symptoms, and convulsions. As a functional disorder, there is, by definition, no known disease process affecting the structure of the body, yet the person experiences symptoms relating to their body function. Symptoms of functional neurological disorders are clinically recognisable, but are not categorically associated with a definable organic disease.

The intended contrast is with an organic brain syndrome, where a pathology (disease process) which affects the body's physiology can be identified. The diagnosis is made based on positive signs and symptoms in the history and examination during consultation of a neurologist.

Physiotherapy is particularly helpful for patients with motor symptoms (e.g., weakness, problems with gait, movement disorders) and tailored cognitive behavioral therapy has the best evidence in patients with non-epileptic seizures.

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Signs and symptoms

There are a great number of symptoms experienced by those with a functional neurological disorder. While these symptoms are very real, their origin is complex, since it can be associated with severe psychological trauma and idiopathic neurological dysfunction.5 The core symptoms are those of motor or sensory dysfunction or episodes of altered awareness:6789

Causes

A systematic review found that stressful life events and childhood neglect were significantly more common in patients with FNSD than the general population, although some patients report no stressors.10

Converging evidence from several studies using different techniques and paradigms has now demonstrated distinctive brain activation patterns associated with functional deficits, unlike those seen in actors simulating similar deficits. 11 The new findings advance current understanding of the mechanisms involved in this disease, and offer the possibility of identifying markers of the condition and patients' prognosis.1213

FNSD has been reported as a rare occurrence in the period following general anesthesia.14

Diagnosis

A diagnosis of a functional neurological disorder is dependent on positive features from the history and examination.15

Positive features of functional weakness on examination include Hoover's sign, when there is weakness of hip extension which normalizes with contralateral hip flexion.16 Signs of functional tremor include entrainment and distractibility. The patient with tremor should be asked to copy rhythmical movements with one hand or foot. If the tremor of the other hand entrains to the same rhythm, stops, or if the patient has trouble copying a simple movement this may indicate a functional tremor. Functional dystonia usually presents with an inverted ankle posture or clenched fist.17 Positive features of dissociative or non-epileptic seizures include prolonged motionless unresponsiveness, long duration episodes (>2 minutes) and symptoms of dissociation prior to the attack. These signs can be usefully discussed with patients when the diagnosis is being made.18192021

Patients with functional movement disorders and limb weakness may experience symptom onset triggered by an episode of acute pain, a physical injury or physical trauma. They may also experience symptoms when faced with a psychological stressor, but this isn't the case for most patients. Patients with functional neurological disorders are more likely to have a history of another illness such as irritable bowel syndrome, chronic pelvic pain or fibromyalgia but this cannot be used to make a diagnosis.22

FNSD does not show up on blood tests or structural brain imaging such as magnetic reasonance imaging (MRI) or CT scanning. However, this is also the case for many other neurological conditions so negative investigations should not be used alone to make the diagnosis. FNSD can occur alongside other neurological diseases and tests may show non-specific abnormalities which cause confusion for doctors and patients.23

DSM-5 diagnostic criteria

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) lists the following diagnostic criteria for functional neurological symptom disorder:

  1. One or more symptoms of altered voluntary motor or sensory function.
  2. Clinical findings can provide evidence of incompatibility between the symptom and recognized neurological or medical conditions.
  3. Another medical or mental disorder does not better explain the symptom or deficit.
  4. The symptom or deficit results in clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other vital areas of functioning or warrants medical evaluation.24

The presence of symptoms defines an acute episode of functional neurological symptom disorder for less than six months, while a persistent episode includes the presence of symptoms for greater than six months. FNSD can also have the specifier of with or without the psychological stressor.

Associated conditions

Epidemiological studies and meta-analysis have shown higher rates of depression and anxiety in patients with FNSD compared to the general population, but rates are similar to patients with other neurological disorders such as epilepsy or Parkinson's disease. This is often the case because of years of misdiagnosis and accusations of malingering.25262728 Multiple sclerosis has some overlapping symptoms with FNSD, potentially a source of misdiagnosis.29

Prevalence

Non-epileptic seizures account for about 1 in 7 referrals to neurologists after an initial episode, while functional weakness has a similar prevalence to multiple sclerosis.30

Treatment

Treatment requires a firm and transparent diagnosis based on positive features which both health professionals and patients can feel confident about.31 It is essential that the health professional confirms that this is a common problem which is genuine, not imagined and not a diagnosis of exclusion.32

A multi-disciplinary approach to treating functional neurological disorder is recommended. Treatment options can include:33

  • Medication such as sleeping tablets, painkillers, anti-epileptic medications and anti-depressants (for patients with depression co-morbid or for pain relief)
  • Cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) can help a person modify their thought patterns to change emotions, mood, or behavior
  • Physiotherapy and occupational therapy

Physiotherapy with someone who understands functional disorders may be the initial treatment of choice for patients with motor symptoms such as weakness, gait (walking) disorder and movement disorders. Nielsen et al. have reviewed the medical literature on physiotherapy for functional motor disorders up to 2012 and concluded that the available studies, although limited, mainly report positive results.34

For many patients with FNSD, accessing treatment can be difficult. Availability of expertise is limited and they may feel that they are being dismissed or told "it's all in your head" especially if psychological input is part of the treatment plan. Some medical professionals are uncomfortable explaining and treating patients with functional symptoms. Changes in the diagnostic criteria, increasing evidence, literature about how to make the diagnosis and how to explain it and changes in medical training is slowly changing this.35

People with functional or dissociative seizures should try to identify warning signs and learn techniques to avoid harm or injury during and after the seizure. Be aware that relapses and flare-ups often recur, despite treatment.

Controversy

Wessely and White have argued that FNSD may merely be an unexplained somatic symptom disorder.36 FNSD remains a stigmatized condition in the healthcare setting.3738

History

Functional neurologic disorder, is a more recent and inclusive term for what is sometimes referred to as conversion disorder.39

Throughout its history, many patients have been misdiagnosed with conversion disorder when they had organic disorders such as tumors, epilepsy, or vascular diseases. This has led to patient deaths, a lack of appropriate care and suffering for the patients.40

There is a growing understanding that symptoms are real and distressing, and are caused by an incorrect functioning of the brain rather than being imagined or feigned.41

See also

Further reading

  • Kwon D (November 2020). "A Disorder of Mind and Brain: A mysterious condition once known as hysteria is challenging the divide between psychiatry and neurology". Scientific American. 323 (5): 58–65 (60). A variety of conditions that have variously been termed "hysteria", "conversion disorder", or "psychosomatic illness" have most recently been given the name "functional neurological disorder (FND), [which] is deliberately neutral, simply denoting a problem in the functioning of the nervous system

References

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  2. Aybek S, Perez DL (January 2022). "Diagnosis and management of functional neurological disorder". BMJ. 376: o64. doi:10.1136/bmj.o64. PMID 35074803. S2CID 246210869. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  3. Lehn A, Gelauff J, Hoeritzauer I, Ludwig L, McWhirter L, Williams S, et al. (March 2016). "Functional neurological disorders: mechanisms and treatment". Journal of Neurology. 263 (3): 611–620. doi:10.1007/s00415-015-7893-2. PMID 26410744. S2CID 23921058. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  4. Goldstein LH, Robinson EJ, Chalder T, Reuber M, Medford N, Stone J, et al. (March 2022). "Six-month outcomes of the CODES randomised controlled trial of cognitive behavioural therapy for dissociative seizures: A secondary analysis". Seizure. 96: 128–136. doi:10.1016/j.seizure.2022.01.016. PMC 8970049. PMID 35228117. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8970049 ↩

  5. "Functional neurologic disorders/conversion disorder - Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 2022-01-04. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/conversion-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20355197 ↩

  6. "Functional neurological symptom disorder". www.medicalnewstoday.com. 2022-01-05. Retrieved 2022-01-08. https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/318534 ↩

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  10. Ludwig L, Pasman JA, Nicholson T, Aybek S, David AS, Tuck S, et al. (April 2018). "Stressful life events and maltreatment in conversion (functional neurological) disorder: systematic review and meta-analysis of case-control studies". The Lancet. Psychiatry. 5 (4): 307–320. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(18)30051-8. hdl:2066/187770. PMID 29526521. https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10074178/ ↩

  11. Aybek S, Vuilleumier P (2016). "Imaging studies of functional neurologic disorders". Functional Neurologic Disorders. Handbook of Clinical Neurology. Vol. 139. pp. 73–84. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-801772-2.00007-2. ISBN 9780128017722. PMID 27719879. 9780128017722 ↩

  12. "Imaging Study Provides New Biological Insights on Functional Neurological Disorder". Imaging Technology News. 2019-11-28. Retrieved 2022-01-08. http://www.itnonline.com/content/imaging-study-provides-new-biological-insights-functional-neurological-disorder ↩

  13. Bennett K, Diamond C, Hoeritzauer I, Gardiner P, McWhirter L, Carson A, Stone J (January 2021). "A practical review of functional neurological disorder (FND) for the general physician". Clinical Medicine. 21 (1): 28–36. doi:10.7861/clinmed.2020-0987. PMC 7850207. PMID 33479065. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7850207 ↩

  14. D'Souza RS, Vogt MN, Rho EH (August 2020). "Post-operative functional neurological symptom disorder after anesthesia". Bosnian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences. 20 (3): 381–388. doi:10.17305/bjbms.2020.4646. PMC 7416177. PMID 32070267. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7416177 ↩

  15. Espay AJ, Aybek S, Carson A, Edwards MJ, Goldstein LH, Hallett M, et al. (September 2018). "Current Concepts in Diagnosis and Treatment of Functional Neurological Disorders". JAMA Neurology. 75 (9): 1132–1141. doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2018.1264. PMC 7293766. PMID 29868890. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7293766 ↩

  16. Sonoo M (January 2004). "Abductor sign: a reliable new sign to detect unilateral non-organic paresis of the lower limb". Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry. 75 (1): 121–125. PMC 1757483. PMID 14707320. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1757483 ↩

  17. Thenganatt MA, Jankovic J (27 August 2014). "Psychogenic tremor: a video guide to its distinguishing features". Tremor and Other Hyperkinetic Movements. 4: 253. doi:10.7916/D8FJ2F0Q (inactive 2024-11-01). PMC 4161970. PMID 25243097.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4161970 ↩

  18. Mellers JD (August 2005). "The approach to patients with "non-epileptic seizures"". Postgraduate Medical Journal. 81 (958): 498–504. doi:10.1136/pgmj.2004.029785. PMC 1743326. PMID 16085740. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1743326 ↩

  19. Pick S, Rojas-Aguiluz M, Butler M, Mulrenan H, Nicholson TR, Goldstein LH (July 2020). "Dissociation and interoception in functional neurological disorder". Cognitive Neuropsychiatry. 25 (4): 294–311. doi:10.1080/13546805.2020.1791061. PMID 32635804. S2CID 220410893. https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13546805.2020.1791061 ↩

  20. Wiginton K. "What Is Dissociation?". WebMD. Retrieved 2022-01-08. https://www.webmd.com/mental-health/dissociation-overview ↩

  21. Adams C, Anderson J, Madva EN, LaFrance WC, Perez DL (August 2018). "You've made the diagnosis of functional neurological disorder: now what?". Practical Neurology. 18 (4): 323–330. doi:10.1136/practneurol-2017-001835. PMC 6372294. PMID 29764988. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6372294 ↩

  22. Stone J, Smyth R, Carson A, Lewis S, Prescott R, Warlow C, Sharpe M (October 2005). "Systematic review of misdiagnosis of conversion symptoms and "hysteria"". BMJ. 331 (7523): 989. doi:10.1136/bmj.38628.466898.55. PMC 1273448. PMID 16223792. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1273448 ↩

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  25. Fiszman A, Kanner AM (2010). Schachter SC, LaFrance Jr WC (eds.). Gates and Rowan's nonepileptic seizures (3rd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 225–234. ISBN 978-0-521-51763-8. 978-0-521-51763-8 ↩

  26. Henningsen P, Zimmermann T, Sattel H (2003). "Medically unexplained physical symptoms, anxiety, and depression: a meta-analytic review". Psychosomatic Medicine. 65 (4): 528–533. doi:10.1097/01.psy.0000075977.90337.e7. PMID 12883101. S2CID 4138482. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

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  29. Walzl D, Solomon AJ, Stone J (February 2022). "Functional neurological disorder and multiple sclerosis: a systematic review of misdiagnosis and clinical overlap". Journal of Neurology. 269 (2): 654–663. doi:10.1007/s00415-021-10436-6. PMC 8782816. PMID 33611631. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8782816 ↩

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  31. Bennett K, Diamond C, Hoeritzauer I, Gardiner P, McWhirter L, Carson A, Stone J (January 2021). "A practical review of functional neurological disorder (FND) for the general physician". Clinical Medicine. 21 (1): 28–36. doi:10.7861/clinmed.2020-0987. PMC 7850207. PMID 33479065. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7850207 ↩

  32. "Functional Neurological Disorder". NORD (National Organization for Rare Disorders). Retrieved 2022-01-20. https://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/fnd/ ↩

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  34. Nielsen G, Stone J, Edwards MJ (August 2013). "Physiotherapy for functional (psychogenic) motor symptoms: a systematic review". Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 75 (2): 93–102. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2013.05.006. PMID 23915764. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

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  39. "Functional neurologic disorders/conversion disorder". Mayo Clinic. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/conversion-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20355197 ↩

  40. Webster R. "Sigmund Freud: somatization, medicine and misdiagnosis". www.richardwebster.net. Archived from the original on May 11, 2004. Retrieved 2016-02-21. https://web.archive.org/web/20040511073728/http://www.richardwebster.net/freudandhysteria.html ↩

  41. "Functional neurologic disorders/conversion disorder". Mayo Clinic. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/conversion-disorder/symptoms-causes/syc-20355197 ↩