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Truck Carrying Hydrogen Tanks Catches Fire, Causes Evacuations in Diamond Bar

Feb 11 2018

Japan earthquake, Fukushima No. 1 (Daiichi): Japanese engineers work to contain nuclear reactor damage

Mar 14 2014

Hydrogen gas leak caused fire at a hydrogen fueling station in Norway’s Bærum

qz.com

One of the Country's Only Hydrogen Fuel Cell Plants Suffers Huge Explosion

vice.com

Diamond Bar Evacs Lifted After Hydrogen Fire

nbclosangeles.com

Waukegan plant explosion that killed four workers was preventable, federal officials say

chicagotribune.com

Hydrogen explosion shakes Santa Clara neighborhood

abc7news.com

Prevention

There are a number of items to consider to help design systems and procedures to avoid accidents when dealing with hydrogen, as one of the primary dangers of hydrogen is that it is extremely flammable.⁹

Inerting and purging

Further information: Inerting (gas) and Purging (gas)

Inerting chambers and purging gas lines are important standard safety procedures to take when transferring hydrogen. In order to properly inert or purge, the flammability limits must be taken into account, and hydrogen's are very different from other kinds of gases. At normal atmospheric pressure it is 4% to 75%, based on the volume percent of hydrogen in oxygen it is 4% to 94%, while the limits of the detonation potential of hydrogen in air are 18.3% to 59% by volume.^1011121314 In fact, these flammability limits can often be more stringent than this, as the turbulence during a fire can cause a deflagration which can create detonation. For comparison the deflagration limit of gasoline in air is 1.4–7.6%, and of acetylene in air,¹⁵ 2.5–82%.

Therefore, when equipment is open to air before or after a transfer of hydrogen, there are unique conditions to take into consideration that might have otherwise been safe with transferring other kinds of gases. Incidents have occurred because inerting or purging was not sufficient, or because the introduction of air in the equipment was underestimated (e.g., when adding powders), resulting in an explosion.¹⁶ For this reason, inerting or purging procedures and equipment are often unique to hydrogen, and often the fittings or marking on a hydrogen line should be completely different to ensure that this and other processes are properly followed, as many explosions have happened simply because a hydrogen line was accidentally plugged into a main line or because the hydrogen line was confused with another.¹⁷¹⁸¹⁹

Ignition source management

See also: Minimum ignition energy and Electrical equipment in hazardous areas

The minimum ignition energy of hydrogen in air is one of the lowest among known substances at 0.02 mJ, and hydrogen-air mixtures can ignite with 1/10 the effort of igniting gasoline-air mixtures.²⁰²¹ Because of this, any possible ignition source has to be scrutinized. Any electrical device, bond, or ground should meet applicable hazardous area classification requirement.²²²³ Any potential sources (like some ventilation system designs²⁴) for static electricity build-up should likewise be minimized, e.g. through antistatic devices.²⁵

Hot-work procedures must be robust, comprehensive, and well-enforced; and they should purge and ventilate high-areas and sample the atmosphere before work. Ceiling-mounted equipment should likewise meet hazardous area requirements (NFPA 497).²⁶ Finally, rupture discs should not be used as this has been a common ignition source for multiple explosions and fires. Instead other pressure relief systems such as a relief valve should be used.²⁷²⁸

Mechanical integrity and reactive chemistry

See also: hydrogen embrittlement, high temperature hydrogen attack, and passive autocatalytic recombiner

There are four main chemical properties to account for when dealing with hydrogen that can come into contact with other materials even in normal atmospheric pressures and temperatures:

• The chemistry of hydrogen is very different from traditional chemicals. E.g., with oxidation in ambient environments. And neglecting this unique chemistry has caused issues at some chemical plants.²⁹ Another aspect to be considered as well is the fact that hydrogen can be generated as a byproduct of a different reaction may have been overlooked, e.g. Zirconium and steam creating a source of hydrogen.³⁰³¹³² This danger can be circumvented somewhat via the use of passive autocatalytic recombiners.
• Another major issue to consider is the chemical compatibility of hydrogen with other common building materials like steel.³³³⁴ Because of hydrogen embrittlement, material compatibility with hydrogen is specially considered.³⁵
• These considerations can further change because of special reactions at high temperatures.³⁶
• The diffusivity of hydrogen is very different from ordinary gases, and therefore gasketing materials have to be chosen carefully.³⁷³⁸
• The buoyant forces and stresses on mechanical bodies involved are often reversed from standard gases. For example, because of buoyancy, stresses are often pronounced near the top of a large storage tank.³⁹⁴⁰

All four of these factors are considered during the initial design of a system using hydrogen, and is typically accomplished by limiting the contact between susceptible metals and hydrogen, either by spacing, electroplating, surface cleaning, material choice, and quality assurance during manufacturing, welding, and installation. Otherwise, hydrogen damage can be managed and detected by specialty monitoring equipment.⁴¹⁴²

Leaks and flame detection systems

See also: hydrogen piping, hydrogen leak testing, and hydrogen odorant

Locations of hydrogen sources and piping have to be chosen with care. Since hydrogen is a lighter-than-air gas, it collects under roofs and overhangs (typically referred to as trapping sites), where it forms an explosion hazard.⁴³ Many individuals are familiar with protecting plants from heavier-than-air vapors, but are unfamiliar with "looking up", and is therefore of particular note.⁴⁴ It can also enter pipes and can follow them to their destinations. Because of this, hydrogen pipes should be well-labeled and located above other pipes to prevent this occurrence.⁴⁵⁴⁶

Even with proper design, hydrogen leaks can support combustion at very low flow rates, as low as 4 micrograms/s.⁴⁷⁴⁸⁴⁹ To this end, detection is important. Hydrogen sensors or a katharometer allow for rapid detection of hydrogen leaks to ensure that the hydrogen can be vented and the source of the leak tracked down. Around certain pipes or locations special tapes can be added for hydrogen detection purposes. A traditional method is to add a hydrogen odorant with the gas as is common with natural gas. In fuel cell applications these odorants can contaminate the fuel cells, but researchers are investigating other methods that might be used for hydrogen detection: tracers, new odorant technology, advanced sensors, and others.⁵⁰

While hydrogen flames can be hard to see with the naked eye (it can have a so-called "invisible flame"), they show up readily on UV/IR flame detectors. More recently Multi IR detectors have been developed, which have even faster detection on hydrogen-flames.⁵¹⁵² This is quite important in fighting hydrogen fires, as the preferred method of fighting a fire is stopping the source of the leak, as in certain cases (namely, cryogenic hydrogen) dousing the source directly with water may cause icing, which in turn may cause a secondary rupture.⁵³⁵⁴

Ventilation and flaring

See also: flaring

Aside from flammability concerns, in enclosed spaces, hydrogen can also act as an asphyxiant gas.⁵⁵ Therefore, one should make sure to have proper ventilation to deal with both issues should they arise, as it is generally safe to simply vent hydrogen into the atmosphere. However, when placing and designing such ventilation systems, one must keep in mind that hydrogen will tend to accumulate towards the ceilings and peaks of structures, rather than the floor. Many dangers may be mitigated by the fact that hydrogen rapidly rises and often disperses before ignition.⁵⁶⁵⁷

In certain emergency or maintenance situations, hydrogen can also be flared.⁵⁸⁵⁹ For example, a safety feature in some hydrogen-powered vehicles is that they can flare the fuel if the tank is on fire, burning out completely with little damage to the vehicle, in contrast to the expected result in a gasoline-fueled vehicle.⁶⁰

Inventory management and facility spacing

Ideally, no fire or explosion will occur, but the facility should be designed so that if accidental ignition occurs, it will minimize additional damage. Minimum separation distances between hydrogen storage units should be considered, together with the pressure of said storage units (cf., NFPA 2 and 55). Explosion venting should be laid out so that other parts of the facility will not be harmed. In certain situations, this translates to a roof that can be safely blown away from the rest of the structure in an explosion.⁶¹

Cryogenics

See also: BLEVE

Liquid hydrogen has a slightly different chemistry compared to other cryogenic chemicals, as trace accumulated air can easily contaminate liquid hydrogen and form an unstable mixture with detonative capabilities similar to TNT and other highly explosive materials. Because of this, liquid hydrogen requires complex storage technology such as the special thermally insulated containers and requires special handling common to all cryogenic substances. This is similar to, but more severe than liquid oxygen. Even with thermally insulated containers it is difficult to keep such a low temperature, and the hydrogen will gradually leak away. Typically it will evaporate at a rate of 1% per day.⁶²⁶³

The main danger with cryogenic hydrogen is what is known as BLEVE (boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion). Because hydrogen is gaseous in atmospheric conditions, the rapid phase change together with the detonation energy combine to create a more hazardous situation.⁶⁴ A secondary danger is the fact that many materials change from being to ductile to brittle at extremely cold temperatures, allowing new places for leaks to form.⁶⁵

Human factors

Along with traditional job safety training, checklists to help prevent commonly skipped steps (e.g., testing high points in the work area) are often implemented, along with instructions on the situational dangers that come inherent to working with hydrogen.⁶⁶⁶⁷

Incidents

Hydrogen codes and standards

There exist many hydrogen codes and standards for hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, stationary fuel cell applications and portable fuel cell applications. Additional to the codes and standards for hydrogen technology products, there are codes and standards for hydrogen safety, for the safe handling of hydrogen¹³⁰ and the storage of hydrogen. What follows is a list of some of the major codes and standards regulating hydrogen:

Guidelines

The current ANSI/AIAA standard for hydrogen safety guidelines is AIAA G-095-2004, Guide to Safety of Hydrogen and Hydrogen Systems.¹³⁴ As NASA has been one of the world's largest users of hydrogen, this evolved from NASA's earlier guidelines, NSS 1740.16 (8719.16).¹³⁵ These documents cover both the risks posed by hydrogen in its different forms and how to ameliorate them. NASA also references Safety Standard for Hydrogen and Hydrogen Systems ¹³⁶ and the Sourcebook for Hydrogen Applications.¹³⁷¹³⁸

Another organization responsible for hydrogen safety guidelines is the Compressed Gas Association (CGA), which has a number of references of their own covering general hydrogen storage,¹³⁹ piping,¹⁴⁰ and venting.¹⁴¹¹⁴²

In 2023 CGA launched the Safe Hydrogen Project which is a collaborative global effort to develop and distribute safety information for the production, storage, transport, and use of hydrogen.

See also

• Dissolved gas analysis
• Electrical equipment in hazardous areas
• Hydrogen economy
• Metallic hydrogen
• Oxyhydrogen
• Passive autocatalytic recombiner
• Slush hydrogen

External links

• Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Safety Report
• The International Association for Hydrogen Safety
• Higher Educational Programme in Hydrogen Safety Engineering
• Knowledge Center for Explosion and Hydrogen Safety

References

1. "Hydrogen Safety" (PDF). Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. https://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/h2_safety_fsheet.pdf ↩

2. "Hydrogen Safety" (PDF). Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. https://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/h2_safety_fsheet.pdf ↩

3. Utgikar, Vivek P; Thiesen, Todd (2005). "Safety of compressed hydrogen fuel tanks: Leakage from stationary vehicles". Technology in Society. 27 (3): 315–320. doi:10.1016/j.techsoc.2005.04.005. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

4. Cadwallader, L. C.; Herring, J. S. (1999). Safety Issues with Hydrogen as a Vehicle Fuel (Technical report). doi:10.2172/761801. https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/761801 ↩

5. "AIAA G-095-2004, Guide to Safety of Hydrogen and Hydrogen Systems" (PDF). AIAA. Retrieved 2008-07-28. http://aero-defense.ihs.com/document/abstract/GFEIHBAAAAAAAAAA ↩

6. "List of NFPA Codes & Standards". NFPA. https://www.nfpa.org/Codes-and-Standards/All-Codes-and-Standards/List-of-Codes-and-Standards ↩

7. "ISO/TC 197 – Hydrogen technologies". www.iso.org. https://www.iso.org/committee/54560/x/catalogue/p/1/u/1/w/0/d/0 ↩

8. "Canadian Hydrogen Safety Program testing H2/CNG". Hydrogenandfuelcellsafety.info. Archived from the original on 2011-07-21. Retrieved 2010-07-05. https://web.archive.org/web/20110721205150/http://www.hydrogenandfuelcellsafety.info/2007/jun/h2cng.asp ↩

9. Utgikar, Vivek P.; Thiesen, Todd (2005). "Safety of compressed hydrogen fuel tanks: Leakage from stationary vehicles". Technology in Society. 27 (3): 315–320. doi:10.1016/j.techsoc.2005.04.005. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

10. "Hydrogen Safety" (PDF). Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. https://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/h2_safety_fsheet.pdf ↩

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12. Kalyanaraman, M (4 September 2019). "'Only a question of time' until large hydrogen systems are stable". Riviera Maritime Media. https://www.rivieramm.com/videos/how-tonbsp-hydrogen-fuel-cell-uptake-56079 ↩

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17. "Use of "Quick-Disconnect" Fittings Results in Laboratory Instrument Explosion". H2Tools. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. September 2017. https://h2tools.org/lessons/use-quick-disconnect-fittings-results-laboratory-instrument-explosion ↩

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22. "Fire at Hydrogen Fueling Station". H2Tools. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. September 2017. The initial source of fire was likely a release of hydrogen from a failed weld on a pressure switch. https://h2tools.org/lessons/fire-hydrogen-fueling-station ↩

23. "Small Fire in Fule Cell Test Stand". H2Tools. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. September 2017. An electrical short circuit occurred, causing a small electrical fire. https://h2tools.org/lessons/small-fire-fuel-cell-test-stand ↩

24. "Incorrect Relief Valve Set Point Leads to Explosion". H2Tools. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. September 2017. Contributing cause was poor design of the venting system, which was installed in a horizontal position, causing inadequate venting and buildup of static electricity. https://h2tools.org/lessons/incorrect-relief-valve-set-point-leads-explosion ↩

25. "Fuel Cell Evaporation Pad Fire". H2Tools. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. September 2017. One theory presented the possibility of a spark (caused by static electricity) being the source of the ignition that caused the fire. Due to the proximity of the fuel cell unit to a shrink-wrap packaging machine at the time of the incident, this seemed to be a plausible hypothesis. https://h2tools.org/lessons/fuel-cell-evaporator-pad-fire ↩

26. Sarah Eck & Michael D. Snyder (December 2021). "Hydrogen Safety Fundamentals". Chemical Engineering Progress: 36–41. ↩

27. "Hydrogen Explosion Due to Inadequate Maintenance". H2Tools. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. September 2017. As a corrective action, eliminate burst discs from hydrogen storage assembly. Redesign venting system for the pressure relief valves to prevent or inhibit moisture build up and allow moisture drainage. https://h2tools.org/lessons/hydrogen-explosion-due-inadequate-maintenance ↩

28. "Hydrogen Explosion at Coal-Fired Power Plant". H2Tools. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. September 2017. Explore elimination of rupture disk PRDs and substitution of spring-style relief valves. https://h2tools.org/lessons/hydrogen-explosion-coal-fired-power-plant ↩

29. Abderholden, Frank S. (18 December 2019). "Waukegan plant explosion that killed four workers was preventable, federal officials say". chicagotribune.com. Retrieved 2020-01-06. Engineering Systems, Inc. conducted an independent investigation into the root cause of the explosion, which determined the cause to be human error that resulted in the mistaken addition of an erroneous ingredient. https://www.chicagotribune.com/suburbs/lake-county-news-sun/ct-lns-waukegan-blast-safety-update-st-1219-20191218-2hp6o6hyxrc6df6b6lr6xwdjge-story.html ↩

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32. Gregory, Frederick D. (February 12, 1997). "Safety Standard for Hydrogen and Hydrogen Systems" (PDF). NASA. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 27, 2006. Retrieved 2008-05-09. https://web.archive.org/web/20060227001252/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/codeq/doctree/canceled/871916.pdf ↩

33. "Automated Hydrogen Ball Valve Fails to Open Due to Valve Stem Failure". H2Tools. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. September 2017. valve stem material incompatibility with hydrogen (causing a material weakening) is suspected https://h2tools.org/lessons/automated-hydrogen-ball-valve-fails-open-due-valve-stem-failure ↩

34. "Gaseous Hydrogen Leak and Explosion". H2Tools. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. September 2017. A GH2 leak occurred in an underground ASTM A106 Grade B, Schedule XX carbon steel pipe with a 3.5-inch diameter and a 0.6-inch wall thickness. The pipe was coated with coal tar primer and coal tar enamel, wrapped with asbestos felt impregnated with coal tar, coated with a second coat of coal tar enamel, and wrapped in Kraft paper, in accordance with American Water Works Association Standard G203. The source of the leak was an oval hole about 0.15 in x 0.20 in at the inner surface of the pipe and about 2-in in diameter at the outer surface of the pipe. Upon excavation of the pipe, it was noted that the coating was not present at the leak point. This resulted in galvanic corrosion over a 15-year period and the eventual rupture when high-pressure gas was applied to the thin pipe membrane. The pipe was 8 ft 9 in below the concrete pad. https://h2tools.org/lessons/gaseous-hydrogen-leak-and-explosion ↩

35. Gregory, Frederick D. (February 12, 1997). "Safety Standard for Hydrogen and Hydrogen Systems" (PDF). NASA. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 27, 2006. Retrieved 2008-05-09. https://web.archive.org/web/20060227001252/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/codeq/doctree/canceled/871916.pdf ↩

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64. "Liquid Hydrogen Tank Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion (Bleve) Due to Water-Plugged Vent Stack". H2Tools. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. September 2017. Place signs on all liquid hydrogen tanks indicating that no water is to be put on the vent stack. https://h2tools.org/lessons/liquid-hydrogen-tank-boiling-liquid-expanding-vapor-explosion-bleve-due-water-plugged-vent ↩

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