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Isabelle Eberhardt
Swiss explorer and writer

Isabelle Wilhelmine Marie Eberhardt (1877–1904) was a Swiss explorer and author fascinated by North Africa. Educated in Switzerland, she moved to Algeria in 1897, adopting a male identity and converting to Islam. Her affiliation with the Qadiriyya order led to suspicion by French authorities, who expelled her in 1901. After marrying an Algerian soldier, she returned to Algeria, writing for Victor Barrucand’s newspaper and collaborating with General Hubert Lyautey. Eberhardt died in a flash flood at Aïn Séfra in 1904. Posthumously, she became a symbol of decolonisation, inspiring works like the film Isabelle Eberhardt and the opera Song from the Uproar.

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Early life and family background

Eberhardt was born in Geneva, Switzerland, to Alexandre Trophimowsky and Nathalie Moerder (née Eberhardt). Trophimowsky was an Armenian anarchist, tutor, and former Orthodox priest-turned-atheist,12 and Nathalie was the illegitimate daughter of a middle-class Lutheran German and a Russian Jew.34 Nathalie was considered to be part of the Russian aristocracy,5 meaning her illegitimacy was probably kept secret.6 She married widower Pavel de Moerder, a Russian general forty years her senior, who hired Trophimowsky to tutor their children Nicolas, Nathalie, and Vladimir.7

Around 1871 Nathalie took the children and left her husband for Trophimowsky, who had abandoned his own wife and family.89 They left Russia, staying in Turkey and then Italy before settling in Geneva.10 Around 1872 Nathalie gave birth to Augustin; de Moerder, who came to Switzerland in a failed attempt to reconcile with Nathalie, accepted the son as his own and allowed him to have his surname, but the boy's older siblings believed that Trophimowsky was the father. General de Moerder died several months later,11 and despite their separation had arranged for his estate to pay Nathalie a considerable regular income.12 The family remained in Switzerland. Four years later Eberhardt was born, and was registered as Nathalie's illegitimate daughter. Biographer Françoise d'Eaubonne speculated that Eberhardt's biological father was the poet Arthur Rimbaud, who had been in Switzerland at the time. Other historians consider this unlikely and find it more likely that Trophimowsky was the father, noting that Nathalie and Trophimowsky were rarely apart, that Eberhardt's birth did not impact negatively on their partnership, and that Eberhardt was Trophimowsky's favourite child.13 Biographer Cecily Mackworth speculated that Eberhardt's illegitimacy was due to Trophimowsky's nihilist beliefs, which rejected traditional concepts of family.14

Eberhardt was well educated; along with the other children in the family, she was home-schooled by Trophimowsky.1516 She was fluent in French, spoke Russian, German and Italian,17 and was taught Latin, Greek, and classical Arabic. She studied philosophy, metaphysics, chemistry,18 history, and geography, though she was most passionate about literature, reading the works of authors including Pierre Loti, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Leo Tolstoy, Voltaire and Émile Zola while she was a teenager,19 and was also an admirer of the poets Semyon Nadson and Charles Baudelaire.20 At an early age she began wearing male clothing, enjoying its freedom, and her nonconformist father did not discourage her.21 The children of de Moerder resented their stepfather, who forbade them from obtaining professions or leaving the home, and effectively used them as slaves to tend to his extensive gardens.22 Eberhardt's sister Nathalie married against Trophimowsky's wishes in 1888, and was subsequently cut off from the rest of the household. Nathalie's departure had a profound effect on Eberhardt's childhood, as she had been responsible for most of the home duties; the household subsequently suffered from a lack of hygiene and regular meals.23

Move to North Africa

Sometime prior to 1894, Eberhardt began corresponding with Eugène Letord, a French officer stationed in the Sahara who had placed a newspaper advertisement for a pen pal.2425 Eberhardt asked him for every detail he could give her about life in the Sahara, also informing him of her dreams of escaping Geneva alongside her favourite sibling, Augustin. Letord encouraged the two of them to relocate to Bône, Algeria, where he could assist them in establishing a new life.26 In a series of circumstances that remain unclear though involving financial debts and ties to Russian revolutionist groups with which he was affiliated, Augustin fled Geneva in 1894. Eberhardt probably assisted him initially but was unable to keep track of his whereabouts despite making constant inquiries.27 In November 1894 Eberhardt was informed by a letter that Augustin had joined the French Foreign Legion and was assigned to Algeria.28 Though she was at first furious with Augustin's decision, Eberhardt's anger did not last;29 she asked him to send her a detailed diary of what he saw in North Africa.30

In 1895, Eberhardt published short stories in the journal La Nouvelle Revue Moderne under the pseudonym of Nicolas Podolinsky; "Infernalia" (her first published work) is about a medical student's physical attraction to a dead woman.31 Later that year she published "Vision du Moghreb" [sic] (English: Vision of the Maghreb),32 a story about North African religious life.3334 Eberhardt had "remarkable insight and knowledge" of North Africa35 for someone acquainted with the region only through correspondence, and her writing had a strong anti-colonial theme. Louis David, an Algerian-French photographer touring Switzerland who was intrigued by her work, met with her. After hearing of her desire to move to Algiers, he offered to help her establish herself in Bône if she relocated there.3637 In 1895, he took a photograph of Eberhardt wearing a sailor's uniform, which would become widely associated with her in later years.3839

Eberhardt relocated to Bône with her mother in May 1897.404142 They initially lived with David and his wife, who both disapproved of the amount of time Eberhardt and her mother spent with Arabs. Eberhardt and her mother did not like the Davids' attitude, which was typical of European settlers in the area,43 and later avoided the country's French residents, renting an Arabic-style house far from the European quarter. Eberhardt, aware that a Muslim woman could go out neither alone nor unveiled, dressed as a man in a burnous and turban.44 She expanded on her previous studies of Arabic, and became fluent within a few months.45 She and her mother converted to Islam. Mackworth writes that while Eberhardt was a "natural mystic", her conversion appeared to be largely for practical reasons, as it gave her greater acceptance among the Arabs. Eberhardt found it easy to accept Islam; Trophimowsky had brought her up as a fatalist and Islam gave her fatalism a meaning. She embraced the Islamic concept that everything is predestined and the will of God.46 Although Eberhardt largely devoted herself to the Muslim way of life, she frequently partook of marijuana and alcohol47 and had many lovers.484950 According to a friend, Eberhardt "drank more than a Legionnaire, smoked more kief than a hashish addict and made love for the love of making love".51 She was heterosexual, but often treated sexual intercourse as impersonal.52 The reason for her Arabic companions' tolerance of her lifestyle has been debated by biographers. According to Mackworth, the "delicate courtesy of the Arabs" led them to treat Eberhardt as a man because she wished to live as one.53 Eberhardt's behaviour made her an outcast with the French settlers and the colonial administration, who watched her closely.54 Seeing no reason why a woman would choose the company of impoverished Arabs over her fellow Europeans, they eventually concluded she must be an English agent, sent to stir up resentment towards the French.55

Eberhardt began to write stories, including the first draft of her novel Trimardeur (English: Vagabond). Her story Yasmina, about a young Bedouin woman who falls in love with a French officer and the "tragedy this impossible love brings into her life",56 was published in a local French newspaper.5758 Her mother, who had been suffering from heart problems, died in November 1897 of a heart attack, and was buried under the name of Fatma Mannoubia.596061 Eberhardt was grief-stricken. Trophimowsky, who had been summoned when his partner's health had deteriorated but arrived after her death, showed no sympathy towards Eberhardt. When she told him she desperately wanted to die and rejoin her mother, he responded by calmly offering her his revolver, which she declined.6263

Travels to Europe

Eberhardt spent her money recklessly in Algiers, and quickly exhausted the funds left to her by her mother;64 she would often spend several days at a time in kief dens.65 Augustin, ejected from the Foreign Legion due to his health, returned to Geneva alongside Eberhardt in early 1899. They found Trophimowsky in poor health, suffering from throat cancer and traumatised by the loss of Eberhardt's mother and Vladimir, who had committed suicide the previous year. Eberhardt nursed her father, growing closer to him.66 She also commenced a relationship and became engaged to Riza Bey, an Armenian diplomat with whom she had been friends and possibly lovers when she was seventeen. Though Trophimowsky approved of the engagement, the relationship soon ended.67 Historian Lesley Blanch attributes the relationship's downfall to Bey being assigned to Stockholm.68 Trophimowsky died in May.69 Blanch attributes the death to a chloral overdose, with which Eberhardt may have intentionally euthanised him.70 Eberhardt intended to sell the villa, although Trophimowsky's legitimate wife opposed the execution of the will. After several weeks of legal contentions, Eberhardt mortgaged the property and returned to Africa on the first available ship.71 With both parents dead, she considered herself free of human attachments and able to live as a vagabond.72 Eberhardt relinquished her mother's name, and called herself Si Mahmoud Saadi.7374 She began wearing male clothing exclusively and developed a masculine personality, speaking and writing as a man.75 Eberhardt behaved like an Arab man, challenging gender and racial norms.76 Asked why she dressed as an Arab man, she invariably replied: "It is impossible for me to do otherwise."77 A few months later, Eberhardt's money ran low, and she returned to Geneva to sell the villa; due to the legal troubles there was little to no money available.7879

Encouraged by a friend, she went to Paris to become a writer but had little success. While in Paris Eberhardt met the widow of Marquis de Morès. Although de Morès had been reportedly murdered by Tuareg tribesmen in the Sahara, no one had been arrested. When his widow learned that Eberhardt was familiar with the area where de Morès died, she hired her to investigate his murder. The job benefited Eberhardt, who was destitute and longed to return to the Sahara. She returned to Algeria in July 1900, settling in El Oued. According to Sahara expert R. V. C. Bodley, Eberhardt made little effort to investigate de Morès' death; Bodley considered this due to a combination of the unwillingness of the French to co-operate in an investigation and Eberhardt's fatalism rather than deliberate dishonesty.80 Word eventually got back to the de Morès widow about Eberhardt's lackluster investigation, and she subsequently cut off her funding.8182

Eberhardt made friends in the area and met Slimane Ehnni, a non-commissioned officer in the spahis. They fell in love, and eventually lived together openly. This alienated Eberhardt from the French authorities, who were already outraged by her lifestyle.83 During her travels she made contact with the Qadiriyya, a Sufi order. The order was led by Hussein ben Brahim, who was so impressed with Eberhardt's knowledge of (and passion for) Islam that he initiated her into his zawiya without the usual formal examination.84 This convinced the French authorities that she was a spy or an agitator, and they placed her on a widely circulated blacklist. The French transferred Ehnni to the spahi regiment at Batna, possibly to punish Eberhardt (whom they could not harm directly).85 Too poor to accompany him to Batna, Eberhardt traveled to a Qadiriyya meeting in Behima in late January 1901 where she hoped to ask Si Lachmi, a marabout, for financial assistance. While waiting for the meeting to begin she was attacked by a man with a sabre, receiving a superficial wound to her head and a deep cut to her left arm.86 Her attacker, Abdallah ben Mohammed, was overpowered by others and arrested. When asked why he had tried to kill Eberhardt he only repeated "God wished it; God still wishes it."87 Eberhardt suspected that he was an assassin hired by the French authorities.88 Others attribute the attack to Si Lachmi; Eberhardt was his mistress, whom he had grown tired of, and it is speculated he was simultaneously trying to get rid of her and pin the blame for the attack on a rival tribe.8990 She was brought to the military hospital at El Oued the following day. After Eberhardt recovered in late February,91 she joined Ehnni with funds from members of the Qadiriyya who regarded her survival as a miracle.92

After spending two months in Batna with Ehnni,93 the French ordered her to leave North Africa without explanation; as an immigrant, she had no choice but to comply. Ehnni requested permission from his military superiors to marry Eberhardt (which would have enabled her to stay), but his request was denied. She traveled to France in early May 1901, staying with Augustin and his wife and daughter in Marseille. In mid-June she was summoned back to Constantine to give evidence at the trial of her attacker, who maintained his statement that God had ordered him to kill Eberhardt, though expressed remorse towards her.9495 Eberhardt said that she bore no grudge against Abdallah, forgave him, and hoped that he would not be punished. Abdallah received life imprisonment although the prosecutor had asked for the death penalty. When the trial ended, Eberhardt was again ordered to leave the country. She returned to live with Augustin, working with him (disguised as a man) as a dock labourer. Eberhardt and Augustin's family lived in appalling poverty.96 Eberhardt's health deteriorated, and she repeatedly suffered from fevers.97 She attempted suicide while in Marseille, one of several attempts she would make over the course of her life.98 Eberhardt continued to write during this time, working on several projects including her novel Trimardeur.99

A friend of Eberhardt's gave her a letter of introduction to playwright Eugène Brieux,100 who opposed French rule in North Africa and supported Arab emancipation. He sent her a several-hundred-franc advance and tried to have her stories published, but could not find anyone willing to publish pro-Arab writing. Eberhardt, unfazed, continued writing; her morale lifted when Ehnni was transferred to a spahi regiment near Marseille in late August to complete his final months of service.101102 He did not require permission from his military superiors to marry in France, and he and Eberhardt were married in October 1901.103 Shortly before the wedding, Eberhardt and Augustin received the news that Trophimowsky's estate had finally been sold, though due to the mounting legal costs there was no money left for them to inherit. With this news, Eberhardt abandoned any hope of having a financially secure future.104 In February 1902 Ehnni was discharged, and the couple returned to Bône to live with his family.105

Later life and death

After a short time living with Ehnni's family, the couple relocated to Algiers. Eberhardt became disappointed with Ehnni, whose only ambition after leaving the army appeared to be finding an unskilled job that would allow him to live relatively comfortably.106 She increased her own efforts as a writer, and several of her short stories were printed in the local press. She accepted a job offer from Al-Akhbar (English: The News) newspaper publisher Victor Barrucand in March 1902. Eberhardt became a regular contributor to the newspaper; Trimardeur began appearing as a serial in August 1903.107 Barrucand and Eberhardt formed a friendship, though Barrucand was frequently frustrated with his new employee's work ethic. Eberhardt's articles arrived irregularly, as she would only write when she felt like doing so. Her job paid poorly, but had many benefits. Through Barrucand's contacts, Eberhardt was able to access the famous zawiya of Lalla Zaynab.108 Eberhardt spoke highly of her time with Zaynab, though never disclosed what the two discussed;109 their meeting caused concern among the French authorities.110

Eberhardt and Ehnni relocated to Ténès in July 1902111 after Ehnni obtained employment there as a translator.112 Eberhardt was incorrigibly bad with her money, spending anything she received immediately on tobacco, books, and gifts for friends, and pawning her meagre possessions or asking for loans when she realised there was no money left for food. This behaviour made her even more of a pariah among the other European residents of the town.113 Eberhardt would frequently leave for weeks at a time, being either summoned to Algiers by Barrucand or sent on assignments. She was given a regular column in his newspaper, where she wrote about the life and customs of Bedouin tribes.114 Both Ehnni and Eberhardt's health deteriorated, with Eberhardt regularly suffering from bouts of malaria.115 She was also probably affected by syphilis.116117

Barrucand dispatched Eberhardt to report on the aftereffects of the 2 September 1903 Battle of El-Moungar. She stayed with French Foreign Legion soldiers and met Hubert Lyautey, the French general in charge of Oran, at their headquarters. Eberhardt and Lyautey became friends and, due to her knowledge of Islam and Arabic, she became a liaison between him and the local Arab people.118 While Eberhardt never ceased protesting against any repressive actions undertaken by the French administration, she believed that Lyautey's approach, which focused on diplomacy rather than military force, would bring peace to the region.119 Although details are unclear, it is generally accepted that Eberhardt also engaged in espionage for Lyautey.120 Concerned about a powerful marabout in the Atlas Mountains, Lyautey sent her to meet with him in 1904.121

At the marabout's zawiya, Eberhardt was weakened by fever. She returned to Aïn Séfra, and was treated at the military hospital. She left the hospital against medical advice122 and asked Ehnni, from whom she had been separated for several months, to join her.123 Reunited on 20 October 1904, they rented a small mud house. The following day, a flash flood struck the area.124 As soon as the waters subsided, Lyautey launched a search for her. Ehnni was discovered almost immediately, saying that Eberhardt had been swept away by the water. Based on this information, Lyautey and his men searched the surrounding area for several days before deciding to explore the ruins of the house where the couple had stayed.125 Her body was crushed under one of the house's supporting beams. The exact circumstances of her death were never discovered. While suspicions regarding Ehnni have been raised by later biographers, Eberhardt had always believed she would die young and may instead have accepted her fate. Mackworth speculated that after initially trying to run from the floodwaters, Eberhardt instead turned back to face them.126127 Blanch argued that due to Eberhardt's history of suicidal tendencies, she probably would have still chosen to stay in the area even if she had known the flood was coming.128 Lyautey buried Eberhardt in Aïn Sefra and had a marble tombstone, engraved with her adopted name in Arabic and her birth name in French, placed on her grave.129130

Legacy

At the time of her death, Eberhardt's possessions included several of her unpublished manuscripts. Lyautey instructed his soldiers to search for all of her papers in the aftermath of the flood, and posted those that could be found to Barrucand.131132 After reconstructing them, substituting his own words where the originals were missing or too damaged to decipher, he began to publish her work. Some of what he published is considered to be more his work than Eberhardt's.133 Barrucand also received criticism for listing himself as the co-author of some of the publications, and for not clarifying which portions of text were his own.134135 The first posthumous story, "Dans l'Ombre Chaude de l'Islam" (In the Warm Shadow of Islam) received critical acclaim when it was published in 1906.136 The book's success drew great attention to Eberhardt's writing and established her as among the best writers of literature inspired by Africa.137 A street was named after Eberhardt in Béchar and another in Algiers.138 The street in Algiers is in the outskirts;139 one writer at the time commented there was a sad symbolism in the fact the street "begins in an inhabited quarter and peters out into a wasteland".140 She was posthumously seen as an advocate of feminism141 and decolonisation; according to Hedi Abdel-Jaouad in Yale French Studies, her work may have begun the decolonisation of North Africa.142 Eberhardt's relationship with Lyautey has triggered discussion by modern historians about her complicity in colonialism.143

In 1954, author and explorer Cecily Mackworth published the biography The Destiny of Isabelle Eberhardt after following Eberhardt's routes in Algeria and the Sahara. The book inspired Paul Bowles to translate some of Eberhardt's writings into English.144 Novelist William Bayer published Visions of Isabelle, a fictionalised 1976 account of her life.145 In 1981, Timberlake Wertenbaker premiered New Anatomies, a play about Eberhardt.146147

Eberhardt has been portrayed in two films. Leslie Thornton directed a 1988 biography, There Was An Unseen Cloud Moving, with seven amateur actresses playing Eberhardt. Ian Pringle directed Isabelle Eberhardt, starring Mathilda May, in 1991.148 In 1994, the soundtrack for Pringle's film was released by musician Paul Schütze, titled Isabelle Eberhardt: The Oblivion Seeker. In 1998, John Berger and Nella Bielski published Isabelle: A Story in Shots, a screenplay based on Eberhardt's life.149 Missy Mazzoli composed an opera, Song from the Uproar: The Lives and Deaths of Isabelle Eberhardt, in 2012.150

Works

  • "Dans l'ombre chaude de l'Islam" (Paris: Fasquelle, 1906)
  • "Notes de route: Maroc-Algérie-Tunisie" (Paris: Fasquelle, 1908)
  • "Au Pays des sables" (Bône, Algeria: Em. Thomas, 1914)
  • "Pages d'Islam" (Paris: Fasquelle, 1920)
  • Trimardeur (Paris: Fasquelle, 1922)
  • "Mes journaliers; précédés de la Vie tragique de la bonne nomade par René-Louis Doyon" (Paris: La Connaissance, 1923)
  • "Amara le forçat; L'anarchiste: Nouvelles inédites" (Abbeville: Frédéric Paillard, 1923)
  • "Contes et paysages" (Paris: La Connaissance, 1925)
  • "Yasmina et autres nouvelles algériennes" (Paris: Liana Levi, 1986)
  • "Ecrits sur le sable" (Paris: Éditions Grasset, 1988)
  • "Rakhil: Roman inédit" (Paris: La Boîte à documents, 1990)
  • "Un voyage oriental: Sud Oranais" (Paris: Le Livre de Poche, 1991)
  • "Amours nomades" (Paris: Éditions Gallimard, 2003)

Bibliography

Further reading

  • Lorcin, Patricia M. E. (2012). Historicizing Colonial Nostalgia: European Women's Narratives of Algeria and Kenya 1900–present. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-33865-4.
  • Smith, Patti (1994). Early Work: 1970–1979. New York City: W.W. Norton and Company. ISBN 978-0-393-31301-7.

References

  1. Rentsch, Steffi (February 2004). "Stillgestellter Orient – 100th anniversary of death of Isabelle Eberhardt" (PDF) (in German). Kritische Ausgabe. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 December 2016. Retrieved 20 June 2012. https://archive.today/20161210174804/http://www.kritische-ausgabe.de/hefte/reich/Rentsch_Wolff_Eberhardt.pdf ↩

  2. Blanch 2010, p. 247. - Blanch, Lesley (2010). The Wilder Shores of Love. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4391-9734-9. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 1 September 2017. https://books.google.com/books?id=0bJdFJmjYVkC ↩

  3. Bodley 1968, p. 141. - Bodley, R.V.C. (1968). The Soundless Sahara. Robert Hale Limited. ISBN 978-0-7091-0066-9. https://archive.org/details/soundlesssahara0000bodl ↩

  4. Abdel-Jaouad 1993, p. 95. - Abdel-Jaouad, Hedi (1993). "Isabelle Eberhardt: Portrait of the Artist as a Young Nomad". Yale French Studies (83): 93–117. doi:10.2307/2930089. JSTOR 2930089. https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2930089 ↩

  5. Chouiten 2012, pp. 59–66. - Chouiten, Lynda (2012). Dictionary of Literary Biography: Orientalist Writers. Vol. 366. Coeli Fitzpatrick. pp. 59–66. ISBN 978-0-7876-8184-5. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CH1200014308&v=2.1&it=r&p=LitRC&sw=w&asid=e10954f3af5aaacd0aa455088ad51d17 ↩

  6. Blanch 2010, p. 247. - Blanch, Lesley (2010). The Wilder Shores of Love. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4391-9734-9. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 1 September 2017. https://books.google.com/books?id=0bJdFJmjYVkC ↩

  7. Mackworth 1977, p. 10. - Mackworth, Cecily (1977). The Destiny of Isabelle Eberhardt. Quartet Books. ISBN 0-7043-3172-1. ↩

  8. Blanch 2010, p. 247. - Blanch, Lesley (2010). The Wilder Shores of Love. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4391-9734-9. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 1 September 2017. https://books.google.com/books?id=0bJdFJmjYVkC ↩

  9. Bodley 1968, p. 142. - Bodley, R.V.C. (1968). The Soundless Sahara. Robert Hale Limited. ISBN 978-0-7091-0066-9. https://archive.org/details/soundlesssahara0000bodl ↩

  10. Mackworth 1977, p. 11. - Mackworth, Cecily (1977). The Destiny of Isabelle Eberhardt. Quartet Books. ISBN 0-7043-3172-1. ↩

  11. Chouiten 2012, pp. 59–66. - Chouiten, Lynda (2012). Dictionary of Literary Biography: Orientalist Writers. Vol. 366. Coeli Fitzpatrick. pp. 59–66. ISBN 978-0-7876-8184-5. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CH1200014308&v=2.1&it=r&p=LitRC&sw=w&asid=e10954f3af5aaacd0aa455088ad51d17 ↩

  12. Mackworth 1977, p. 12. - Mackworth, Cecily (1977). The Destiny of Isabelle Eberhardt. Quartet Books. ISBN 0-7043-3172-1. ↩

  13. Chouiten 2012, pp. 59–66. - Chouiten, Lynda (2012). Dictionary of Literary Biography: Orientalist Writers. Vol. 366. Coeli Fitzpatrick. pp. 59–66. ISBN 978-0-7876-8184-5. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CH1200014308&v=2.1&it=r&p=LitRC&sw=w&asid=e10954f3af5aaacd0aa455088ad51d17 ↩

  14. Mackworth 1977, p. 12. - Mackworth, Cecily (1977). The Destiny of Isabelle Eberhardt. Quartet Books. ISBN 0-7043-3172-1. ↩

  15. Chouiten 2012, pp. 59–66. - Chouiten, Lynda (2012). Dictionary of Literary Biography: Orientalist Writers. Vol. 366. Coeli Fitzpatrick. pp. 59–66. ISBN 978-0-7876-8184-5. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CH1200014308&v=2.1&it=r&p=LitRC&sw=w&asid=e10954f3af5aaacd0aa455088ad51d17 ↩

  16. Blanch 2010, p. 248. - Blanch, Lesley (2010). The Wilder Shores of Love. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4391-9734-9. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 1 September 2017. https://books.google.com/books?id=0bJdFJmjYVkC ↩

  17. Rentsch, Steffi (February 2004). "Stillgestellter Orient – 100th anniversary of death of Isabelle Eberhardt" (PDF) (in German). Kritische Ausgabe. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 December 2016. Retrieved 20 June 2012. https://archive.today/20161210174804/http://www.kritische-ausgabe.de/hefte/reich/Rentsch_Wolff_Eberhardt.pdf ↩

  18. Blanch 2010, p. 248. - Blanch, Lesley (2010). The Wilder Shores of Love. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4391-9734-9. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 1 September 2017. https://books.google.com/books?id=0bJdFJmjYVkC ↩

  19. Chouiten 2012, pp. 59–66. - Chouiten, Lynda (2012). Dictionary of Literary Biography: Orientalist Writers. Vol. 366. Coeli Fitzpatrick. pp. 59–66. ISBN 978-0-7876-8184-5. http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CH1200014308&v=2.1&it=r&p=LitRC&sw=w&asid=e10954f3af5aaacd0aa455088ad51d17 ↩

  20. Mackworth 1977, p. 20. - Mackworth, Cecily (1977). The Destiny of Isabelle Eberhardt. Quartet Books. ISBN 0-7043-3172-1. ↩

  21. Blanch 2010, p. 250. - Blanch, Lesley (2010). The Wilder Shores of Love. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4391-9734-9. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 1 September 2017. https://books.google.com/books?id=0bJdFJmjYVkC ↩

  22. Mackworth 1977, p. 15. - Mackworth, Cecily (1977). The Destiny of Isabelle Eberhardt. Quartet Books. ISBN 0-7043-3172-1. ↩

  23. Blanch 2010, p. 248. - Blanch, Lesley (2010). The Wilder Shores of Love. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4391-9734-9. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 1 September 2017. https://books.google.com/books?id=0bJdFJmjYVkC ↩

  24. Bodley 1968, p. 143. - Bodley, R.V.C. (1968). The Soundless Sahara. Robert Hale Limited. ISBN 978-0-7091-0066-9. https://archive.org/details/soundlesssahara0000bodl ↩

  25. Abdel-Jaouad 1993, p. 96. - Abdel-Jaouad, Hedi (1993). "Isabelle Eberhardt: Portrait of the Artist as a Young Nomad". Yale French Studies (83): 93–117. doi:10.2307/2930089. JSTOR 2930089. https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2930089 ↩

  26. Mackworth 1977, p. 24. - Mackworth, Cecily (1977). The Destiny of Isabelle Eberhardt. Quartet Books. ISBN 0-7043-3172-1. ↩

  27. Mackworth 1977, p. 28, 29. - Mackworth, Cecily (1977). The Destiny of Isabelle Eberhardt. Quartet Books. ISBN 0-7043-3172-1. ↩

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