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Hashimoto's thyroiditis
Autoimmune disease

Hashimoto's thyroiditis, also known as chronic lymphocytic thyroiditis, is an autoimmune disease that gradually destroys the thyroid gland. Early symptoms may be unnoticed, but over time a painless goiter can develop, eventually leading to hypothyroidism with symptoms like weight gain, fatigue, and hair loss. Diagnosis involves blood tests for TSH, antithyroid autoantibodies, and ultrasound. Treatment with levothyroxine is common once hypothyroidism or goiter appears. The disease stems from both genetic and environmental factors, affecting females more than males, and is the leading cause of hypothyroidism in developed countries. It was first described by Hakaru Hashimoto in 1912.

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Signs and symptoms

Signs

In the early stages of autoimmune thyroiditis, patients may have normal thyroid hormone levels and no goiter or a small one.27 Enlargement of the thyroid is due to lymphocytic infiltration and fibrosis.28 Early on, thyroid autoantibodies in the blood may be the only indication of Hashimoto’s disease.29 They are thought to be the secondary products of the T cell-mediated destruction of the gland.30

As lymphocytic infiltration progresses, patients may exhibit signs of hypothyroidism in multiple bodily systems, including, but not limited to, a larger goiter, weight gain, cold intolerance, fatigue, myxedema, constipation, menstrual disturbances, pale or dry skin, and dry, brittle hair, depression, and ataxia.3132 Extended thyroid hormone deficiency may lead to muscle fibre changes, resulting in muscle weakness, muscle pain, stiffness, and rarely, pseudohypertrophy.33 Patients with goiters who have had autoimmune thyroiditis for many years might see their goiter shrink in the later stages of the disease due to destruction of the thyroid.34 Graves disease may occur before or after the development of autoimmune thyroiditis.35

While rare, more serious complications of the hypothyroidism resulting from autoimmune thyroiditis are pericardial effusion, pleural effusion, both of which require further medical attention, and myxedema coma, which is an endocrine emergency.36

Symptoms

Many symptoms are attributed to the development of Hashimoto's thyroiditis. Symptoms can include: fatigue, weight gain, pale or puffy face, feeling cold, joint and muscle pain, constipation, dry and thinning hair, heavy menstrual flow or irregular periods, depression, a slowed heart rate, problems getting pregnant, miscarriages,37 and myopathy.38 Some patients in the early stage of the disease may experience symptoms of hyperthyroidism due to the release of thyroid hormones from intermittent thyroid destruction3940 (also called "destructive thyrotoxicosis").41 In non-medical settings, the term "flare" is used to refer to a sudden exacerbation of symptoms, whether hyper or hypo.42

While most symptoms are attributed to hypothyroidism, similar symptoms are observed in Hashimoto's patients with normal thyroid hormone levels.434445 According to one study, these symptoms may include lower quality of life, and issues of the "digestive system (abdominal distension, constipation and diarrhea), endocrine system (chilliness, gain weight and facial edema), neuropsychiatric system (forgetfulness, anxiety, depressed, fatigue, insomnia, irritability, and indifferent [sic]) and mucocutaneous system (dry skin, pruritus, and hair loss)."46

Causes

The causes of Hashimoto's thyroiditis are complex. Around 80% of the risk of developing an autoimmune thyroid disorder is due to genetic factors, while the remaining 20% is related to environmental factors (such as iodine, drugs, infection, stress, radiation).47

Genetics

Thyroid autoimmunity can be familial.48 Many patients report a family history of autoimmune thyroiditis or Graves' disease.49 The strong genetic component is borne out in studies on monozygotic twins,50 with a concordance of 38–55%, with an even higher concordance of circulating thyroid antibodies not in relation to clinical presentation (up to 80% in monozygotic twins). Neither result was seen to a similar degree in dizygotic twins, offering strong favour for high genetic etiology.51

The genes implicated vary in different ethnic groups52 and the impact of these genes on the disease differs significantly among people from different ethnic groups. A gene that has a large effect in one ethnic group's risk of developing Hashimoto's thyroiditis might have a much smaller effect in another ethnic group.53

The incidence of autoimmune thyroid disorders is increased in people with chromosomal disorders, including Turner, Down, and Klinefelter syndromes.54

HLA genes

The first gene locus associated with autoimmune thyroid disease was the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) region on chromosome 6p21. It encodes human leukocyte antigens (HLAs). Specific HLA alleles have a higher affinity to auto-antigenic thyroidal peptides and can contribute to autoimmune thyroid disease development. Specifically, in Hashimoto's disease, aberrant expression of HLA II on thyrocytes has been demonstrated. They can present thyroid autoantigens and initiate autoimmune thyroid disease.55 Susceptibility alleles are not consistent in Hashimoto's disease. In Caucasians, various alleles are reported to be associated with the disease, including DR3, DR5, and DQ7.5657

CTLA-4 genes

CTLA-4 is the second major immune-regulatory gene related to autoimmune thyroid disease. CTLA-4 gene polymorphisms may contribute to the reduced inhibition of T-cell proliferation and increase susceptibility to autoimmune response.58 CTLA-4 is a major thyroid autoantibody susceptibility gene. A linkage of the CTLA-4 region to the presence of thyroid autoantibodies was demonstrated by a whole-genome linkage analysis.59 CTLA-4 was confirmed as the main locus for thyroid autoantibodies.60

PTPN22 gene

PTPN22 is the most recently identified immune-regulatory gene associated with autoimmune thyroid disease. It is located on chromosome 1p13 and expressed in lymphocytes. It acts as a negative regulator of T-cell activation. Mutation in this gene is a risk factor for many autoimmune diseases. Weaker T-cell signaling may lead to impaired thymic deletion of autoreactive T cells, and increased PTPN22 function may result in inhibition of regulatory T cells, which protect against autoimmunity.61

Immune-related genes

IFN-γ promotes cell-mediated cytotoxicity against thyroid mutations causing increased production of IFN-γ were associated with the severity of hypothyroidism.62 Severe hypothyroidism is associated with mutations leading to lower production of IL-4 (Th2 cytokine suppressing cell-mediated autoimmunity),63 lower secretion of TGF-β (inhibitor of cytokine production),64 and mutations of FOXP3, an essential regulatory factor for the regulatory T cells (Tregs) development.65 Development of Hashimoto's disease was associated with mutation of the gene for TNF-α (stimulator of the IFN-γ production), causing its higher concentration.66

Existential (endogenous environmental)

Sex

Study of healthy Danish twins divided to three groups (monozygotic and dizygotic same sex, and opposite sex twin pairs) estimated that genetic contribution to thyroid peroxidase antibodies susceptibility was 61% in males and 72% in females, and contribution to thyroglobulin antibodies susceptibility was 39% in males and 75% in females.67

The high female predominance in thyroid autoimmunity may be associated with the X chromosome. It contains sex and immune-related genes responsible for immune tolerance.68 A higher incidence of thyroid autoimmunity was reported in patients with a higher rate of X-chromosome monosomy in peripheral white blood cells.69 Another potential mechanism might be skewed X-chromosome inactivation.70

Pregnancy

In one population study, two or more births were a risk factor for developing autoimmune hypothyroidism in pre-menopausal women.71

Environmental

Medications

Certain medications or drugs have been associated with altering and interfering with thyroid function. There are two main mechanisms of interference:72

Iodine

Both excessive and insufficient iodine intake has been implicated in developing antithyroid antibodies.7980 Thyroid autoantibodies are found to be more prevalent in geographical areas after increasing iodine levels.81 Several mechanisms by which excessive iodine may promote thyroid autoimmunity have been proposed:82

Comorbidities

Comorbid autoimmune diseases are a risk factor for developing Hashimoto's thyroiditis, and the opposite is also true.88 Another thyroid disease closely associated with Hashimoto's thyroiditis is Graves' disease.89 Autoimmune diseases affecting other organs most commonly associated with Hashimoto's thyroiditis include celiac disease, type 1 diabetes, vitiligo, alopecia,90 Addison disease, Sjogren's syndrome, and rheumatoid arthritis9192 Autoimmune thyroiditis has also been seen in patients with autoimmune polyendocrine syndromes type 1 and 2.93

Other

Other environmental factors include selenium deficiency,94 infectious diseases such as hepatitis C, rubella, and possibly Covid-19,959697 toxins,98 dietary factors,99 radiation exposure,100 and gut dysbiosis.101

Mechanism

The pathophysiology of autoimmune thyroiditis is not well understood.102 However, once the disease is established, its core processes have been observed:

Hashimoto's thyroiditis is a T-lymphocyte mediated attack on the thyroid gland.103 T helper 1 cells trigger macrophages and cytotoxic lymphocytes to destroy thyroid follicular cells, while T helper 2 cells stimulate the excessive production of B cells and plasma cells which generate antibodies against the thyroid antigens, leading to thyroiditis.104 The three major antibodies are: Thyroid peroxidase Antibodies (TPOAb), Thyroglobulin Antibodies (TgAb), and Thyroid stimulating hormone receptor Antibodies (TRAb),105 with TPOAb and TgAb being most commonly implicated in Hashimotos.106 They are hypothesized to develop as a result of thyroid damage, where T-lymphocytes are sensitized to residual thyroid peroxidase and thyroglobulin, rather than as the initial cause of thyroid damage.107 However, they may exacerbate further thyroid destruction by binding the complement system and triggering apoptosis of thyroid cells.108 TPO antibody levels may correlate with the degree of lymphocyte infiltration of the thyroid.109110

Gross morphological changes within the thyroid are seen in the general enlargement, which is far more locally nodular and irregular than more diffuse patterns (such as that of hyperthyroidism). While the capsule is intact and the gland itself is still distinct from surrounding tissue, microscopic examination can provide a more revealing indication of the level of damage.111 Hypothyroidism is caused by replacement of follicular cells with parenchymatous tissue.112

Partial regeneration of the thyroid tissue can occur, but this has not been observed to normalise hormonal levels.113114

Pathology

Gross pathology of a thyroid with autoimmune thyroiditis may show an symmetrically enlarged thyroid.115 It is often paler in color, in comparison to normal thyroid tissue which is reddish-brown.116

Microscopic examination (histology) will show lymphocytes (including plasma B-cells) diffusely infiltrating the parenchyma.117 The lymphocytes are predominately T-lymphocytes with a representation of both CD4+ and CD8+ cells.118 The plasma cells are polyclonal, with present germinal centers resembling the structure of a lymph node119 (also called secondary lymphoid follicles, not to be confused with the normally present colloid-filled follicles that constitute the thyroid).120

In late stages of the disease, the thyroid may be atrophic.121 Colloid-filled follicles shrink and the cuboidal cells that usually line the follicles become Hürthle cells.122 Fibrous tissue may be found throughout the affected thyroid as well.123 Severe thyroid atrophy presents often with denser fibrotic bands of collagen that remains within the confines of the thyroid capsule.124

Generally, pathological findings of the thyroid are related to the amount of existing thyroid function — the more infiltration and fibrosis, the less likely a patient will have normal thyroid function.125 A rare but serious complication is thyroid lymphoma, generally the B-cell type, non-Hodgkin lymphoma.126

Diagnosis

Tests

Physical exam

Physicians will often start by assessing reported symptoms and performing a thorough physical exam, including a neck exam.127 Patients may have a "firm, bumpy, symmetric, painless goiter", however, up to 10% of patients may have an atrophied thyroid.128

Antithyroid antibodies tests

Tests for antibodies against thyroid peroxidase, thyroglobulin, and thyrotropin receptors can detect autoimmune processes against the thyroid. 90% of hashimoto's patients have elevated levels of thyroid peroxidase antibodies.129 However, seronegative (without circulating autoantibodies) thyroiditis is also possible.130 There may be circulating antibodies before the onset of any symptoms.131

Ultrasound

An ultrasound may be useful in detecting Hashimoto thyroiditis, especially in those with seronegative thyroiditis,132 or when patients have normal laboratory values but symptoms of autoimmune thyroiditis.133 Key features detected in the ultrasound of a person with Hashimoto's thyroiditis include "echogenicity, heterogeneity, hypervascularity, and presence of small cysts."134 Images obtained with ultrasound can evaluate the size of the thyroid, reveal the presence of nodules, or provide clues to the diagnosis of other thyroid conditions.135

Nuclear medicine

Nuclear imaging showing thyroid uptake can also be helpful in diagnosing thyroid function, particularly differential diagnosis.136

TSH levels test

Elevated Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels may indicate hypothyroidism (underpeforming thyroid).137 Hypothyroidism is a common symptom and potential indication of hashimoto's disease.138 As blood levels of thyroid hormones fall due to hypothyroidism, the anterior pituitary gland increases production of TSH, which stimulates increased production of thyroid hormones in the thyroid.139 The elevation is usually a marked increase over the normal range.140 TSH is the preferred initial test of thyroid function as it has a higher sensitivity to changes in thyroid status than free T4.141

Biotin can cause this test to read "falsely low".142 Time of day can affect the results of this test; TSH peaks early in the morning and slumps in the late afternoon to early evening,143 with "a variation in TSH by a mean of between 0.95 mIU/mL to 2.0 mIU/mL".144 Hypothyroidism is diagnosed more often in samples taken soon after waking.145

T3 or T4 levels test

These tests detect levels of two thyroid hormones: Thyroxine (T4) and Tri-iodothyronine (T3). Low levels of these hormones (hypothyroidism) may indicate autoimmune damage to the thyroid due to hashimotos, while elevated levels may indicate an attack of destructive thyrotoxicosis.146 Hashimotos with normal levels is possible however.

Free or total levels can be measured. Typically, Free T4 is the preferred test for hypothyroidism,147 as Free T3 immunoassay tests are less reliable at detecting low levels of thyroid hormone,148 and they are more susceptible to interference.149 Both immunoassay tests of Free T4 and Free T3 may overestimate concentrations, particularly at low thyroid hormone levels, which is why results are typically read in conjunction with TSH, a more sensitive measure.150 LC-MSMS assays are rarer, but they are "highly specific, sensitive, precise, and can detect hormones found in low concentrations."151

Muscle Biopsy

Muscle biopsy is not necessary for diagnosis of myopathy due to hypothyroid muscle fibre changes, however it may reveal confirmatory features.152

Treatment

There is no cure for Hashimoto's Thyroiditis.153154 There is currently no known way to stop auto-immune lymphocytes infiltrating the thyroid or to stimulate regeneration of thyroid tissue.155 However, the condition can be managed.156157

Managing hormone levels

Hormone Terminology
EndogenousSynthetic
T3Tri-iodothyronineLiothyronine
T4ThyroxineLevothyroxine

Hypothyroidism caused by Hashimoto's thyroiditis is treated with thyroid hormone replacement agents such as levothyroxine (LT4),158 liothyronine (LT3),159 or desiccated thyroid extract (T4+T3).160 In most cases, the treatment needs to be taken for the rest of the person's life.161

The standard of care is levothyroxine (LT4) therapy, which is an oral medication identical in molecular structure to endogenous thyroxine (T4).162 Levothyroxine sodium has a sodium salt added to increase the gastrointestinal absorption of levothyroxine.163 Levothyroxine has the benefits of a long half-life164 leading to stable thyroid hormone levels,165 ease of monitoring,166 excellent safety167168 and efficacy record,169 and usefulness in pregnancy as it can cross the fetal blood-brain barrier.170

Levothyroxine dosing to normalise TSH is based on the amount of residual endogenous thyroid function and the patient’s weight, particularly lean body mass.171 The dose can be adjusted based upon each patient, for example, the dose may be lowered for elderly patients or patients with certain cardiac conditions, but is increased in pregnant patients.172 It is administered on a consistent schedule.173 Levothyroxine may be dosed daily or weekly, however weekly dosing may be associated with higher TSH levels, elevated thyroid hormone levels, and transient "echocardiographic changes in some patients following 2-4 h of thyroxine intake".174175

Some patients elect combination therapy with both levothyroxine and liothyronine (which is identical in molecular structure to tri-iodothyronine) however studies of combination therapy are limited,176 and five meta-analyses/reviews "suggested no clear advantage of the combination therapy."177 However, subgroup analysis found that patients who remain the most symptomatic while taking levothyroxine may benefit from therapy containing liothyronine.178

There is a lack of evidence around the benefits, long-term effects and side effects of desiccated thyroid extract. It is no longer recommended for the treatment of hypothyroidism.179

Side Effects

Side effects of thyroid replacement therapy are associated with "inadequate or excessive doses."180 Symptoms to watch for include, but are not limited to, anxiety, tremor, weight loss, heat sensitivity, diarrhea, and shortness of breath. More worrisome symptoms include atrial fibrillation and bone density loss.181 Long term over-treatment is associated with increased mortality and dementia.182

Monitoring

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) is the laboratory value of choice for monitoring response to treatment with levothyroxine.183 When treatment is first initiated, TSH levels may be monitored as often as a frequency of every 6–8 weeks.184 Each time the dose is adjusted, TSH levels may be measured at that frequency until the correct dose is determined.185 Once titrated to a proper dose, TSH levels will be monitored yearly.186 The target level for TSH is the subject of debate, with factors like age, sex, individual needs and special circumstances such as pregnancy being considered.187 Recent studies suggest that adjusting therapy based on thyroid hormone levels (T4 and/or T3) may be important.188

Monitoring liothyronine treatment or combination treatment can be challenging.189190191 Liothyronine can suppress TSH to a greater extent than levothyroxine.192 Short-acting Liothyronine's short half-life can result in large fluctuations of free T3193 over the course of 24 hours.194

Patients may have to adjust their dosage several times over the course of the disease. Endogenous thyroid hormone levels may fluctuate, particularly early in the disease.195 Patients may sometimes develop hyperthyroidism, even after long-term treatment.196 This can be due to a number of factors including acute attacks of destructive thyrotoxicosis (autoimmune attacks on the thyroid resulting in rises in thyroid hormone levels as thyroid hormones leak out of the damaged tissues).197198 This is usually followed by hypothyroidism.199

Reverse T3

Measuring reverse tri-iodothyronine (rT3) is often mentioned in the lay (non-medical) press as a possible marker to inform T4 or T3 therapy, "however, there is currently no evidence to support this application" as of 2023.200 Although cited in the lay press as a possible competitor to T3, it is unlikely that rT3 causes hypothyroid symptoms by out-competing T3 for thyroid hormone receptors, as it has a binding affinity 200 times weaker.201 It is also unlikely that rT3 causes poor T4 to T3 conversion; despite being demonstrated in vivo to have the potential to inhibit DIO-mediated T4 to T3 conversion, this is considered improbable at normal body hormone concentrations.202

Persistent Symptoms

Multiple studies have demonstrated persistent symptoms in Hashimoto's patients with normal thyroid hormone levels (euthyroid)203204205206 and an estimated 10%-15% of patients treated with levothyroxine monotherapy are dissatisfied due to persistent symptoms of hypothyroidism.207208 Several different hypothesised causes are discussed in the medical literature:209210211

Low tissue tri-iodothyronine (T3) hypothesis

Peripheral tissue T4 to T3 conversion may be inadequate: Some patients on LT4 monotherapy may have blood T3 levels low or below the normal range,212213 and/or may have local T3 deficiency in some tissues.214 Although both molecules can have biological effects, thyroxine (T4) is considered the "storage form" of thyroid hormone with much less effect, while tri-iodothyronine (T3) is considered the active form used by body tissues.215216 Thus the body must convert thyroxine into tri-iodothyronine.217 Tri-iodothyronine is produced primarily by conversion in the liver, kidney, skeletal muscle and pituitary gland.218

Adequate conversion requires sufficient levels of the micronutrients zinc,219 selenium,220 iron,221 and possibly vitamin A.222 Conversion rates may decline with age.223 Since deiodinase type 2 is necessary for T4 to T3 conversion in some peripheral tissues, "patients with DIO2 gene polymorphisms may have variable peripheral T3 availability", leading to localised hypothyroidism in some tissues.224225226 The Thr92Ala DIO2 polymorphism is present in 12–36% of the population.227

For the latter patients, levothyroxine monotherapy may not be sufficient228 and patients may have improvement on combination therapy of T4 and T3.229230231 As standard immunoassay tests can overestimate blood T4 and T3 levels, Ultrafiltration LC-MSMS T4 and T3 tests may help to identify patients who would benefit from additional T3.232

Inadequate markers hypothesis

There is ongoing debate about how to define euthyroidism and whether TSH is its best indicator.233 TSH may be useful to detect poor thyroid output and may reflect the state of thyroid hormones in the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis, but not the presence of hormones in other body tissues.234235236 As a result, LT4 monotherapy may not result in a "truly biochemically euthyroid state."237 Patients may express a preference for "low normal or below normal TSH values"238 and/or T4 and T3 monitoring. The monitoring of other biomarkers that reflect the action of thyroid hormone on tissues has also been proposed.239240241

As immunoassay Free T3 and Free T4 tests can overestimate levels, particularly at low thyroid hormone levels, hypothyroidism may be undertreated.242 LC-MSMS tests may provide more reliable measures.243

Extra-thyroidal effects of autoimmunity hypothesis

It is hypothesised that autoimmunity may play some role in euthyroid symptoms.244245246 Hypothesised mechanisms include the proposal that TPO-antibody-producing lymphocytes may travel out of the thyroid to other tissue, creating symptoms and inflammation due to cross-reaction,247248 or "the inflammatory nature of [...] persistently increased circulating cytokine levels."249 Multiple studies find that antibodies coincide with symptoms even in euthyroid patients,250251 and higher levels are associated with increased symptoms,252 however "the found association does not prove a causality".253 No treatment currently exists for Hashimoto's autoimmunity, although observed wellbeing improvements after surgical thyroid removal are hypothesised to be due to removing the autoimmune stimulus.254255

Physical and psychosocial co-morbidities hypothesis

It is hypothesised that euthyroid symptoms may not be due to Hashimoto's or hypothyroidism, but some other "physical and psychosocial co-morbidities".256257

Improving wellbeing

Some patients may perceive improved wellbeing while in thyrotoxicosis, however overtreatment has risks (known risks for levothyroxine and unknown risks for liothyronine).258 One study demonstrated surgical thyroid removal may substantially improve fatigue and wellbeing,259260 see Surgery considerations, below.

Reducing antibodies

It is not established that reducing antithyroid antibodies in Hashimoto's has benefits.261262263 A systematic review and meta-analysis of selenium trials found that while selenium reduces TPO antibodies, there was a lack of evidence of effects on "disease remission, progression, lowered levothyroxine dose or improved quality of life".264

Selenium,265266 vitamin D,267 and metformin268 can reduce thyroid peroxidase antibodies. There is preliminary evidence that levothyroxine,269270 [needs update]aloe vera juice271 and black cumin seed272 may reduce thyroid peroxidase antibodies. Metformin can reduce thyroglobulin antibodies.273 It is not established that a gluten-free diet can reduce antibodies when there is no comorbid coeliac disease.274275 Gluten-free diets have been shown in several studies to reduce antibodies, and in other studies to have no effect, however there were significant confounding issues in these studies, including not ruling out comorbid coeliac disease.276

One study found surgical thyroid removal can substantially reduce anti-thyroid antibody levels,277278 see Surgery considerations, below.

Surgery considerations

Surgery is not the initial treatment of choice for autoimmune disease, and uncomplicated Hashimoto's thyroiditis is not an indication for thyroidectomy.279 Patients generally may discuss surgery with their doctor if they are experiencing significant pressure symptoms, or cosmetic concerns, or have nodules present on ultrasound.280 One well-conducted study of patients with troublesome general symptoms and with anti-thyroperoxidase (anti-TPO) levels greater than 1000 IU/ml (normal <100 IU/ml) showed that total thyroidectomy caused the symptoms to resolve and median anti-thyroid peroxidase levels to reduce from 2232 to 152 IU/mL,281282 but post-operative complications were higher than expected:283 infection (4.1%), permanent hypoparathyroidism (4.1%) and recurrent laryngeal nerve injury (5.5%).284

Other

Zinc may increase free T3 levels.285 A small pilot study found Ashwagandha Root may increase T3 and T4 levels, however, there's a lack of strong evidence of this benefit and Ashwagandha has a potential to cause adrenal insufficiency.286

As of 2022, there has been only one study of low-dose naltrexone in Hashimoto's, which did not demonstrate efficacy, therefore nothing supports its use; Removing dairy products in those without lactose intolerance has not been found to be supported.287 While soy isoflavones have the potential to theoretically affect T3 and T4 production, studies in those with sufficient iodine find no effect.288

Prognosis

Overt, symptomatic thyroid dysfunction is the most common complication, with about 5% of people with subclinical hypothyroidism and chronic autoimmune thyroiditis progressing to thyroid failure every year. Transient periods of thyrotoxicosis (over-activity of the thyroid) sometimes occur, and rarely the illness may progress to full hyperthyroid Graves' disease with active orbitopathy (bulging, inflamed eyes).289

Rare cases of fibrous autoimmune thyroiditis present with severe shortness of breath and difficulty swallowing, resembling aggressive thyroid tumors, but such symptoms always improve with surgery or corticosteroid therapy. Although primary thyroid B-cell lymphoma affects fewer than one in 1000 persons, it is more likely to affect those with long-standing autoimmune thyroiditis,290 as there is a 67- to 80-fold increased risk of developing primary thyroid lymphoma in patients with Hashimoto's thyroiditis.291

Myopathy as a result of muscle fibre changes due to thyroid hormone deficiency may take months or years of thyroid hormone treatment to resolve.292293

Anti-thyroid antibodies

Thyroid peroxidase antibodies typically (but not always) decline in patients treated with levothyroxine,294 with decreases varying between 10% and 90% after a follow-up of 6 to 24 months.295 One study of patients treated with levothyroxine observed that 35 out of 38 patients (92%) had declines in thyroid peroxidase antibody levels over five years, lowering by 70% on average. 6 of the 38 patients (16%) had thyroid peroxidase antibody levels return to normal.296

Children

Many children diagnosed with Hashimoto's disease will experience the same progressive course of the disease that adults do.297 However, of children who develop anti-thyroid antibodies and hypothyroidism, up to 50% are later observed to have normal antibodies and thyroid hormone levels.298 One case of true remission has been observed in a 12-year-old girl. Her thyroid was observed via ultrasound to progress from early inflammation to severe end-stage Hashimoto's thyroiditis with hypothyroidism, and then return to "almost normal with only minimal features of inflammation" and euthyroidism.299

Epidemiology

Hashimoto's Disease is estimated to affect 2% of the world's population.300301 About 1.0 to 1.5 in 1000 people have this disease at any time.302

Sex

Anyone may develop this disease, but it occurs between 8303 and 15 times more often in women than in men. Some research suggests a connection to the role of the placenta as an explanation for the sex difference.304 Other research suggests the difference in prevalence amongst genders is due to the effects of sex hormones.305

High iodine consumption

Autoimmune thyroiditis has a higher prevalence in societies that have a higher intake of iodine in their diet, such as the United States and Japan, and among people who are genetically susceptible.306 It is the most common cause of hypothyroidism in areas of sufficient iodine.307 Also, the rate of lymphocytic infiltration increased in areas where the iodine intake was once low, but increased due to iodine supplementation.308309

Iodine deficiency disorder is combated using an increase in iodine in a person's diet. When a dramatic change occurs in a person's diet, they become more at-risk of developing hypothyroidism and other thyroid disorders. Treating iodine deficiency disorder with high salt intakes should be done carefully and cautiously as risk for Hashimoto's may increase.310

Geographic influence of dietary trends

Geography plays a large role in which regions have access to diets with low or high iodine. Iodine levels in both water and salt should be heavily monitored in order to protect at-risk populations from developing hypothyroidism.311 Geographic trends of hypothyroidism vary across the world as different places have different ways of defining disease and reporting cases. Populations that are spread out or defined poorly may skew data in unexpected ways.312

North America

Hashimoto's thyroiditis may affect up to 5% of the United States' population.313 Hashimoto's thyroiditis disorder is thought to be the most common cause of primary hypothyroidism in North America.314

Age

Hashimoto's thyroiditis can occur at any age, including children,315 but more commonly appears in middle age, particularly for men.316 Incidence peaks in the fifth decade of life, but patients are usually diagnosed between age 30–50.317318 The highest prevalence from one study was found in the elderly members of the community.319 It has been shown that the prevalence of positive tests for thyroid antibodies increases with age, "with a frequency as high as 33 percent in women 70 years old or older."320

Race

The prevalence of Hashimoto's varies geographically. The highest rate is in Africa, and the lowest in Asia.321 In the US, the African-American population experiences it less commonly but has greater associated mortality.322

Autoimmune diseases

Those that already have an autoimmune disease are at greater risk of developing Hashimoto's as the diseases generally coexist with each other.323 See Causes > Comorbidities, above.

Secular trends

The secular trends of hypothyroidism reveal how the disease has changed over the course of time given changes in technology and treatment options. Even though ultrasound technology and treatment options have improved, the incidence of hypothyroidism has increased according to data focused on the US and Europe. Between 1993 and 2001, per 1000 women, the disease was found varying between 3.9 and 4.89. Between 1994 and 2001, per 1000 men, the disease increased from 0.65 to 1.01.324

History

Also known as Hashimoto's disease, Hashimoto's thyroiditis is named after Japanese physician Hakaru Hashimoto (1881−1934) of the medical school at Kyushu University,325 who first described the symptoms of persons with struma lymphomatosa, an intense infiltration of lymphocytes within the thyroid, in 1912 in the German journal called Archiv für Klinische Chirurgie.326327 This paper was made up of 30 pages and 5 illustrations all describing the histological changes in the thyroid tissue. Furthermore, all results in his first study were collected from four women. These results explained the pathological characteristics observed in these women especially the infiltration of lymphocyte and plasma cells as well as the formation of lymphoid follicles with germinal centers, fibrosis, degenerated thyroid epithelial cells and leukocytes in the lumen.328 He described these traits to be histologically similar to those of Mikulic's disease. As mentioned above, once he discovered these traits in this new disease, he named the disease struma lymphomatosa. This disease emphasized the lymphocyte infiltration and formation of the lymphoid follicles with germinal centers, neither of which had ever been previously reported.329

Despite Dr. Hashimoto's discovery and publication, the disease was not recognized as distinct from Reidel's thyroiditis, which was a common disease at that time in Europe. Although many other articles were reported and published by other researchers, Hashimoto's struma lymphomatosa was only recognized as an early phase of Reidel's thyroiditis in the early 1900s. It was not until 1931 that the disease was recognized as a disease in its own right, when researchers Allen Graham et al. from Cleveland reported its symptoms and presentation in the same detailed manner as Hashimoto.330

In 1956, Drs. Rose and Witebsky were able to demonstrate how immunization of certain rodents with extracts of other rodents' thyroid resembled the disease Hakaru and other researchers were trying to describe.331 These doctors were also able to describe anti-thyroglobulin antibodies in blood serum samples from these same animals.332

Later on in the same year, researchers from the Middlesex Hospital in London were able to perform human experiments on patients who presented with similar symptoms. They purified anti-thyroglobulin antibody from their serum and were able to conclude that these sick patients had an immunological reaction to human thyroglobulin.333 From this data, it was proposed that Hashimoto's struma could be an autoimmune disease of the thyroid gland: "Following these discoveries, the concept of organ-specific autoimmune disease was established and HT recognized as one such disease."334

Following this recognition, the same researchers from Middlesex Hospital published an article in 1962 in The Lancet that included a portrait of Hakaru Hashimoto.335 The disease became more well known from that moment, and Hashimoto's disease started to appear more frequently in textbooks.336

Pregnancy

Conception

It is recommended that hypothyroidism be treated with levothyoxine before conception, to prevent adverse effects on the course of the pregnancy and on the development of the child.337 In IVF, embryo transfer is improved when hypothyroidism is treated.338

Pregnancy

The Endocrine Society recommends screening in pregnant women who are considered high-risk for thyroid autoimmune disease.339 Universal screening for thyroid diseases during pregnancy is controversial, however, one study "supports the potential benefit of universal screening".340 Pregnant women may have antithyroid antibodies (5%–14% of pregnancies341), poor thyroid function resulting in hypothyroidism, or both. Each is associated with risks:342

Anti-thyroid antibodies in pregnancy

The presence of Thyroid peroxidase antibodies at the outset of pregnancy are associated with a greater risk to the mother of hypothyroidism and thyroid impairment in the first year after delivery.343

The presence of antibodies is also associated with "a 2 to 4-fold increase in the risk of recurrent miscarriages, and 2 to 3-fold increased risk of preterm birth", however the reason why is unclear. Thyroid peroxidase antibodies are speculated to indicate other autoimmune processes against the placental-fetal unit.344

Levothyroxine treatment in euthyroid women with thyroid autoimmunity does not significantly impact the relative risk of miscarriage and preterm delivery, or outcomes with live birth. "Therefore, no strong recommendations regarding the therapy in such scenarios could be made, but consideration on a case-by-case basis might be implemented."345

Hypothyroidism in pregnancy.

Women who have low thyroid function that has not been stabilized are at greater risk of complications for both parent and child. Risks to the mother include gestational hypertension including preeclampsia and eclampsia, gestational diabetes, placental abruption, and postpartum hemorrhage.346 Risks to the infant include miscarriage, preterm delivery, low birth weight, neonatal respiratory distress, hydrocephalus, hypospadias, fetal death, infant intensive care unit admission, and neurodevelopmental delays (lower child IQ, language delay or global developmental delay).347348349

Successful pregnancy outcomes are improved when hypothyroidism is treated.350 Levothyroxine treatment may be considered at lower TSH levels in pregnancy than in standard treatment.351 Liothyronine does not cross the fetal blood-brain barrier, so liothyronine (T3) only or liothyronine + levothyroxine (T3 + T4) therapy is not indicated in pregnancy.352

Close cooperation between the endocrinologist and obstetrician benefits the woman and the infant.353354355

Immune changes during pregnancy

Hormonal changes and trophoblast expression of key immunomodulatory molecules lead to immunosuppression and fetal tolerance. The main players in regulation of the immune response are Tregs. Both cell-mediated and humoral immune responses are attenuated, resulting in immune tolerance and suppression of autoimmunity. It has been reported that during pregnancy, levels of thyroid peroxidase and thyroglobulin antibodies decrease.356

Postpartum

Thyroid peroxidase antibodies testing is recommended for women who have ever been pregnant regardless of pregnancy outcome. "[P]revious pregnancy plays a major role in development of autoimmune overt hypothyroidism in premenopausal women, and the number of previous pregnancies should be taken into account when evaluating the risk of hypothyroidism in a young women [sic]."357

Postpartum thyroiditis can occur in women with Hashimoto's.358 In healthy women, Postpartum thyroiditis can occur up to 1 year after delivery and should be differentiated from Hashimoto's thyroiditis as it is treated differently.359

After giving birth, Tregs rapidly decrease and immune responses are re-established. It may lead to the occurrence or aggravation of autoimmune thyroid disease.360 In up to 50% of females with thyroid peroxidase antibodies in the early pregnancy, thyroid autoimmunity in the postpartum period exacerbates in the form of postpartum thyroiditis.361 Higher secretion of IFN-γ and IL-4, and lower plasma cortisol concentration during pregnancy has been reported in females with postpartum thyroiditis than in healthy females. It indicates that weaker immunosuppression during pregnancy could contribute to the postpartum thyroid dysfunction.362

Fetal microchimerism

Several years after the delivery, the chimeric male cells can be detected in the maternal peripheral blood, thyroid, lung, skin, or lymph nodes. The fetal immune cells in the maternal thyroid gland may become activated and act as a trigger that may initiate or exaggerate the autoimmune thyroid disease. In Hashimoto's disease patients, fetal microchimeric cells were detected in thyroid in significantly higher numbers than in healthy females.363

Other animals

Hashimoto's disease is known to occur in chickens, rats, mice, dogs, and marmosets, but Graves' disease does not.364

See also

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