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Definition

The anthropologist Chongho Kim noted that defining Korean shamanism was "really problematic".¹ He characterised "Korean shamanism" as a largely "residual" category into which all Korean religious practices that were not Buddhist, Confucian, or Christian were placed.² Scholars like Griffin Dix, Kil-sŏng Ch'oe and Don Baker have conversely presented Korean shamanism as just one facet of "Korean folk religion",³ the latter sometimes called minsok chonggyo in Korean.⁴

Korean shamanism has varyingly been labelled a vernacular religion,⁵ a folk religion,⁶ a popular religion,⁷ and an indigenous religion.⁸ It is a non-institutionalized tradition,⁹ rather than being an organized religion akin to Buddhism or Christianity.¹⁰ It has no doctrine,¹¹ nor any overarching hierarchy,¹² and is orally transmitted.¹³ It displays considerable regional variation,¹⁴ as well as variation according to the choices of individual practitioners.¹⁵ Over time, the tradition has displayed both continuity and change.¹⁶

One term commonly used for this tradition is musok ("mu folklore"), coined by the folklorist Yi Nŭnghwa.¹⁷ Although developed during the Japanese colonial period, when it was employed with derogatory connotations,¹⁸ the term has since become popular with the Korean population and with scholars;¹⁹ the Korean studies scholar Antonetta L. Bruno for instance capitalised it as Musok to serve as a name for the religion.²⁰ Alternative terms include mugyo,²¹ muijŭm,²² and mu.²³ Mugyo was a neologism introduced in the 1970s by a Protestant theologian Yu Tong-sik.²⁴ In Korea, the term misin ("superstition") is sometimes used for this religion, but is also applied to other religious and cultural practices like geomancy.²⁵ While misin carries negative connotations in Korean culture, some mudang use it to describe what they do.²⁶

Since the late 19th century, English language studies have referred to the mudang as "shamans" and their practices as "Korean shamanism",²⁷ a label rendered into Korean as shyamŏnijŭm.²⁸ Introduced to English from the Tungusic languages at the end of the 17th century, the term "shamanism" has never received a commonly agreed definition and has been used in at least four distinct ways.²⁹ A common definition uses "shamanism" to describe traditions involving visionary flights to perform rituals in a spirit realm,³⁰ a practice not found in Korean traditional religion.³¹ Many scholars avoid the term "shaman" as a cross-cultural category altogether.³² Its application to Korean religion is controversial,³³ with Chongho Kim deeming it "often unhelpful".³⁴ The scholar Suk-Jay Yim proposed mu-ism as a more appropriate label than "Korean shamanism",³⁵ while Dix thought "spirit mediumship" more suitable than "shamanism".³⁶

Prior to Christianity's arrival in the 17th and 18th centuries, Korean religion was rarely exclusivist, with many Koreans practising Daoism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and musok simultaneously.³⁷ Despite shared underlying beliefs, these traditions undertook a "division of ritual and cosmological responsibility" between each other.³⁸ Confucian rituals were for example primarily concerned with ancestor veneration and tended to be simpler and more regular, whereas the mudang would be brought in on rarer occasions.³⁹ Korea has seen particular syncretism between musok and Buddhism;⁴⁰ mudang often identify as Buddhists,⁴¹ and commonly worship Buddhist deities,⁴² while some Korean Buddhist temples venerate deities traditionally associated with musok.⁴³ In contemporary South Korea, it remains possible for followers of most religions (barring Christianity) to involve themselves in musok with little censure from their fellow religionists.⁴⁴ Meanwhile, mudang based in Europe have merged the tradition with New Age elements.⁴⁵

Terms and types of practitioners

Central to musok are those whom the anthropologist Kyoim Yun called "ritual specialists who mediate between their clients and the invisible" forces of the supernatural.⁴⁶ The most common Korean term for these specialists is mudang,⁴⁷ a label that encompasses various "folk religion practitioners" across the peninsula.⁴⁸

Although commonly used, the term mudang carries derogatory connotations in Korean culture and thus some practitioners avoid it.⁴⁹ An alternative term is mu,⁵⁰ the latter synonymous with the Chinese word wu (Hanja: 巫), also used for ritual specialists.⁵¹ Several modern mudang advocacy groups have adopted the term musogin, meaning "people who do mu".⁵² While the term mudang can apply to a man or woman,⁵³ specific terms for male musok specialists include paksu,⁵⁴ or, more commonly used in the past, kyŏksa.⁵⁵ Modern advocacy groups have also described supporters as sindo (believers, Hanja: 信徒) or musindo (believers in the ways of mu, Hanja: 巫信徒).⁵⁶

Mudang are often divided into two broad types: the kangsin-mu, or "god-descended" mu, and the sesŭp-mu or "hereditary" mu. The former engage in rituals in which they describe being possessed by supernatural entities; the latter's rituals involve interaction with these entities but not possession.⁵⁷ The former was historically more common in northern and central parts of the Korean peninsula, the latter in southern parts below the Han River.⁵⁸ The kangsin-mu tradition later spread and by the late 20th century was dominant across South Korea,⁵⁹ with its ritual costumes and paraphernalia being widely adopted.⁶⁰

Lines between the sesŭp-mu and kangsin-mu are nevertheless blurred.⁶¹ Although the sesŭp-mu are typically presented as inheriting the role in a hereditary fashion, not all sesŭp-mu do so,⁶² while some kangsin-mu continue the role of a family member as if maintaining a hereditary tradition.⁶³ Yun commented that dividing the mudang into distinct typologies "cannot explain complex reality".⁶⁴

Certain regional terms are also used for the mudang.⁶⁵ The sesŭp-mu are often called tanggol in Jeolla Province,⁶⁶ and simbang on Jeju Island.⁶⁷ The latter term was first recorded in the 15th century, used for mudang on the Korean mainland, but by the early 19th century was exclusively used for practitioners on Jeju.⁶⁸ An alternative term for the kangsin-mu is mansin,⁶⁹ a term meaning "ten thousand spirits/gods",⁷⁰ and which has less derogatory connotations than the label mudang.⁷¹

Other terms sometimes used for mudang may elsewhere be restricted to different types of Korean ritual specialist. The term yeongmae, describing a spirit medium, is sometimes used synonymously with mudang but at other times describes a distinct group of practitioners.⁷² Another term some mudang adopt for themselves is posal (bosal), originally a Korean term for a Buddhist bodhisattva,⁷³ and which is favored more by female than male practitioners.⁷⁴ Conversely, some mudang maintain that the term posal should be reserved for diviners who are possessed by child spirits but who do not perform the gut rituals of the mudang.⁷⁵

Beliefs

Theology

Main article: Korean mythology

Musok is polytheistic.⁷⁶ Supernatural beings are called gwisin,⁷⁷ or sin.⁷⁸ The mudang divide these beings into two main groups, the gods and the ancestral spirits, although many use the term sin for all of them.⁷⁹ Supernatural beings are seen as volatile; if humans do well by them, they can receive good fortune, but if they offend these entities then they may suffer.⁸⁰ Devotees of these deities believe that they can engage, converse, and bargain with them.⁸¹

Each mudang will have their own personal pantheon of deities, one that may differ from the pantheon of the mudang they trained under.⁸² This individual pantheon is the chusin,⁸³ and a mudang may add new deities to it during their career.⁸⁴ Some will be considered guardian deities,⁸⁵ each referred to as a taesin.⁸⁶ These deities bestow myŏnggi ("divine energy") upon the mudang, enabling the latter to have visions and intuition that allows them to perform their ritual tasks.⁸⁷

Janggunsin

In Korean traditional religion, the deities are called janggunsin,⁸⁸ and typically take human form.⁸⁹ The pantheon of deities, which has changed over time,⁹⁰ is termed sindang,⁹¹ with over 130 musok divinities having been identified.⁹² The deities can be divided into those embodying natural or cosmological forces and those who were once human, including monarchs, officials, and generals.⁹³ Some derive from Daoist or Buddhist traditions and others are unique to Korean vernacular religion.⁹⁴ They are deemed capable of manifesting in material forms, as in paintings or statues,⁹⁵ or as inhabiting landscape locations such as trees, rocks, springs, and stone piles.⁹⁶ The anthropologist Laurel Kendall suggested that the relationship that mudang had with these spirit-inhabited sites was akin to animism.⁹⁷

The highest deities are often deemed remote and little interested in human affairs.⁹⁸ The governing god in Korean tradition, referred to as Hananim, Hanallim, or Hanŭnim, is deemed to rule the heavens but is rarely worshipped.⁹⁹ Some of the more powerful deities can make demands from humans without any obligation to reciprocate.¹⁰⁰ Other deities are involved in everyday human concerns and prayed to accordingly.¹⁰¹ Many of the deities desire food and drink, spend money, and enjoy song and dance, and thus receive these things as offerings.¹⁰² Spirits of the dead are thought to yearn for the activities and pleasures they enjoyed in life;¹⁰³ spirits of military generals are for instance believed to like dangerous games.¹⁰⁴ The associations of particular deities can change over time; Hogu Pyŏlsŏng was for instance a goddess of smallpox, but after that disease's eradication in the 20th century retained associations with measles and chickenpox.¹⁰⁵

Popular cosmological deities include Ch'ilsŏng, the spirit of the seven stars of the Big Dipper, who is regarded as a merciful Buddhist figure that cares for children.¹⁰⁶ Yŏngdŏng is a goddess of the wind, popular in southern areas including Jeju.¹⁰⁷ The mountain god, or mountain gods more broadly, are called sansin,¹⁰⁸ or sometimes sansillyŏng,¹⁰⁹ and are typically seen as the most important spirits of the earth.¹¹⁰ Sansin is typically depicted as a man with a white beard, blue gown, and accompanying tiger.¹¹¹ Water deities, or yong, are dragons deemed to live in rivers, springs, and the sea.¹¹² The most senior dragon is the Yong-Wang (Dragon King) who rules the oceans.¹¹³ Spirits of military generals are sinjang,¹¹⁴ and include the obang changgun, the generals of the five cardinal points.¹¹⁵ Among the sinjang are historical figures like Ch'oeyŏng, Im Kyŏngŏp, Oh, and Chang,¹¹⁶ as well as more recent military figures; around Inchon, various mudang have venerated General Douglas MacArthur as a hero of the Korean War.¹¹⁷ Child deities are tongja.¹¹⁸ The Korean traditional cosmology also includes mischievous spirits called dokkaebi,¹¹⁹ and entities called tongt'o that can lodge in the family compound and cause trouble.¹²⁰

Village and household spirits

Villages traditionally had Jangseung, timber or occasionally stone posts representing two generals that guard the settlement from harmful spirits.¹²¹ On Jeju, these were constructed of volcanic rock and were respectively called the Harubang (grandfather) and Halmang (grandmother).¹²² Historically, villages would often hold annual festivals to thank their tutelary deities. These would often be overseen by local men and reflect Confucian traditions, although sometimes mudang did participate.¹²³ In Korean society, rapid urbanisation has radically changed how people interact with their local deities.¹²⁴

Korean vernacular religion includes household deities,¹²⁵ the chief of which is Sŏngju, the principal house guardian.¹²⁶ Others include T'oju taegum, who patrols the precincts of the household, Chowang the kitchen spirit, and Pyŏnso Kakssi, the protector of the toilet.¹²⁷ Keeping these entities happy was traditionally regarded as the role of the housewife,¹²⁸ and is achieved through offering them food and drink.¹²⁹ These informal rituals do not require the involvement of mudang, who would only be called in for special occasions.¹³⁰ Pollution caused by births or deaths in the household are believed to result in Sŏngju leaving, meaning that he must be encouraged to return through ritual.¹³¹ Sŏngju may also require propitiation if expensive goods are brought into the home, as he expects a portion of the expenditure to be devoted to him.¹³²

Ancestral spirits are called chosang.¹³³ Tutelary ancestors are termed tangju.¹³⁴ Ancestors who may be venerated in musok rituals are broader than the purely patrilineal figures venerated in formal Korean ancestor veneration rites, the Jesa.¹³⁵ These broader ancestors may for instance include those from a woman's natal family, women who have married out of the family, or family members who have died without offspring.¹³⁶ While both the musok rites and the Confucian-derived jesa entail communication with ancestors, only the former involves direct communication with these spirits, allowing the ancestors to convey messages directly to the living.¹³⁷ Certain ancestral spirits can also form part of a mudang's personal pantheon.¹³⁸ A personal spiritual guardian is the momju (plural momjusin).¹³⁹ The momjusin of male mudang are usually deemed female; those of female mudang are typically male.¹⁴⁰

Cosmology and mythology

In Korean religion, a "fundamental cosmology" has influenced various traditions, including musok.¹⁴¹ Korean shamanic narratives include a number of myths that discuss the origins of shamans or the shamanic religion. These include, the Princess Bari myth, the Gongsim myth, and the Chogong bon-puri myth.¹⁴²¹⁴³ Origin myths are often called ponp'uri.¹⁴⁴ These narratives have been extensively collected and studied by Korean scholars.¹⁴⁵ During a gut ritual held for the dead, an epic ballad called the Tale of Princess Pari is often recited.¹⁴⁶

One of the most widespread myths in Korean Shamanism is known as the Myth of Dangun, the legendary founder of the first Korean kingdom Gojoseon.¹⁴⁷ Dangun is sometimes considered the first mudang.¹⁴⁸ This myth refers to the belief that God would come from heaven. This would result in the earth and heaven being unified. God and human beings would be unified as well. Korean Shamanism believes that the goddess mother of earth is married to the heavenly God.¹⁴⁹

The Myth of Dangun has become the founding myth of the Korean nation.¹⁵⁰

Birth and the dead

A common belief in Korean vernacular religion is that spirits of the dead wander the human world before entering the afterlife.¹⁵¹ After death, the soul must stand trial in court and pass through gates kept by the Ten Kings.¹⁵² At this court, the dead are judged for their conduct in life.¹⁵³ The Ten Gates of Hell are regarded as places of punishment for the wicked, typified by grotesque and gory scenes.¹⁵⁴ According to the Princess Bari narrative, Ascension from Hell to Paradise is possible through prayer and devotion.¹⁵⁵

The dead are regarded as intrinsically dangerous to the living as their touch causes affliction, regardless of whether they mean harm or not.¹⁵⁶ Those who died prematurely or who feel their life was unfulfilled, such as grandparents who never saw their grandchildren, a first wife who was replaced by a second wife, those who died by drowning, and young people who died before they could marry, are all considered especially antagonistic to the living and thus particularly dangerous.¹⁵⁷ Meddlesome ghosts are thought to often enter the house on a piece of cloth, clothing, or bright object.¹⁵⁸ A dead ancestor who has not been appropriately cared or has been given an unsuitable burial place is deemed likely to cause trouble for its living descendants.¹⁵⁹

If a person suffers a tragic or untimely death, it is believed that their soul hovers between life and death and can cause misfortune for their family; they thus need to be dealt with through ritual.¹⁶⁰ Terms for wandering spirits include jabkwi¹⁶¹ and kaeksa,¹⁶² and mudang are deemed best suited for dealing with them, because they can determine what they want and tell them to go away.¹⁶³

On Jeju Island, since the late 1980s there have been public lamentations of the dead involving simbang to mark those killed in the Jeju uprising of 1948.¹⁶⁴

Practices

Mudang

Main articles: Mu (shaman) and Shinbyeong

The mudang mediate between the human and supernatural worlds,¹⁶⁵ doing so in an attempt to decrease human suffering and ensure a more harmonious life.¹⁶⁶ Specifically, they interact with gods and ancestral spirits by divining their presence and will, performing small rituals to placate them and gain their favor, and overseeing the gut rituals to feast and entertain them.¹⁶⁷ The mudang's ability to perform their rituals successfully is deemed to come from myŏnggi ("divine energy") bestowed upon them by the deities.¹⁶⁸ Thus, divine favor must be gained through purification and supplication, prayer and pilgrimage.¹⁶⁹ Individual mudang can be regarded as having particular specialities.¹⁷⁰

For the mudang, ritual is an economic activity,¹⁷¹ and they operate as free agents rather than members of an ordained clergy.¹⁷² For many practitioners, being a mudang is a full-time job on which they financially depend,¹⁷³ although some fail to earn a living through this ritual vocation.¹⁷⁴ To succeed financially, mudang must attract regular clientele,¹⁷⁵ and to that end modern South Korean practitioners have advertised their services in brochures, fliers, newspapers, and on the Internet.¹⁷⁶ Some followers of musok are unhappy with this situation, believing that the practice has degenerated under capitalism and modernisation; they feel that modern mudang display a more materialistic and self-interested approach than their historical predecessors.¹⁷⁷

Becoming a mudang

Many mudang report that they never wanted to take up the profession, resisting the calling due to the social disapproval that practitioners often face.¹⁷⁸ However, musok teaches that it is the deities who decide if a person is to become a mudang and that they will torment an individual with misfortune, illness or madness to encourage them into adopting the profession.¹⁷⁹ This process is termed the sinŭi kamul ("the drought caused by the gods"),¹⁸⁰ sinbyŏng ("spirit possession sickness"),¹⁸¹ or mubyŏng ("mu sickness").¹⁸² Mudang have for instance reported partial paralysis and hallucinations before turning to this ritual vocation,¹⁸³ or else a compulsion to go to a shrine or sacred mountain.¹⁸⁴ Alternatively, they have described encounters with spirits, sometimes while wandering in a wild environment,¹⁸⁵ or otherwise through dreams,¹⁸⁶ with dreams and visions sometimes revealing which deities the future mudang is expected to serve.¹⁸⁷

Once the person has accepted the calling, they must find an established mudang willing to train them.¹⁸⁸ They become this person's apprentice, the chagŭn mudang.¹⁸⁹ Apprentices are usually aged over 18, although there are examples of children becoming apprentices.¹⁹⁰ The apprentice of a mudang may be called their sinttal or sinddal (spirit daughter) if female,¹⁹¹ or sinadul (spirit son) if male.¹⁹² The mudang will be that novice's sineomeoni.¹⁹³ The neophyte must ultimately perform an initiation ritual to open up malmun (the "gates of speech") that will allow them to receive the words of the spirits.¹⁹⁴ This rite is called the naerim gut.¹⁹⁵ It involves the neophyte performing the appropriate chants, dances, and oracles to invoke and convey inspiration from the deities.¹⁹⁶ If the initiate fails to perform this correctly, with the deities failing to open their malmun, they will have to perform it again.¹⁹⁷ Many mudang perform multiple naerim gut before being recognised as properly initiated ritual specialists.¹⁹⁸ Those mudang who fail to learn how to deal with supernatural entities correctly are sometimes called ōngt'ōri by other practitioners.¹⁹⁹

In the sesŭp-mu tradition, teachings are often passed down hereditarily although in other instances a sesŭp-mu adopts a non-relative, rather than their child, as an apprentice.²⁰⁰ Not all practitioners want their children to follow them into the profession, however.²⁰¹ When mudang do not wish a family member to continue their vocation, they may ensure that their ritual paraphernalia is burned or buried at their death; doing so severs any connection between their person deities and their surviving family.²⁰²

Clients of the mudang

Serving private clients is the core practice for most mudang, even those who have built celebrity status through their performance of staged gut.²⁰³ In some areas, including Jeju, clients are called tan'gol.²⁰⁴ Clients seek solutions to their practical problems,²⁰⁵ typically hoping that the mudang can ascertain the cause of misfortune they have suffered.²⁰⁶ Common reasons for doing so include recurring nightmares,²⁰⁷ concerns about a child getting into university,²⁰⁸ financial woes,²⁰⁹ business concerns,²¹⁰ or physical ailments.²¹¹ Some clients turn to the mudang after being dissatisfied with the diagnosis or treatment administered by medical professionals.²¹²

Although both sexes do consult mudang,²¹³ most clients are female.²¹⁴ From his fieldwork in the 1990s, Chongho Kim found that most clients were women in their late fifties and early sixties,²¹⁵ while that same decade Kendall noted that most clients in Seoul and its environs were small entrepreneurs, such as owners of small companies, shops, and restaurants.²¹⁶ By the early 21st century, Sarfati observed, many young people had become clients of mudang as part of a spiritual search or for counselling.²¹⁷ Clients do not generally regard themselves as being committed exclusively to musok, and may deem themselves Buddhists or Christians,²¹⁸ but mudang often think that their rituals will please the spirits regardless of their client's beliefs.²¹⁹

A client will often arrive, greet the mudang, and then engage in an introductory conversation. Through this, the mudang will hope to ascertain more about the client and their problems.²²⁰ The mudang then uses divination and trance visions to determine the source of their client's trouble;²²¹ in musok, neglecting ancestors and gods is seen as the primary cause of affliction.²²² The mudang may then try to convince their client of the need for a particular ritual to treat their problem.²²³

If a ritual fails to produce the desired result, the client may speculate that it was because of a bad performer, errors in the ritual, the presence of a ritually polluted attendee, or a lack of sincerity on their part.²²⁴ If the client feels the mudang has not successfully solved their problem, they may turn to another mudang.²²⁵ They may be disappointed or angry given their substantial financial investment; in some rare cases clients have sued mudang.²²⁶ The payment of money is often a source of mistrust between clients and mudang.²²⁷ Concerns about money are heightened by the lack of an "institutional buffer" between the client and ritual practitioner, such as a temple or church.²²⁸

Altars and shrines

Most musok rituals center around altars²²⁹—referred to as sinbang, harabŏjiŭibang, or pŏptang²³⁰—and which serve as places for mudang to engage with supernatural beings.²³¹ Mudang typically have a shrine in their home in which they host various gods and ancestors,²³² sometimes set up in a cabinet.²³³ Shrines might alternatively be found outdoors, often incorporating a stone or old tree,²³⁴ while a mudang will often establish a temporary altar in a client's home.²³⁵

While each altar often has its own idiosyncratic elements,²³⁶ they are typically dominated by bright, primary colors, in contrast to the muted earth tones traditionally predominant in Korean daily life.²³⁷ This home shrine may include paintings of deities, called musindo,²³⁸ taenghwa,²³⁹ musokhwa,²⁴⁰ or sinhwa.²⁴¹ These paintings are particularly important in the musok traditions of Seoul and of the northwest provinces Hwanghae and P'yŏngan;²⁴² they were traditionally not found in parts of the south.²⁴³ Hanging above the altar,²⁴⁴ they are usually considered the most important objects present.²⁴⁵ They are regarded as seats for the deities, literally manifesting the latter's presence rather than just visually depicting them,²⁴⁶ an idea similar to those found across much of Asia, as in Buddhism and Hinduism.²⁴⁷ As well as being invited to inhabit a painting, a deity may also be petitioned to depart it; they are sometimes believed to leave of their own accord, for instance if they abandon a mudang who keeps the image.²⁴⁸

Musindo paintings range from being crude to more sophisticated.²⁴⁹ Traditionally they use colors associated with the five directions (오방색; obangsaek): red, blue/green, yellow, white, and black.²⁵⁰ Painters who produce musindo are traditionally expected to adhere to standards of purity while producing these artworks,²⁵¹ bathing beforehand and refraining from eating fish or meat.²⁵² Since the 1970s, musindo have commonly been produced in commercial workshops,²⁵³ although a small number of traditional artists remain in South Korea.²⁵⁴ After a mudang's death, their musindo were often ritually de-animated and then burned during the 20th century.²⁵⁵ Some musindo have been donated to museums; certain musok practitioners believe that the deity leaves the image if that occurs.²⁵⁶

On the shrine, deities may also be represented by sinsang, statues made of wood, plastic, clay, straw, or metal.²⁵⁷ Alternatively, deities may be represented by a white piece of paper, the kŭlbal or kŭlmun, onto which the entity's name is written in black or red ink.²⁵⁸ The deity may instead be seated in physical objects, including stones, clothing, coins, dolls, or knives;²⁵⁹ these may be concealed from view, for instance being wrapped in cloth or inside a chest.²⁶⁰ In addition to entities associated with musok specifically, shrines may also include images of Buddhist deities.²⁶¹ Alongside representations of such beings, shrines typically have candles, incense holders, and offering bowls;²⁶² there may also be toys or dolls to amuse the child gods.²⁶³ The mudang's altar will also often be a place to store or display their ritual paraphernalia, such as costumes.²⁶⁴

To sustain their ongoing favor, mudang often worship their deities daily.²⁶⁵ Thus, they often bow when in the presence of their home shrine,²⁶⁶ and then place offerings upon it.²⁶⁷ Some offerings, such as cooked rice, fruit, and water, may be changed daily; others, such as sweets, cigarettes, and liquor, may be replaced more infrequently.²⁶⁸ Mudang maintain that they provide offerings in thanks for the work their deities have brought them.²⁶⁹ For visiting clients, who may also place offerings at a mudang's home-shrine,²⁷⁰ a large assortment of offerings thus gives the impression of a financially successful ritual specialist.²⁷¹

Deities are often believed to be present in all houses.²⁷² Historical accounts often reference the presence of earthen jars (tok, hangari, tanji) filled with grain, or smaller baskets or pouches, as offerings to household deities and ancestors.²⁷³ This practice was declining in South Korea by the 1960s and 1970s.²⁷⁴ By the latter decades of the 20th century, cardboard boxes had become common receptacles for these household offerings.²⁷⁵ Some mudang have suggested that, because most South Koreans now live in apartments, the Sŏngju must be venerated in a way that ensures it is mobile and can be transported to a new home.²⁷⁶

Guttang and pugundang

Specialised buildings at which musok rituals are performed are called guttang or gut dang (굿당) and are typically located on mountains.²⁷⁷ Guttang are often identified on the exterior by a t'aegŭk symbol, a circular swirl of red, blue, and yellow that symbolizes the cosmos.²⁷⁸ The main ritual room is called the gut bang,²⁷⁹ and often contains a table on which offerings are placed.²⁸⁰ Mudang often rent a guttang to perform their rituals, especially if they do not have space for such rites in their home.²⁸¹

Practitioners often believe that deities communicate with humans through dreams as a means of choosing specific locales for the placement of guttang.²⁸² Some are located at especially auspicious places, such as at an area below a mountain, the myŏngdang, where positive spiritual energy is thought to congregate.²⁸³ Guttang sometimes move over time.²⁸⁴ The Guksadang, which Kendall described as "Seoul's most venerable guttang",²⁸⁵ for instance was originally on South Mountain, before being displaced by a Shinto shrine during the Japanese occupation, at which it moved to Inwangsan, a mountain to the north of the city.²⁸⁶ The growing urbanisation of South Korea since the late 20th century has meant that many are now surrounded by other buildings, sometimes including other guttang.²⁸⁷ The increasingly cramped nature of Korean urban living may have encouraged the increasing popularity of guttang in isolated locations like mountains.²⁸⁸

Guttang often operate as businesses.²⁸⁹ They rent out rooms for mudang to use, a practice perhaps originating in the late Joseon period.²⁹⁰ The guttang will have a shrine keeper,²⁹¹ who may be a mudang themselves.²⁹² Other staff based there may include musicians called chaebi,²⁹³ cooks who prepare food for gut rituals,²⁹⁴ and a maid, the kongyangju, who is a trainee mudang yet to undergo their initiation rite.²⁹⁵ As well as spaces for ritual, guttang also provide places for networking, allowing mudang to witness the rituals of other practitioners and observe different regional styles.²⁹⁶

Shrines dedicated to significant tutelary spirits are known as tang or pugundang.²⁹⁷ Historically, these were often the foci for local cults, such as those devoted to apotheosised heroes.²⁹⁸ In parts of South Korea, as on Jeju Island, new village shrines have continued to be created into the early 21st century,²⁹⁹ with various Jeju villages having more than one shrine.³⁰⁰

Gut rites

Main article: Gut (ritual)

The central ritual of the mudang is called gut.³⁰¹ These are large-scale rites,³⁰² characterised by rhythmic movements, songs, oracles and prayers.³⁰³ They are the only rituals in traditional Korean religion believed to give supernatural entities the ability to speak directly to humans,³⁰⁴ and are meant to create welfare, promoting commitment between supernatural beings and humankind.³⁰⁵ The purpose of a gut is to get the supernatural beings to communicate, expressing what it is that they want and why they are angry.³⁰⁶ There is regional diversity in the styles of gut,³⁰⁷ although some mudang mix these different styles,³⁰⁸ with each gut displaying features unique to its particular circumstances.³⁰⁹ Central to musok rituals is a reciprocal transaction between humans and supernatural entities.³¹⁰ These rituals are typically performance-focused, rather than being rooted in a prescribed liturgy,³¹¹ and can last for up to several days.³¹²

A gut is sponsored for a specific purpose.³¹³ A gut may be arranged due to an illness, domestic quarrel, or financial loss.³¹⁴ It might be undertaken to propitiate the spirit of a deceased family member,³¹⁵ or to increase prosperity and good fortune;³¹⁶ in the 21st century, it has become increasingly common to sponsor a gut to mark a new financial venture, such as the opening of a mall or an office building.³¹⁷ As well as being performed for clients, the mudang will sometimes perform these rituals for their own personal reasons;³¹⁸ in the 1990s, for instance, the prominent mudang Kim Kŭm-hwa performed a gut for Korean reunification.³¹⁹

Financial payment for a gut is typical,³²⁰ although the fee varies between mudang and the circumstances of the rite.³²¹ However, a gut is usually very expensive for the client of a mudang;³²² based on his fieldwork in the 1990s, Chongho Kim noted that a gut in Seoul typically cost between 2 and 5 million won, whereas in the rural area of Soy it cost between 300,000 and 2.5 million won.³²³ The precise fee may be negotiated between the mu and their client, sometimes involving haggling.³²⁴ This will usually be agreed at a pre-gut consultation.³²⁵ As well as paying for the mudang's time, the fee also covers the wages of any assistants and the costs of material used in the rite;³²⁶ it may also reflect the years of training they have undertaken to be able to perform these rituals.³²⁷

The gut is usually held in private, and few have a larger audience than the direct participants like the client,³²⁸ although there are instances where those paying for a gut will invite neighbors to observe.³²⁹ On occasion, a busy client will not attend the gut they have sponsored.³³⁰ These rituals are typically regarded as unsuitable for children to attend.³³¹ Often it will take place outdoors and at night, in an isolated rural location,³³² at a guttang shrine rented for the occasion,³³³ or in a private home,³³⁴ either that of the mudang,³³⁵ or that of their client.³³⁶ Setting up the gut may involve not only the mudang but also their apprentices, assistants, musicians, butchers, and cooks.³³⁷ Preparing and decorating the space is deemed a meaningful part of the ritual process,³³⁸ with those setting it up often concerned so as not to offend the spirits.³³⁹

Colorful paintings of the gods will often be brought into the space where the gut is to be performed;³⁴⁰ this is not part of the gut performed by Jeju simbang.³⁴¹ God paintings are usually paper, although in modern contexts are sometimes polyester, ensuring that they are resistant to rain and tearing. Other practitioners regard the use of polyester images as a corruption of tradition.³⁴² These images are then often hung on a metal frame.³⁴³ In Taejŏn City and Ch'ungch'ŏng province, a traditional practice involves decorating the ritual space with handmade mulberry paper cut into patterns.³⁴⁴ Various ritual items may be included in the gut ritual, including swords, the samjichang, a drum, drum stick, and the spirit stick.³⁴⁵ The samjichang is a three-pronged spear.³⁴⁶ The chukwonmun is a prayer card used in the gut onto which information like the name of the client may be written.³⁴⁷ The chukwonmun may then be attached to a drum.³⁴⁸

Offerings at the gut

At gut, food is offered to the spirits.³⁴⁹ This will often include fish, rice, tteok rice cakes, eggs, sweets, nuts, biscuits, fruit, and meat.³⁵⁰ Some of this food will be cooked, some will be offered raw.³⁵¹ To provide meat, animal sacrifice occurs at most gut, although is rare in televisual, cinematic, and museum depictions of these rites.³⁵² A cow or pig killed for the purpose may be butchered in the shrine room;³⁵³ the carcass may be impaled on the trident; if it fails to balance, then this is seen as evidence that the deities do not accept the offering.³⁵⁴ When the ritual is intended to invoke Buddhist spirits, the food offerings may be vegetarian;³⁵⁵ offering these entities meat would offend them.³⁵⁶ Food offerings may also be set out at the side for wandering spirits who are attracted by the ritual, an act designed to avoid mishaps they could cause.³⁵⁷

Offered alongside the food will often be alcoholic drinks, typically soju,³⁵⁸ as well as non-food items like incense, cloth, money (both real and imitation), and paper flowers.³⁵⁹ The color of the flowers may indicate to whom they are offered; pink for the spirits of military generals, white for Buddhist deities, and multi-colored for ancestral spirits.³⁶⁰ The material used for the gut will often be bought in a manmulsang shop, which specialises in traditional religious paraphernalia.³⁶¹ In modern South Korea, the ritual paraphernalia used is often of poor quality because it is intended to be burnt following the ceremony.³⁶²

These may be placed on offering tables;³⁶³ one table will be the halabeoji sang, devoted to the musok gods, while the other table will be the jasang sang, devoted to ancestral spirits.³⁶⁴ The mudang will often perform divination to determine if the offerings have been accepted by the supernatural beings.³⁶⁵ It is considered important for the person giving these offerings to do so with sincerity and devotion,³⁶⁶ with the mudang undertaking a form of divination called "weighing the sincerity" (chŏngsŏng kŭllyang) to determine if this has been the case.³⁶⁷ The emotional influence on the audience is considered evidence of its efficacy.³⁶⁸

During the ritual, attendees may be expected to give additional offerings of money to the mudang, often while they are possessed, intended as thanks both to them and to the spirits.³⁶⁹ These offerings, given in addition to the ritual fee, are called pyŏlbi or kajŏn.³⁷⁰ Any real money presented as offerings to the deities will be taken by the mudang.³⁷¹ Much of the food assembled for the gut will then be distributed and consumed by the attendees at the end of the ritual,³⁷² having been charged by auspiciousness by its involvement in the rite.³⁷³ Attendees may distribute some of this food to non-attendees once they get home;³⁷⁴ they may also set some aside to feed any wandering spirits that might have followed them from the gut.³⁷⁵ In some gut, especially those held at gut dang shrines, food will also be left to decay.³⁷⁶

Performance at the gut

The ritual begins with the mudang inviting supernatural entities to the altar, after which they set out to entertain them.³⁷⁷ Music will often be involved in the gut.³⁷⁸ Musical instruments typically involved in gut include cymbals, hourglass-shaped drums called changgu, and a gong.³⁷⁹ Also sometimes featured is a pipe, the piri.³⁸⁰ The gut will often begin with drumming.³⁸¹ The mudang will often dance to the beat of the drums, often swirling in circles, something believed to facilitate the possession trance.³⁸² They may hold nŏk-chong, short sticks to which white paper streamers are attached;³⁸³ this helps channel the spirits into the mudang's body.³⁸⁴ The mudang may also carry a fan and brass bells;³⁸⁵ Sarfati commented that these bells were "a central symbol of musok",³⁸⁶ and their purpose is to attract the attention of the spirits.³⁸⁷

The language used by a mudang during their rite is called mudang sori ("mudang's sounds"),³⁸⁸ and is often deliberately archaic.³⁸⁹ The songs or chants employed are called muga,³⁹⁰ with each practitioner having their own personal repertoire, largely inherited through oral tradition.³⁹¹ As well as traditional folk songs, some mudang have sung pop songs to entertain the spirits.³⁹² Incantations and ritual words for communicating with the spirit are called chukeon.³⁹³ The mudang will often recite mythological stories during the ritual, something deemed to contribute to its efficacy.³⁹⁴ These may be recited in full at a longer ritual or in condensed form for a shorter one.³⁹⁵ There may be breaks during the gut, for instance giving time for the participants to eat.³⁹⁶

The costumes worn for these rituals are called sinbok.³⁹⁷ These colorful outfits resemble those documented from the 19th and early 20th centuries,³⁹⁸ and may involve a hanbok.³⁹⁹ The mansin may distinguish themselves from their assistants by having their hair in the Tchokchin mŏri style.⁴⁰⁰ For the gut, the mudang will dress in clothes representing the deities,⁴⁰¹ with different deities associated with different items of clothing.⁴⁰² They may change outfit over the course of the gut to reflect the different entities possessing them.⁴⁰³ This is not a practice that the sesup mu engage in.⁴⁰⁴

Also used in many gut are chaktu blades, objects symbolizing the bravery of the possessing warrior spirits.⁴⁰⁵ The mudang may stab themselves in the chest with the knives,⁴⁰⁶ run the blade along their tongue,⁴⁰⁷ or press it to their face and hands.⁴⁰⁸ Riding knives is termed jakdugeori and involves the mudang walking barefoot on the upturned blade of the knife, sometimes while speaking in gongsu, or possessed speech.⁴⁰⁹ Practitioners claim that it is the spirits that prevent the mudang from being cut by the blade,⁴¹⁰ and the ability to undertake such dangerous acts without harm is regarded as evidence for the efficacy of the rite.⁴¹¹ Some practitioners acknowledge instances in which they have been cut by the blades.⁴¹² Jakdugeori has become an expected part of staged or cinematic gut.⁴¹³

The possession phase takes place at the climax of the ritual.⁴¹⁴ In some gut traditions, the mudang will stand upon an earthen jar while doing so.⁴¹⁵ The term sin-naerim (descending of the spirits) describes possession of the mansin, intended in a manner that is largely controlled.⁴¹⁶ Possessed speech is called kongsu;⁴¹⁷ words from the possessing entity will then be spoken to the assembled persons by the mudang.⁴¹⁸ Over the course of a gut, a mansin may be possessed by a succession of different supernatural entities.⁴¹⁹ On Jeju, the simbang will provide a voice for the spirits.⁴²⁰ Yun noted that the simbang's "so-called medium speech" typically lacked the "dramatic intensity" of the messages conveyed by the kangsin-mu.⁴²¹ The entities possessing the mudang will typically dispense advice to the ritual's sponsor and to other attendees.⁴²² Supernatural beings will often relate that if a gut had been performed earlier, misfortune would not have befallen the person sponsoring the gut.⁴²³

The final phase of the gut entails sending off the spirits who have been summoned, often by burning name tags, the josang ot ("clothes for ancestors") or cloth, straw shoes, and imitation money.⁴²⁴ Towards the end of the gut, wandering spirits that may have gathered are expelled,⁴²⁵ talismans may be distributed to attendees,⁴²⁶ and finally the mudang will remove their ceremonial clothing.⁴²⁷

Male mudang often wear female clothing and makeup when performing rituals, reflecting their possession of a female monjusin.⁴²⁸ Female mudang may show an interest in smoking, drinking alcohol, and playing with bladed weapons, reflecting that they have a male monjusin.⁴²⁹ In Korean society, there have been persistent rumours about the toleration of homosexuality within musok practitioners.⁴³⁰

Mudang sometimes work in groups.⁴³¹ This has been observed among simbang on Jeju,⁴³² as well as mansin in Seoul.⁴³³ In the early 1990s, for example, a feminist group in Seoul sponsored several mudang to perform a gut ritual for the aggrieved souls of Korean "comfort women".⁴³⁴ When an arsonist torched Seoul's historic Namdaemun Gate in 2008, several mansin performed a ritual to appease spirits angered by the act.⁴³⁵

Styles of gut

Different types of gut have different names, often reflecting the principle deity being honoured or the purpose of the rite.⁴³⁶ The chesu gut is for good fortune, while the uhwan gut is for healing.⁴³⁷ The chinogi gut is performed to send ancestors to a good afterlife.⁴³⁸ The mich'in gut is performed for a person who is mentally afflicted and often deemed to be possessed by one or more spirits.⁴³⁹ Exorcisms will often involve throwing scraps of food, sometimes at the afflicted person.⁴⁴⁰ The possessing spirit is offered food to encourage it to leave.⁴⁴¹ The ch'a kosa is performed to honor the spirits of a new car and became increasingly popular as car ownership grew in late 20th century South Korea.⁴⁴²

The kkonmaji gut or flower-greeting gut is an annual rite held by a mudang to entertain and feed their gods, ancestors, and clients.⁴⁴³ The sin gut are performed in gratitude to the deities and ancestors for granting a mu their spiritual power and thus a livelihood. They are regarded as returning to these supernatural beings a portion of what the mu has earned.⁴⁴⁴ The sin gut can sometimes last 10 days.⁴⁴⁵ The byong gut is a ritual for expelling bad spirits, sometimes from a human. This sometimes involves the spirit forcing it into a bottle.⁴⁴⁶

Historically, the gut may have had entertainment value when there were few other outlets.⁴⁴⁷ Since the latter decades of the 20th century, gut performed primarily for entertainment purposes rather than for religious reasons are referred to as gut gongyeon.⁴⁴⁸ Some practitioners who perform both draw a clear distinction between them,⁴⁴⁹ although many mudang still regard staged gut as genuine interactions with spirits.⁴⁵⁰ Performed in museums or at city festivals, these gut often take place on raised stages surrounded by a seated audience,⁴⁵¹ typically attracting journalists, scholars, and photographers.⁴⁵² Staged gut are often dedicated to general causes such as national prosperity;⁴⁵³ sometimes the food placed as an offering is fake.⁴⁵⁴ They often involve folklorists or other scholars who explain the ritual to the audience,⁴⁵⁵ while the participants will often be dressed in a common uniform, something not found in private gut.⁴⁵⁶ Mudang may see these staged rituals as an opportunity to attract potential new clients,⁴⁵⁷ uploading videos of them performing such rites to social media and YouTube.⁴⁵⁸

Gut gongyeon are often performed for their artistic value.⁴⁵⁹ By 2009, South Korea's government recognised ten regional gut styles as parts of the country's intangible cultural heritage, and that year one of these traditions – the Yŏngdŭng gut performed at Ch'ilmŏri Shrine on Jeju – was added to UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.⁴⁶⁰

Purification

Purity of both the body and the mind is a state that is required for taking part in rituals.⁴⁶¹ Purification is considered necessary for an efficacious communion between living people and ancestral forms.⁴⁶² Before any gut is performed, the altar is always purified by fire and water, as part of the first gori of the ritual itself.⁴⁶³ The colour white, extensively used in rituals, is regarded as a symbol of purity.⁴⁶⁴ The purification of the body is performed by burning white paper.⁴⁶⁵

Mountains, landscape, and pilgrimage

In musok, spiritually potent sites include rocks, springs, and sŏn'ang trees.⁴⁶⁶ The latter trees may be marked out by having strips of cloth or paper attached to them.⁴⁶⁷ Mountains are often deemed places of sacred presence and associated with musok's origin.⁴⁶⁸ Each prominent mountain is deemed to have a sovereign mountain spirit.⁴⁶⁹ The levels of spiritual power at a mountain are influenced not just by its associated deities but also the ki energy (the equivalent of the Chinese qi) that is present there.⁴⁷⁰ This ki is believed to channel through maek ("veins") through the mountain landscape; these can be disrupted by roads or other construction.⁴⁷¹ Thus, the potency of these mountains is thought to decline amid growing urbanisation and tourist access.⁴⁷² In Korea, this traditional geomancy is called p'ungsu, and is akin to the Chinese fengshui.⁴⁷³

Pilgrimages to mountain shrines have long been part of Korean religion.⁴⁷⁴ Historically, the mudang's mountain pilgrimages were rare events, although improved transportation meant that by the 1990s these had become more regular occurrences in South Korea.⁴⁷⁵ Some mudang prepare for these pilgrimages by bathing and abstaining from eating meat, fish, or eggs.⁴⁷⁶ On arrival at the shrine, the pilgrim will bow and give offerings.⁴⁷⁷ For mudang, these mountains are places to replenish their myŏnggi and are conducive to receiving visions.⁴⁷⁸ Mudang will make offerings not only at the mountains but also at springs and guardian trees en route.⁴⁷⁹ Those reaching the summit of a mountain will often add a pebble to a cairn to propitiate that mountain's sansin.⁴⁸⁰ Incorrectly performing the pilgrimage may upset the sansin and bring about this spirit's retribution.⁴⁸¹

The most sacred mountain for the mudang is Mount Paektu, located on North Korea's northern border with China;⁴⁸² this is believed to channel ki to every other mountain in the peninsula.⁴⁸³ According to legend, it is also the birthplace of Tan'gun, the national ancestor and first mudang.⁴⁸⁴ Since the 1990s, mudang from South Korea have travelled to China to make pilgrimages to this mountain.⁴⁸⁵

Talismans and divination

An important component of the mudang's role is to produce talismans called pujŏk (bujeok) which are presented as providing the bearer with good fortune.⁴⁸⁶ These pujŏk are often based on Hanja, Korean versions of Chinese logograms.⁴⁸⁷ These may be distributed to attendees at the end of a rite.⁴⁸⁸ Clients will often affix these to the internal walls of their home.⁴⁸⁹

Divination is termed jeom.⁴⁹⁰ One form of divination, sometimes performed during other rituals, involves a person picking one of a selection of rolled up silk flags; the color of the selected flag is then interpreted as bearing meaning for that individual.⁴⁹¹ Green and yellow flags are often seen as indicating bad fortune,⁴⁹² while red is regarded as being auspicious.⁴⁹³ The mugŏri style of divination involves casting rice and coins onto a tray,⁴⁹⁴ while another practice entails shaking rice kernels onto a person's lap and then drawing meaning from whether they are of an odd or even number.⁴⁹⁵

In Korean vernacular religion, there are also ritual specialists who perform divinations and produce amulets but who do not engage in gut rituals like the mudang.⁴⁹⁶

History

It is difficult to determine the origins of musok.⁴⁹⁷ Detailed accounts of mudang rituals prior to the modern period are rare,⁴⁹⁸ and the fact that the tradition is orally transmitted means it is difficult to trace historical processes.⁴⁹⁹

Prehistory

Some historians have argued that musok has common origins with other traditions labelled "shamanic" in parts of North Asia, suggesting a common origin in prehistory.⁵⁰⁰ Korean shamanism goes back to prehistoric times, pre-dating the introduction of Buddhism and Confucianism, and the influence of Taoism, in Korea.⁵⁰¹ Over time, elements from other traditions, such as Buddhism, Confucianism, and Daoism, were absorbed into its practices.⁵⁰² Vestiges of temples dedicated to gods and spirits have been found on tops and slopes of many mountains in the peninsula.⁵⁰³

Shamanism can be traced back to 1,000 BC.⁵⁰⁴ The religion has been part of the culture of the Korean Peninsula since then. "Historically, Korean Shamanism (Musok) was an orally transmitted tradition that was mastered mainly by illiterate low-ranking women within the neo-Confucian hierarchy."⁵⁰⁵ However, several records and texts have documented the origin of Korean Shamanism. One of these texts is Wei Shi which traces Shamanism to the third century.⁵⁰⁶ Chinese dynastic histories mention the importance of designated shamans among early religious practices in Japan but not Korea.⁵⁰⁷ The Korean studies scholar Richard D. McBride thus asserts that non-shamans were able to practice "under their own authority".⁵⁰⁸ Evidently, the history of Korean Shamanism remains a mystery. However, foreign religions, including Christianity, Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism have influenced the development of Korean Shamanism.⁵⁰⁹

The development of Korean Shamanism can be categorized into different groups. The first category involves simple transformation. In this transformation, the influence of the practices and beliefs of other religions on Korean Shamanism was superficial.⁵¹⁰ The second category of transmission was syncretistic. This category involves Shamanism being incorporated into the practices and beliefs of other cultures, including Confucianism, Christianity, Taoism, and Buddhism.⁵¹¹ These religions had different levels of influence on Korean Shamanism. The third category involves the formation of new religions through the mixing of beliefs and practices of Shamanism with those of other dominant religions.⁵¹²

Although many Koreans converted to Buddhism when it was introduced to the peninsula in the 4th century, and adopted as the state religion in Silla and Goryeo, it remained a minor religion compared to Korean shamanism.⁵¹³

The term mu is first recorded in the 12th-century Yisanggugjip.⁵¹⁴ It also appears in the Samguk sagi from that century.⁵¹⁵ The use of images of the musok deities, hanging on the wall, is first recorded from the 13th century.⁵¹⁶

Joseon Korea and Japanese occupation

See also: Misin tapa undong

The Goryeo kingdom was replaced by the Joseon dynasty, which saw an increase in governmental persecution of the mudang.⁵¹⁷ Confucianism was the dominant ideology in Joseon Korea, contributing to these suppressions;⁵¹⁸ later historians argued that this was connected to the elite's desire to gain more power by challenging rivals to their Confucian system.⁵¹⁹ Confucians accepted the existence of the spirits invoked in the mudang's rites,⁵²⁰ but argued that there were better ways of dealing with these supernatural beings.⁵²¹ They regarded the musok rituals as improper,⁵²² criticising the presence of both sexes together in environments where alcohol was being consumed.⁵²³ Korea's Neo-Confucian scholars used the derogatory term ŭmsa for non-Confucian ceremonies, of which they considered the mudang rituals among the lowest.⁵²⁴

In the Joseon dynasty, mudang belonged to one of eight outcast groups that were expelled from the capital city.⁵²⁵ The Gyeonggukdaejeon law book prescribed 100 lashes in public for anyone found to be supporting them.⁵²⁶ This persecution could prove deadly; in an extreme case, a mudang was beheaded in 1398.⁵²⁷ In an oft-cited incident, Jeju governor Yi Hyŏngsang initiated a purge of simbang on the island in 1702, destroying 129 shrines.⁵²⁸ Taxes were levied on the mudang's rituals, both to discourage the practice but also to raise revenues for the government; these taxes remained in place until the 1895 Kabo reforms.⁵²⁹ At the same time as the government persecuted the mudang, they also turned to them in emergencies like epidemics, droughts, and famines.⁵³⁰ Several mudang were permitted access to the royal palaces, where several structures were set aside for their usage.⁵³¹

By the late 19th century, many Korean intellectuals eager for modernisation came to regard musok as superstition that should be eradicated;⁵³² they increasingly referred to it with the term misin ("superstition").⁵³³ These ideas were endorsed in Tongnip sinmun, Korea's first vernacular newspaper.⁵³⁴ Many of these intellectuals were Christian, thus regarding the mudang's spirits as evil demons.⁵³⁵ In 1896, police launched a crackdown by arresting mudang, destroying shrines, and burning paraphernalia.⁵³⁶

The Empire of Japan invaded Korea in 1910.⁵³⁷ During the Japanese occupation, the occupiers tried to incorporate musok within, or replace it with, State Shinto.⁵³⁸⁵³⁹ The Japanese colonial Governor-General of Chōsen presented the mudang as evidence for Korean cultural backwardness, an approach intended to legitimize Japanese imperial rule.⁵⁴⁰ Japanese efforts to suppress the tradition included the Mind Cultivation Movement launched in 1936.⁵⁴¹ Korean elites largely supported these suppressions for a variety of reasons, one of which was to demonstrate Korean cultural advancement to the Japanese occupying Korea.⁵⁴²

It was in this colonial context that scholars developed the idea that the mudang were continuing an ancient Korean religion and thus represented the spiritual and cultural repository of the Korean people.⁵⁴³ Influenced by the Western use of the term "shamanism" as a cross-cultural category, some Korean scholars speculated that the mudang tradition descended from Siberian traditions.⁵⁴⁴ The Japanese scholar Torii Ryūzō proposed the mudang as a remnant of a primordial Shinto, with both stemming from Siberian "shamanism".⁵⁴⁵ These ideas were built on by nationalist Korean scholars Ch'oe Nam-sŏn and Yi Nŭnghwa in the 1920s.⁵⁴⁶ Cho'e reversed Torii's framework by emphasising the primacy of ancient Korean over Japanese tradition as the transmitter of Siberian religion,⁵⁴⁷ while Yi promoted the mudang tradition as the residue of what he called sin'gyo ("divine teachings"), meaning a primordial Korean religion that lost its purity through the arrival of Confucianism and Buddhism.⁵⁴⁸ At the time, Korean elites remained wary about this new positive reassessment.⁵⁴⁹

Korean War and division

The situation for Musok worsened after the division of Korea and the establishment of a northern Socialist government and a southern pro-Christian government.⁵⁵⁰ The Korean War and subsequent urbanisation of Korean society resulted in many Koreans moving around the peninsula, impacting the distinct regional traditions of the mudang.⁵⁵¹ Many mudang from Hwanghae (in North Korea) resettled in Inchon (in South Korea), strongly influencing musok there, for example.⁵⁵² This migration meant that by the early 21st century, kangsin-mu were increasingly dominant in areas like Jeju where sesŭp-mu historically predominated, generating rivalry between the two traditions.⁵⁵³

In North Korea, most formal religious activity was suppressed,⁵⁵⁴ with mudang labelled part of the "hostile class".⁵⁵⁵ In South Korea, Christianity spread rapidly from the 1960s, becoming the country's dominant religion by the 21st century.⁵⁵⁶ South Korean leader Syngman Rhee launched the Sin Saenghwal Undong ("New Life Movement") which destroyed many village shrines.⁵⁵⁷ This policy continued as the Saemaul Undong ("New Community Movement") of his successor, Park Chung Hee, which led to a surge in the police suppression of mudang during the 1970s.⁵⁵⁸ In response, mudang formed the Tae Han Sŭngkong yŏngsin yŏnhap-hoe (Korean Victory Over Communism Federation of Shamans) to promote their interests, its name reflecting the pervasive anti-communist atmosphere of South Korean society.⁵⁵⁹ Such outright persecution ended after Park's assassination in 1979.⁵⁶⁰

The popularization of folklore studies in the 1970s resulted in the notion of musok as Korea's ancient tradition gaining acceptance among growing numbers of educated South Koreans.⁵⁶¹ In 1962, South Korea had introduced a Cultural Properties Protection Law that recognised performing arts as intangible cultural heritage; some folklorists used this to help defend the mudang.⁵⁶² In the latter part of the 20th century, the mudang rituals were increasingly revived as a form of theatrical performance linked to cultural conservation and tourism.⁵⁶³ From the 1980s onward, South Korea's government designated certain mudang as Human Cultural Treasures.⁵⁶⁴ One of the best-known examples was Kim Geum-hwa, who from the 1980s performed for foreign anthropologists, toured Western countries, and appeared in documentaries.⁵⁶⁵ Reflecting the view of musok as an important part of Korea's cultural heritage, a gut was depicted on a South Korean postage stamp while musok elements were included at the Seoul 1988 Olympic Arts Festival and the 1988 inauguration of President Roh Tae-woo.⁵⁶⁶ Paintings of musok deities became increasingly collectable in the 1980s and 1990s.⁵⁶⁷

The mudang were often regarded favorably within South Korea's minjung (Popular Culture Movement) pro-democracy campaign from the 1970s; several mudang were active in the movement and became emblematic of its struggle.⁵⁶⁸ Advocacy groups were also formed to advance the cause of the mu,⁵⁶⁹ keen to present the tradition as lying at the heart of Korean culture,⁵⁷⁰ while the 1980s also saw mudang begin to write books about themselves.⁵⁷¹ Mudang also adapted to new technologies; from the 1990s they increasingly used the Internet to advertise their services,⁵⁷² while portrayals of mudang became widespread on South Korean television in the 2010s.⁵⁷³ This increasing cultural visibility improved the mudang's social image.⁵⁷⁴

Since the early 19th century, a number of movements of revitalization or innovation of traditional Korean shamanism arose. They are characterized by an organized structure, a codified doctrine, and a body of scriptural texts. They may be grouped into three major families: the family of Daejongism or Dangunism, the Donghak-originated movements (including Cheondoism and Suunism), and the family of Jeungsanism (including Jeung San Do, Daesun Jinrihoe, the now-extinct Bocheonism, and many other sects).⁵⁷⁵

Demographics

Most mudang are female,⁵⁷⁶ something that may connect to origin myths that present musok as first developing among women.⁵⁷⁷ Approximately a fifth of mudang are male,⁵⁷⁸ although the latter are proportionately over-represented in 21st-century media representations.⁵⁷⁹ There is regional variation in these gender differences; on Jeju Island, there were more male than female simbang prior to the 1950s, and proportions of male practitioners remain higher there than on the Korean mainland.⁵⁸⁰ Mudang have conventionally belonged to the lowest social class;⁵⁸¹ Chongho Kim noted that most mudang he encountered in the 1990s were both financially poor and had little formal education.⁵⁸²

Determining the number of mudang is difficult.⁵⁸³ In 1983, around 43,000 people were members mudang unions,⁵⁸⁴ while in the early 21st century, Sarfati estimated the number of mudang at being over 200,000.⁵⁸⁵ Rather than being evenly distributed throughout South Korea, concentrations were higher in Seoul,⁵⁸⁶ and on Jeju.⁵⁸⁷ The number of mudang as a whole does not appear to be decreasing,⁵⁸⁸ although the hereditary sesŭp-mu, including the Jeju simbang, are "in steep decline".⁵⁸⁹ Musok is not recorded in the South Korean census because the government does not regard adherence to it as being akin to identifying as a Christian or a Buddhist.⁵⁹⁰ A late 20th-century survey by the Korean Gallup Research Institute indicated that 38 percent of the adult population of South Korea had used a mudang.⁵⁹¹ In North Korea, according to demographic analyses by Religious Intelligence, approximately 16 percent of the population practises "traditional ethnic" religion.⁵⁹²

Since at least the 20th century, mudang have travelled abroad to perform rituals;⁵⁹³ many for instance serve clients in Japan's Korean minority.⁵⁹⁴ There are also mudang in Europe,⁵⁹⁵ and a small number of non-Koreans have become mudang; a 2007 documentary covered the story of a German mudang.⁵⁹⁶ Kendall noted the existence of one mudang living outside Korea who was promoting their teachings through New Age-style workshops.⁵⁹⁷

Reception

Musok has been suppressed throughout Korean history under a succession of dominant ideologies including Confucianism, Japanese colonialism, and Christianity.⁵⁹⁸ At the start of the 21st century, the mudang remained widely stigmatized in South Korean society, facing widespread prejudice.⁵⁹⁹ In 2021, Sarfati observed that while the religion was "still stigmatized", it was experiencing "growing acceptance" in South Korea.⁶⁰⁰

The religion's critics often regard mudang as swindlers,⁶⁰¹ people who manipulate the gullible.⁶⁰² Critics regularly focus their critique on the large sums of money that the mudang charge,⁶⁰³ and maintain that the expenses required for its rituals are wasteful.⁶⁰⁴ Critics have also accused mudang of disrupting the civil order with their rituals.⁶⁰⁵ Kendall noted that there was a "generally adversarial relationship" between mudang and Protestants in South Korea,⁶⁰⁶ the latter regarding musok as "Devil worship",⁶⁰⁷ although there are also Protestants who have commissioned gut.⁶⁰⁸ Mainline Protestant theologians have sometimes blamed musok for predisposing Koreans to Pentecostalism and the idea that prayer can generate financial reward.⁶⁰⁹ Christians have sometimes harassed mudang at their places of work or during their ceremonies,⁶¹⁰ something which mudang regard as religious discrimination.⁶¹¹

Mudang began appearing in South Korean film in the 1960s.⁶¹² Early portrayals in the 1960s and 1970s generally showed them as harmful, frightening, and anti-modern figures, as in Ssal (1963), Munyŏdo (1972) and Iŏdo (1977).⁶¹³ From the mid-2000s, films increasingly portrayed them as members of a living tradition situated in modern urban environments, as in Ch'ŏngham Posal (2009) and Paksu Kŏndal (2013).⁶¹⁴ The 2000s also saw several successful documentaries about mudang appear in Korean cinemas,⁶¹⁵ as well as increasing appearances of mudang on Korean television.⁶¹⁶ Korean artists who have cited musok rituals as an influence on their work include Nam June Paik, who recreated an exorcism gut for several performances from the late 1970s.⁶¹⁷ Musok has also been presented in museums, although often with emphasis placed on its folkloric and aesthetic value rather than its role as a religious practice.⁶¹⁸ South Korea's government often embrace gut as a traditional performing artform, but marginalise its religious function.⁶¹⁹

Musok has influenced some Korean new religions, such as Cheondoism and Jeungsanism, and some Christian churches in Korea make use of practices rooted in musok.⁶²⁰

See also

• Asian witchcraft
• Gasin faith
• Korean folklore
• Korean numismatic charm
• Korean traditional festivals
• Jongmyo jerye
• Religion in Korea
• Samgong bon-puri
• Taoism in Korea

Citations

Sources

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64. Yun 2019, p. 20. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

65. Kim 2018, p. 25. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

66. Yun 2019, p. 183. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

67. Yun 2019, pp. 3, 19. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

68. Yun 2019, p. 183. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

69. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 19; Sarfati 2021, p. 7. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

70. Grim 1984, p. 235; Bruno 2013, p. 180; Kim 2018, p. 23; Sarfati 2021, p. 8. - Grim, John A. (1984). "Chaesu Gut: A Korean Shamanistic Performance". Asian Folklore Studies. 43 (2): 235–259. doi:10.2307/1178012. JSTOR 1178012. https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1178012 ↩

71. Kim 2018, p. 166. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

72. Kim 2018, p. 32. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

73. Kendall 2009, pp. ix–x; Bruno 2013, p. 179; Kim 2018, p. 23; Yun 2019, p. 181; Sarfati 2021, p. 10. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

74. Yun 2019, p. 181. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

75. Kendall 2009, p. 182; Bruno 2013, pp. 180–182. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

76. Guillemoz 1992, p. 116; Sarfati 2021, pp. 8, 15. - Guillemoz, Alexandre (1992). "Seoul, the Widow, and the Mudang: Transformations of Urban Korean Shamanism". Diogenes. 40 (158): 115–127. doi:10.1177/039219219204015810. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F039219219204015810 ↩

77. Kim 2018, pp. 76, 190; Yun 2019, p. 175. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

78. Guillemoz 1992, p. 117; Kendall 2009, p. x. - Guillemoz, Alexandre (1992). "Seoul, the Widow, and the Mudang: Transformations of Urban Korean Shamanism". Diogenes. 40 (158): 115–127. doi:10.1177/039219219204015810. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F039219219204015810 ↩

79. Kendall 2009, p. x. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

80. Kendall 2009, p. 136. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

81. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 22. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

82. Sarfati 2021, p. 110. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

83. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 81. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

84. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 81. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

85. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 74. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

86. Kendall 2009, p. 179. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

87. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 82. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

88. Kim 2018, p. 216. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

89. Sarfati 2021, p. 30. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

90. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 32. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

91. Bruno 2013, p. 178. - Bruno, Antonetta L. (2013). "The Posal between the Mudang and Buddhist: In-between and Bypassing". Journal of Korean Religions. 4 (2): 175–196. doi:10.1353/jkr.2013.0018. JSTOR 23943359. https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjkr.2013.0018 ↩

92. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 32. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

93. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 32. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

94. Baker 2008, p. 18. - Baker, Don (2008). Korean Spirituality. Dimensions of Asian Spirituality. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3233-9. ↩

95. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 21. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

96. Kendall 2021, pp. 3, 5. - Kendall, Laurel (2021). "Gods and Things: Is "Animism" an Operable Concept in Korea?". Religions. 12 (283): 283–297. doi:10.3390/rel12040283. https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel12040283 ↩

97. Kendall 2021, p. 5. - Kendall, Laurel (2021). "Gods and Things: Is "Animism" an Operable Concept in Korea?". Religions. 12 (283): 283–297. doi:10.3390/rel12040283. https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel12040283 ↩

98. Bruno 2013, p. 178. - Bruno, Antonetta L. (2013). "The Posal between the Mudang and Buddhist: In-between and Bypassing". Journal of Korean Religions. 4 (2): 175–196. doi:10.1353/jkr.2013.0018. JSTOR 23943359. https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjkr.2013.0018 ↩

99. Grayson 2002, p. 221. - Grayson, James Huntley (2002). Korea - A Religious History. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780700716050. ↩

100. Yun 2019, p. 76. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

101. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 31. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

102. Yun 2019, p. 82; Sarfati 2021, p. 30. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

103. Kendall 2009, p. 167; Sarfati 2021, p. 49. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

104. Sarfati 2021, p. 48. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

105. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 33. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

106. Grayson 2002, p. 221; Bruno 2013, p. 194; Sarfati 2021, pp. 46–47. - Grayson, James Huntley (2002). Korea - A Religious History. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780700716050. ↩

107. Yun 2019, p. 137. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

108. Lee 1981, p. 15; Grayson 2002, pp. 222–223; Kendall 2009, p. 36; Sarfati 2021, p. 34. - Lee, Jung Young (1981). Korean Shamanistic Rituals. Religion and Society. The Hague: Mouton. ISBN 978-90-279-3378-2. ↩

109. Kendall 2009, p. 36. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

110. Grayson 2002, p. 222. - Grayson, James Huntley (2002). Korea - A Religious History. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780700716050. ↩

111. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. Plate 2. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

112. Grayson 2002, p. 224. - Grayson, James Huntley (2002). Korea - A Religious History. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780700716050. ↩

113. Grayson 2002, p. 224. - Grayson, James Huntley (2002). Korea - A Religious History. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780700716050. ↩

114. Sarfati 2021, p. 45. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

115. Grayson 2002, p. 222. - Grayson, James Huntley (2002). Korea - A Religious History. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780700716050. ↩

116. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 32. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

117. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 32. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

118. Kendall 2009, p. 50. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

119. Grayson 2002, p. 225. - Grayson, James Huntley (2002). Korea - A Religious History. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780700716050. ↩

120. Dix 1980, pp. 49–50, 63. - Dix, Griffin (1980). "The Place of the Almanac in Korean Folk Religion". The Journal of Korean Studies. 2: 47–70. doi:10.1353/jks.1980.0001. JSTOR 41490152. https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjks.1980.0001 ↩

121. Grayson 2002, p. 223; Baker 2008, p. 24. - Grayson, James Huntley (2002). Korea - A Religious History. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780700716050. ↩

122. Grayson 2002, p. 224. - Grayson, James Huntley (2002). Korea - A Religious History. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780700716050. ↩

123. Baker 2008, pp. 24–25. - Baker, Don (2008). Korean Spirituality. Dimensions of Asian Spirituality. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3233-9. ↩

124. Baker 2008, p. 25. - Baker, Don (2008). Korean Spirituality. Dimensions of Asian Spirituality. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3233-9. ↩

125. Baker 2008, p. 25. - Baker, Don (2008). Korean Spirituality. Dimensions of Asian Spirituality. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3233-9. ↩

126. Guillemoz 1992, p. 119; Grayson 2002, p. 224; Kendall 2021, p. 5. - Guillemoz, Alexandre (1992). "Seoul, the Widow, and the Mudang: Transformations of Urban Korean Shamanism". Diogenes. 40 (158): 115–127. doi:10.1177/039219219204015810. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F039219219204015810 ↩

127. Grayson 2002, p. 224. - Grayson, James Huntley (2002). Korea - A Religious History. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780700716050. ↩

128. Baker 2008, p. 25. - Baker, Don (2008). Korean Spirituality. Dimensions of Asian Spirituality. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3233-9. ↩

129. Baker 2008, p. 28. - Baker, Don (2008). Korean Spirituality. Dimensions of Asian Spirituality. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3233-9. ↩

130. Baker 2008, p. 23. - Baker, Don (2008). Korean Spirituality. Dimensions of Asian Spirituality. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3233-9. ↩

131. Kendall 2021, p. 5. - Kendall, Laurel (2021). "Gods and Things: Is "Animism" an Operable Concept in Korea?". Religions. 12 (283): 283–297. doi:10.3390/rel12040283. https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel12040283 ↩

132. Kendall 2021, p. 8. - Kendall, Laurel (2021). "Gods and Things: Is "Animism" an Operable Concept in Korea?". Religions. 12 (283): 283–297. doi:10.3390/rel12040283. https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel12040283 ↩

133. Kendall 2009, p. x. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

134. Yun 2019, p. 78. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

135. Kendall 2009, p. 167. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

136. Kendall 2009, p. 167. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

137. Kim 2018, p. 36. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

138. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 85. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

139. Sarfati 2021, pp. 49, 142. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

140. Sarfati 2021, p. 142. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

141. Dix 1980, p. 48. - Dix, Griffin (1980). "The Place of the Almanac in Korean Folk Religion". The Journal of Korean Studies. 2: 47–70. doi:10.1353/jks.1980.0001. JSTOR 41490152. https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjks.1980.0001 ↩

142. "신뿌리"; <초공본풀이>에서 그러했기 때문이라는 답" Shin Y. (2017), p. 228 - 신연우 (Shin Yeon-woo) (2017). Jeju-do seosa muga Chogong bon-puri-ui sinhwa-seong-gwa munhak-seong 제주도 서사무가 <초공본풀이>의 신화성과 문학성 [The Mythological and Literary Nature of the Jeju Shamanic Narrative Chogong bon-puri]. Seoul: Minsogwon. ISBN 978-89-285-1036-8. ↩

143. Hong T. 2016b, p. 59. - 홍태한 (Hong Tae-han) (2016). Han'guk seosa muga-ui yuhyeong-byeol jonjae yangsang-gwa yeonhaeng wolli 한국 서사무가의 유형별 존재양상과 연행원리 [Forms per type and principles of performances in Korean shamanic narratives]. Seoul: Minsogwon. ISBN 978-89-285-0881-5. Anthology of prior papers. ↩

144. Yun 2019, p. 89. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

145. Yun 2019, p. 89. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

146. Kendall 1988, p. 33. - Kendall, Laurel (1988). The Life and Hard Times of a Korean Shaman: Of Tales and the Telling of Tales. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1145-7. ↩

147. Chačatrjan 2015, p. 57. - Chačatrjan, Arevik (2015). "An Investigation on the History and Structure of Korean Shamanism". International Journal of Korean Humanities and Social Sciences. 59: 55–70. https://pressto.amu.edu.pl/index.php/kr/article/view/6508 ↩

148. Kendall 2009, p. 199. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

149. Chačatrjan 2015, p. 57. - Chačatrjan, Arevik (2015). "An Investigation on the History and Structure of Korean Shamanism". International Journal of Korean Humanities and Social Sciences. 59: 55–70. https://pressto.amu.edu.pl/index.php/kr/article/view/6508 ↩

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151. Sarfati 2021, p. 144. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

152. Yun 2019, p. 128. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

153. Yun 2019, p. 129. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

154. Yun 2019, p. 129. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

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156. Kendall 1988, p. 8; Baker 2008, p. 26; Kendall 2009, pp. 36, 168; Sarfati 2021, p. 28. - Kendall, Laurel (1988). The Life and Hard Times of a Korean Shaman: Of Tales and the Telling of Tales. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1145-7. ↩

157. Kendall 1988, p. 8; Grayson 2002, p. 225. - Kendall, Laurel (1988). The Life and Hard Times of a Korean Shaman: Of Tales and the Telling of Tales. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1145-7. ↩

158. Kendall 1988, p. 102. - Kendall, Laurel (1988). The Life and Hard Times of a Korean Shaman: Of Tales and the Telling of Tales. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1145-7. ↩

159. Dix 1980, p. 55. - Dix, Griffin (1980). "The Place of the Almanac in Korean Folk Religion". The Journal of Korean Studies. 2: 47–70. doi:10.1353/jks.1980.0001. JSTOR 41490152. https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjks.1980.0001 ↩

160. Yun 2019, p. 107. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

161. Kim 2018, p. 38. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

162. Kendall 1988, p. 91. - Kendall, Laurel (1988). The Life and Hard Times of a Korean Shaman: Of Tales and the Telling of Tales. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1145-7. ↩

163. Baker 2008, p. 27. - Baker, Don (2008). Korean Spirituality. Dimensions of Asian Spirituality. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3233-9. ↩

164. Kwon 2009, p. 6. - Kwon, Heonik (2009). "Healing the Wounds of War: New Ancestral Shrines in Korea" (PDF). The Asia-Pacific Journal. 7 (24 #4): 1–17. https://apjjf.org/-Heonik-Kwon/3172/article.pdf ↩

165. Sarfati 2021, p. 1. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

166. Sarfati 2021, p. 16. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

167. Kendall 2009, p. xx. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

168. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, pp. 70, 82. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

169. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 82. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

170. Kendall 2009, p. 136. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

171. Yun 2019, p. 13. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

172. Kendall 2009, p. 30. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

173. Kim 2018, p. 50; Yun 2019, pp. 80, 103, 110. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

174. Kendall 2009, p. 121. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

175. Choi 1989, p. 236. - Choi, Chungmoo (1989). "The Artistry and Ritual Aesthetics of Urban Korean Shamans". Journal of Ritual Studies. 3 (2): 235–249. JSTOR 44368939. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44368939 ↩

176. Sarfati 2021, pp. 16, 165, 171. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

177. Yun 2019, p. 167. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

178. Kendall 1988, p. 79; Kim 2018, p. 16; Sarfati 2021, p. 1. - Kendall, Laurel (1988). The Life and Hard Times of a Korean Shaman: Of Tales and the Telling of Tales. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1145-7. ↩

179. Kendall 2009, p. xx; Kim 2018, p. 169; Sarfati 2021, p. 7. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

180. Kendall 2009, p. 26. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

181. Grim 1984, p. 239; Sarfati 2021, p. 7. - Grim, John A. (1984). "Chaesu Gut: A Korean Shamanistic Performance". Asian Folklore Studies. 43 (2): 235–259. doi:10.2307/1178012. JSTOR 1178012. https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1178012 ↩

182. Ch'oe 1989, p. 224. - Ch'oe, Kil-sŏng (1989). "The Symbolic Meaning of Shamanic Ritual in Korean Folk Life". Journal of Ritual Studies. 3 (2): 217–233. JSTOR 44368938. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44368938 ↩

183. Sarfati 2021, p. 147. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

184. Kendall 1988, p. 63. - Kendall, Laurel (1988). The Life and Hard Times of a Korean Shaman: Of Tales and the Telling of Tales. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1145-7. ↩

185. Kendall 1988, p. 63. - Kendall, Laurel (1988). The Life and Hard Times of a Korean Shaman: Of Tales and the Telling of Tales. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1145-7. ↩

186. Sarfati 2021, p. 28. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

187. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 35. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

188. Kendall 2009, p. 75. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

189. Kendall 2009, p. 75. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

190. Sarfati 2021, p. 44. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

191. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 87; Sarfati 2021, p. 51. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

192. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 87. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

193. Kim 2018, p. 72. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

194. Kendall 2009, pp. xx, 67. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

195. Grim 1984, p. 236; Kendall 2009, p. 67. - Grim, John A. (1984). "Chaesu Gut: A Korean Shamanistic Performance". Asian Folklore Studies. 43 (2): 235–259. doi:10.2307/1178012. JSTOR 1178012. https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1178012 ↩

196. Kendall 2009, p. 70. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

197. Kendall 2009, p. 71. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

198. Kendall 2009, p. 100. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

199. Kendall 2009, p. 112. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

200. Sarfati 2021, p. 83. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

201. Yun 2019, p. 157. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

202. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 9. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

203. Sarfati 2021, p. 52. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

204. Choi 1989, p. 236; Guillemoz 1992, p. 120; Yun 2019, p. 19. - Choi, Chungmoo (1989). "The Artistry and Ritual Aesthetics of Urban Korean Shamans". Journal of Ritual Studies. 3 (2): 235–249. JSTOR 44368939. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44368939 ↩

205. Baker 2008, p. 21. - Baker, Don (2008). Korean Spirituality. Dimensions of Asian Spirituality. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3233-9. ↩

206. Kim 2018, pp. xiv, 141. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

207. Kim 2018, p. 128. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

208. Baker 2008, p. 21. - Baker, Don (2008). Korean Spirituality. Dimensions of Asian Spirituality. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3233-9. ↩

209. Baker 2008, p. 21. - Baker, Don (2008). Korean Spirituality. Dimensions of Asian Spirituality. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3233-9. ↩

210. Kendall 1996, p. 516; Kendall 2009, p. 139. - Kendall, Laurel (1996). "Korean Shamans and the Spirits of Capitalism". American Anthropologist. 98 (3): 512–527. doi:10.1525/aa.1996.98.3.02a00060. JSTOR 682720. https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1996.98.3.02a00060 ↩

211. Baker 2008, p. 21; Kim 2018, p. 103. - Baker, Don (2008). Korean Spirituality. Dimensions of Asian Spirituality. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3233-9. ↩

212. Kendall 2009, p. 2; Kim 2018, p. 223. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

213. Kendall 2009, p. 120; Sarfati 2021, p. 76. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

214. Kendall 1988, p. 6; Baker 2008, p. 21. - Kendall, Laurel (1988). The Life and Hard Times of a Korean Shaman: Of Tales and the Telling of Tales. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1145-7. ↩

215. Kim 2018, p. 108. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

216. Kendall 2009, p. 134. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

217. Sarfati 2021, pp. 82–83. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

218. Kendall 2009, p. 30. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

219. Sarfati 2021, p. 16. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

220. Choi 1989, p. 237. - Choi, Chungmoo (1989). "The Artistry and Ritual Aesthetics of Urban Korean Shamans". Journal of Ritual Studies. 3 (2): 235–249. JSTOR 44368939. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44368939 ↩

221. Kendall 1988, p. 7. - Kendall, Laurel (1988). The Life and Hard Times of a Korean Shaman: Of Tales and the Telling of Tales. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1145-7. ↩

222. Baker 2008, p. 26; Yun 2019, p. 96. - Baker, Don (2008). Korean Spirituality. Dimensions of Asian Spirituality. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3233-9. ↩

223. Choi 1989, p. 238. - Choi, Chungmoo (1989). "The Artistry and Ritual Aesthetics of Urban Korean Shamans". Journal of Ritual Studies. 3 (2): 235–249. JSTOR 44368939. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44368939 ↩

224. Yun 2019, pp. 100–101. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

225. Yun 2019, p. 6. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

226. Yun 2019, p. 6. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

227. Yun 2019, p. 5. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

228. Yun 2019, p. 7. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

229. Yun 2019, p. 82. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

230. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 19. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

231. Yun 2019, p. 82. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

232. Grim 1984, pp. 236–237; Kendall 1988, p. 102. - Grim, John A. (1984). "Chaesu Gut: A Korean Shamanistic Performance". Asian Folklore Studies. 43 (2): 235–259. doi:10.2307/1178012. JSTOR 1178012. https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1178012 ↩

233. Grim 1984, p. 237. - Grim, John A. (1984). "Chaesu Gut: A Korean Shamanistic Performance". Asian Folklore Studies. 43 (2): 235–259. doi:10.2307/1178012. JSTOR 1178012. https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1178012 ↩

234. Yun 2019, p. 82. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

235. Yun 2019, p. 82. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

236. Kendall 2021, p. 9. - Kendall, Laurel (2021). "Gods and Things: Is "Animism" an Operable Concept in Korea?". Religions. 12 (283): 283–297. doi:10.3390/rel12040283. https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel12040283 ↩

237. Kendall 2021, p. 8. - Kendall, Laurel (2021). "Gods and Things: Is "Animism" an Operable Concept in Korea?". Religions. 12 (283): 283–297. doi:10.3390/rel12040283. https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel12040283 ↩

238. Sarfati 2021, pp. 22, 101, 128; Kendall 2021, p. 10. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

239. Sarfati 2021, pp. 22, 101, 128; Kendall 2021, p. 10. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

240. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 1. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

241. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 1. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

242. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 19. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

243. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 11. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

244. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 19. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

245. Kendall 2021, p. 10. - Kendall, Laurel (2021). "Gods and Things: Is "Animism" an Operable Concept in Korea?". Religions. 12 (283): 283–297. doi:10.3390/rel12040283. https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel12040283 ↩

246. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015; Kendall 2021, p. 10. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

247. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 78. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

248. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 77. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

249. Sarfati 2021, p. 102. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

250. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 22. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

251. Kendall 2021, p. 11. - Kendall, Laurel (2021). "Gods and Things: Is "Animism" an Operable Concept in Korea?". Religions. 12 (283): 283–297. doi:10.3390/rel12040283. https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel12040283 ↩

252. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, pp. 109, 114. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

253. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 41; Kendall 2021, pp. 11–12. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

254. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 110. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

255. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 56. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

256. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 123; Sarfati 2021, p. 123. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

257. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 20; Sarfati 2021, pp. 118, 122, 128. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

258. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 20. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

259. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 20. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

260. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 21. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

261. Grim 1984, p. 238; Kendall 2009, p. 31; Kim 2018, p. 58; Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 78. - Grim, John A. (1984). "Chaesu Gut: A Korean Shamanistic Performance". Asian Folklore Studies. 43 (2): 235–259. doi:10.2307/1178012. JSTOR 1178012. https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1178012 ↩

262. Grim 1984, p. 237; Kendall 2021, p. 9. - Grim, John A. (1984). "Chaesu Gut: A Korean Shamanistic Performance". Asian Folklore Studies. 43 (2): 235–259. doi:10.2307/1178012. JSTOR 1178012. https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1178012 ↩

263. Kendall 2021, pp. 9–10. - Kendall, Laurel (2021). "Gods and Things: Is "Animism" an Operable Concept in Korea?". Religions. 12 (283): 283–297. doi:10.3390/rel12040283. https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel12040283 ↩

264. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 19; Sarfati 2021, p. 116; Kendall 2021, p. 3. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

265. Kendall 2021, p. 11. - Kendall, Laurel (2021). "Gods and Things: Is "Animism" an Operable Concept in Korea?". Religions. 12 (283): 283–297. doi:10.3390/rel12040283. https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel12040283 ↩

266. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 19. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

267. Sarfati 2021, p. 118; Kendall 2021, p. 3. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

268. Sarfati 2021, p. 118. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

269. Kendall 2021, p. 9. - Kendall, Laurel (2021). "Gods and Things: Is "Animism" an Operable Concept in Korea?". Religions. 12 (283): 283–297. doi:10.3390/rel12040283. https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel12040283 ↩

270. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 83; Sarfati 2021, p. 118. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

271. Kendall 2021, p. 9. - Kendall, Laurel (2021). "Gods and Things: Is "Animism" an Operable Concept in Korea?". Religions. 12 (283): 283–297. doi:10.3390/rel12040283. https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel12040283 ↩

272. Kendall 2021, p. 6. - Kendall, Laurel (2021). "Gods and Things: Is "Animism" an Operable Concept in Korea?". Religions. 12 (283): 283–297. doi:10.3390/rel12040283. https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel12040283 ↩

273. Kendall 2021, p. 5. - Kendall, Laurel (2021). "Gods and Things: Is "Animism" an Operable Concept in Korea?". Religions. 12 (283): 283–297. doi:10.3390/rel12040283. https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel12040283 ↩

274. Kendall 2021, p. 6. - Kendall, Laurel (2021). "Gods and Things: Is "Animism" an Operable Concept in Korea?". Religions. 12 (283): 283–297. doi:10.3390/rel12040283. https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel12040283 ↩

275. Kendall 2021, p. 5. - Kendall, Laurel (2021). "Gods and Things: Is "Animism" an Operable Concept in Korea?". Religions. 12 (283): 283–297. doi:10.3390/rel12040283. https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel12040283 ↩

276. Guillemoz 1992, p. 119. - Guillemoz, Alexandre (1992). "Seoul, the Widow, and the Mudang: Transformations of Urban Korean Shamanism". Diogenes. 40 (158): 115–127. doi:10.1177/039219219204015810. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F039219219204015810 ↩

277. Kim 2018, pp. 3, 72; Kendall 2021, p. 4. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

278. Kendall 2009, p. 178. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

279. Kim 2018, p. 78. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

280. Kim 2018, p. 78. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

281. Kendall 2009, p. 52. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

282. Kendall 2009, p. 194. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

283. Kendall 2009, pp. 189–190. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

284. Kendall 2009, p. 195. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

285. Kendall 2009, p. 190. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

286. Guillemoz 1992, p. 118; Kendall 2009, p. 195. - Guillemoz, Alexandre (1992). "Seoul, the Widow, and the Mudang: Transformations of Urban Korean Shamanism". Diogenes. 40 (158): 115–127. doi:10.1177/039219219204015810. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F039219219204015810 ↩

287. Kendall 2009, p. 188. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

288. Guillemoz 1992, p. 118; Kendall 2009, p. 190. - Guillemoz, Alexandre (1992). "Seoul, the Widow, and the Mudang: Transformations of Urban Korean Shamanism". Diogenes. 40 (158): 115–127. doi:10.1177/039219219204015810. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F039219219204015810 ↩

289. Kendall 2009, pp. 112, 184. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

290. Kendall 2009, p. 191. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

291. Kendall 2009, p. 189. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

292. Kendall 2009, p. 112. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

293. Kendall 2009, p. 189. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

294. Kendall 2009, p. 52. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

295. Kendall 2009, p. 189. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

296. Kendall 2009, p. 188. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

297. Kendall 2009, p. 190. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

298. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 24. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

299. Kwon 2009, p. 10. - Kwon, Heonik (2009). "Healing the Wounds of War: New Ancestral Shrines in Korea" (PDF). The Asia-Pacific Journal. 7 (24 #4): 1–17. https://apjjf.org/-Heonik-Kwon/3172/article.pdf ↩

300. Yun 2019, p. 187. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

301. Kim 2018, p. 34. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

302. Yun 2019, pp. 4, 102. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

303. Lee 1981, p. 40. - Lee, Jung Young (1981). Korean Shamanistic Rituals. Religion and Society. The Hague: Mouton. ISBN 978-90-279-3378-2. ↩

304. Kim 2018, p. 15; Yun 2019, p. 103. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

305. Lee 1981, p. 27. - Lee, Jung Young (1981). Korean Shamanistic Rituals. Religion and Society. The Hague: Mouton. ISBN 978-90-279-3378-2. ↩

306. Kim 2018, p. 35. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

307. Kendall 2009, p. 55; Kim 2018, p. 83; Sarfati 2021, p. 47. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

308. Kendall 2009, p. 122. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

309. Kendall 2009, p. 34. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

310. Yun 2019, pp. 10–11. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

311. Kendall 2009, p. xxi. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

312. Sarfati 2021, p. 47. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

313. Yun 2019, p. 106. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

314. Kendall 1988, p. 7. - Kendall, Laurel (1988). The Life and Hard Times of a Korean Shaman: Of Tales and the Telling of Tales. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1145-7. ↩

315. Dix 1980, p. 55; Guillemoz 1992, p. 120. - Dix, Griffin (1980). "The Place of the Almanac in Korean Folk Religion". The Journal of Korean Studies. 2: 47–70. doi:10.1353/jks.1980.0001. JSTOR 41490152. https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjks.1980.0001 ↩

316. Grim 1984, p. 236. - Grim, John A. (1984). "Chaesu Gut: A Korean Shamanistic Performance". Asian Folklore Studies. 43 (2): 235–259. doi:10.2307/1178012. JSTOR 1178012. https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1178012 ↩

317. Sarfati 2021, p. 179. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

318. Yun 2019, p. 79. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

319. Kendall 2009, p. 201. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

320. Grim 1984, p. 235. - Grim, John A. (1984). "Chaesu Gut: A Korean Shamanistic Performance". Asian Folklore Studies. 43 (2): 235–259. doi:10.2307/1178012. JSTOR 1178012. https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1178012 ↩

321. Yun 2019, p. 109. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

322. Kim 2018, p. 170; Yun 2019, p. 168; Sarfati 2021, p. 45. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

323. Kim 2018, p. 170. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

324. Kim 2018, pp. 170–171; Yun 2019, pp. 4, 105, 169. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

325. Yun 2019, p. 108. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

326. Sarfati 2021, p. 45. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

327. Yun 2019, pp. 132–133. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

328. Kim 2018, pp. 3, 84, 98; Sarfati 2021, pp. 3–4. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

329. Kim 2018, p. 111; Yun 2019, p. 113. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

330. Kendall 2009, pp. 63, 122. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

331. Kim 2018, p. 111. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

332. Kim 2018, p. 55. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

333. Kendall 2009, p. 51; Yun 2019, pp. 21, 196; Sarfati 2021, p. 30. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

334. Yun 2019, p. 21; Sarfati 2021, p. 30. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

335. Grim 1984, p. 236; Kendall 2009, p. 52; Yun 2019, p. 78; Sarfati 2021, p. 118. - Grim, John A. (1984). "Chaesu Gut: A Korean Shamanistic Performance". Asian Folklore Studies. 43 (2): 235–259. doi:10.2307/1178012. JSTOR 1178012. https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1178012 ↩

336. Yun 2019, p. 196. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

337. Sarfati 2021, p. 23. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

338. Sarfati 2021, p. 30. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

339. Sarfati 2021, p. 32. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

340. Sarfati 2021, p. 15. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

341. Yun 2019, p. 19. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

342. Sarfati 2021, p. 22. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

343. Sarfati 2021, p. 30. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

344. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 20. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

345. Kim 2018, p. 53. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

346. Kim 2018, p. 80. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

347. Kim 2018, p. 51. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

348. Kim 2018, p. 52. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

349. Kim 2018, pp. 110–111. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

350. Grayson 2002, p. 229; Yun 2019, p. 79; Sarfati 2021, pp. 15, 32. - Grayson, James Huntley (2002). Korea - A Religious History. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780700716050. ↩

351. Yun 2019, p. 79. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

352. Sarfati 2021, pp. 13, 97. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

353. Sarfati 2021, p. 15. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

354. Kendall 2009, p. 54; Yun 2019, p. 193. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

355. Bruno 2013, p. 178; Sarfati 2021, p. 26. - Bruno, Antonetta L. (2013). "The Posal between the Mudang and Buddhist: In-between and Bypassing". Journal of Korean Religions. 4 (2): 175–196. doi:10.1353/jkr.2013.0018. JSTOR 23943359. https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjkr.2013.0018 ↩

356. Kendall 2009, p. 55. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

357. Sarfati 2021, p. 42. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

358. Kendall 2009, p. 158; Yun 2019, pp. 79, 86. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

359. Yun 2019, p. 82; Sarfati 2021, pp. 15, 32. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

360. Sarfati 2021, p. 33. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

361. Kim 2018, p. 50; Kendall 2009, p. 108; Kendall 2021, p. 9. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

362. Kim 2018, p. 62. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

363. Choi 1989, p. 243; Kim 2018, p. 111-113. - Choi, Chungmoo (1989). "The Artistry and Ritual Aesthetics of Urban Korean Shamans". Journal of Ritual Studies. 3 (2): 235–249. JSTOR 44368939. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44368939 ↩

364. Kim 2018, p. 111-113. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

365. Yun 2019, p. 85. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

366. Yun 2019, p. 87. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

367. Yun 2019, p. 88. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

368. Choi 1989, pp. 240–241. - Choi, Chungmoo (1989). "The Artistry and Ritual Aesthetics of Urban Korean Shamans". Journal of Ritual Studies. 3 (2): 235–249. JSTOR 44368939. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44368939 ↩

369. Kendall 2009, pp. 157–158; Yun 2019, pp. 130–131; Sarfati 2021, pp. 30, 45. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

370. Yun 2019, pp. 195–196. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

371. Yun 2019, pp. 82, 130. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

372. Yun 2019, p. 7; Sarfati 2021, pp. 43, 51. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

373. Kendall 2021, p. 9. - Kendall, Laurel (2021). "Gods and Things: Is "Animism" an Operable Concept in Korea?". Religions. 12 (283): 283–297. doi:10.3390/rel12040283. https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel12040283 ↩

374. Kendall 2021, pp. 9, 35. - Kendall, Laurel (2021). "Gods and Things: Is "Animism" an Operable Concept in Korea?". Religions. 12 (283): 283–297. doi:10.3390/rel12040283. https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel12040283 ↩

375. Kendall 2021, p. 9. - Kendall, Laurel (2021). "Gods and Things: Is "Animism" an Operable Concept in Korea?". Religions. 12 (283): 283–297. doi:10.3390/rel12040283. https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel12040283 ↩

376. Kendall 2021, p. 9. - Kendall, Laurel (2021). "Gods and Things: Is "Animism" an Operable Concept in Korea?". Religions. 12 (283): 283–297. doi:10.3390/rel12040283. https://doi.org/10.3390%2Frel12040283 ↩

377. Yun 2019, p. 138. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

378. Sarfati 2021, p. 15. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

379. Grim 1984, p. 239; Grayson 2002, p. 229; Sarfati 2021, pp. 31, 44. - Grim, John A. (1984). "Chaesu Gut: A Korean Shamanistic Performance". Asian Folklore Studies. 43 (2): 235–259. doi:10.2307/1178012. JSTOR 1178012. https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1178012 ↩

380. Grim 1984, p. 240; Sarfati 2021, p. 31. - Grim, John A. (1984). "Chaesu Gut: A Korean Shamanistic Performance". Asian Folklore Studies. 43 (2): 235–259. doi:10.2307/1178012. JSTOR 1178012. https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1178012 ↩

381. Kim 2018, p. 55. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

382. Kendall 2009, p. 79; Sarfati 2021, p. 38. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

383. Grim 1984, p. 242; Sarfati 2021, p. 42. - Grim, John A. (1984). "Chaesu Gut: A Korean Shamanistic Performance". Asian Folklore Studies. 43 (2): 235–259. doi:10.2307/1178012. JSTOR 1178012. https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1178012 ↩

384. Sarfati 2021, p. 42. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

385. Zolla 1985, p. 107; Sarfati 2021, p. 31. - Zolla, Elemire (1985). "Korean Shamanism". RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics. 9 (9): 101–113. doi:10.1086/RESv9n1ms20166728. JSTOR 20166728. https://doi.org/10.1086%2FRESv9n1ms20166728 ↩

386. Sarfati 2021, p. 90. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

387. Sarfati 2021, p. 145. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

388. Bruno 2016, p. 121. - Bruno, Antonetta L. (2016). "Translatability of Knowledge in Ethnography: The Case of Korean Shamanic Texts". Rivista degli studi orientali. 89 (1): 121–139. JSTOR 45111754. https://www.jstor.org/stable/45111754 ↩

389. Kendall 2009, p. 55. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

390. Grayson 2002, p. 229; Bruno 2016, p. 123; Kim 2018, p. 72; Sarfati 2021, p. 37. - Grayson, James Huntley (2002). Korea - A Religious History. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780700716050. ↩

391. Bruno 2016, pp. 124–125. - Bruno, Antonetta L. (2016). "Translatability of Knowledge in Ethnography: The Case of Korean Shamanic Texts". Rivista degli studi orientali. 89 (1): 121–139. JSTOR 45111754. https://www.jstor.org/stable/45111754 ↩

392. Ch'oe 1989, p. 221. - Ch'oe, Kil-sŏng (1989). "The Symbolic Meaning of Shamanic Ritual in Korean Folk Life". Journal of Ritual Studies. 3 (2): 217–233. JSTOR 44368938. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44368938 ↩

393. Kim 2018, pp. 72, 120. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

394. Yun 2019, p. 69. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

395. Yun 2019, p. 69. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

396. Kendall 2009, p. 53. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

397. Sarfati 2021, p. 34. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

398. Sarfati 2021, pp. 5–6. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

399. Sarfati 2021, p. 31. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

400. Sarfati 2021, p. 32. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

401. Grayson 2002, p. 229; Kendall 2009, p. xxi. - Grayson, James Huntley (2002). Korea - A Religious History. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780700716050. ↩

402. Sarfati 2021, p. 34. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

403. Grim 1984, p. 243; Sarfati 2021, pp. 35, 40. - Grim, John A. (1984). "Chaesu Gut: A Korean Shamanistic Performance". Asian Folklore Studies. 43 (2): 235–259. doi:10.2307/1178012. JSTOR 1178012. https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1178012 ↩

404. Yun 2019, p. 19. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

405. Sarfati 2021, p. 46. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

406. Sarfati 2021, p. 40. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

407. Sarfati 2021, p. 46. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

408. Kendall 2009, p. 97; Sarfati 2021, p. 46. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

409. Zolla 1985, pp. 109–110; Baker 2008, p. 23; Kim 2018, pp. 211, 216–217; Sarfati 2021, pp. 1, 49–50. - Zolla, Elemire (1985). "Korean Shamanism". RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics. 9 (9): 101–113. doi:10.1086/RESv9n1ms20166728. JSTOR 20166728. https://doi.org/10.1086%2FRESv9n1ms20166728 ↩

410. Sarfati 2021, pp. 1, 46. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

411. Sarfati 2021, pp. 48–49. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

412. Sarfati 2021, p. 49. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

413. Sarfati 2021, p. 13. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

414. Kim 2018, p. 59. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

415. Kendall 2009, pp. 79–81. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

416. Sarfati 2021, p. 19. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

417. Bruno 2016, p. 121; Kim 2018, p. 72. - Bruno, Antonetta L. (2016). "Translatability of Knowledge in Ethnography: The Case of Korean Shamanic Texts". Rivista degli studi orientali. 89 (1): 121–139. JSTOR 45111754. https://www.jstor.org/stable/45111754 ↩

418. Kendall 2009, pp. 40–41; Sarfati 2021, p. 48. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

419. Sarfati 2021, p. 35. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

420. Yun 2019, p. 114. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

421. Yun 2019, p. 103. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

422. Kendall 2009, pp. 56, 57. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

423. Kendall 2009, p. 54. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

424. Kendall 2009, p. 168; Kim 2018, pp. 61–62, 120; Yun 2019, pp. 7, 82. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

425. Ch'oe 1989, p. 221; Kendall 2009, p. 47. - Ch'oe, Kil-sŏng (1989). "The Symbolic Meaning of Shamanic Ritual in Korean Folk Life". Journal of Ritual Studies. 3 (2): 217–233. JSTOR 44368938. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44368938 ↩

426. Sarfati 2021, p. 50. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

427. Ch'oe 1989, p. 221. - Ch'oe, Kil-sŏng (1989). "The Symbolic Meaning of Shamanic Ritual in Korean Folk Life". Journal of Ritual Studies. 3 (2): 217–233. JSTOR 44368938. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44368938 ↩

428. Kendall 1988, p. 6; Sarfati 2021, p. 142. - Kendall, Laurel (1988). The Life and Hard Times of a Korean Shaman: Of Tales and the Telling of Tales. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1145-7. ↩

429. Sarfati 2021, p. 142. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

430. Sarfati 2021, p. 178. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

431. Choi 1989, p. 243; Kendall 2009, p. 76. - Choi, Chungmoo (1989). "The Artistry and Ritual Aesthetics of Urban Korean Shamans". Journal of Ritual Studies. 3 (2): 235–249. JSTOR 44368939. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44368939 ↩

432. Yun 2019, p. 78. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

433. Kim 2018, p. 72. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

434. Kendall 2009, p. 123. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

435. Sarfati 2021, p. 144. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

436. Grim 1984, p. 236. - Grim, John A. (1984). "Chaesu Gut: A Korean Shamanistic Performance". Asian Folklore Studies. 43 (2): 235–259. doi:10.2307/1178012. JSTOR 1178012. https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1178012 ↩

437. Kendall 1996, p. 512. - Kendall, Laurel (1996). "Korean Shamans and the Spirits of Capitalism". American Anthropologist. 98 (3): 512–527. doi:10.1525/aa.1996.98.3.02a00060. JSTOR 682720. https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1996.98.3.02a00060 ↩

438. Kendall 1996, p. 512. - Kendall, Laurel (1996). "Korean Shamans and the Spirits of Capitalism". American Anthropologist. 98 (3): 512–527. doi:10.1525/aa.1996.98.3.02a00060. JSTOR 682720. https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1996.98.3.02a00060 ↩

439. Kendall 2009, p. 35. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

440. Kendall 2009, pp. 44, 57, 148. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

441. Kendall 2009, pp. 44–45. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

442. Kendall 1996, p. 515. - Kendall, Laurel (1996). "Korean Shamans and the Spirits of Capitalism". American Anthropologist. 98 (3): 512–527. doi:10.1525/aa.1996.98.3.02a00060. JSTOR 682720. https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1996.98.3.02a00060 ↩

443. Kendall 1988, pp. 28, 31. - Kendall, Laurel (1988). The Life and Hard Times of a Korean Shaman: Of Tales and the Telling of Tales. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1145-7. ↩

444. Yun 2019, pp. 79–80. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

445. Yun 2019, p. 193. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

446. Kim 2018, p. 76. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

447. Kim 2018, p. 117; Yun 2019, p. 150. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

448. Kim 2018, p. 219. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

449. Kim 2018, p. 219. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

450. Sarfati 2021, p. 29. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

451. Sarfati 2021, pp. 54, 56. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

452. Yun 2019, p. 148. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

453. Sarfati 2021, p. 27. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

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524. Grayson 2002, p. 217; Yun 2019, p. 32. - Grayson, James Huntley (2002). Korea - A Religious History. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780700716050. ↩

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531. Grayson 2002, p. 217. - Grayson, James Huntley (2002). Korea - A Religious History. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780700716050. ↩

532. Kendall 2009, p. 4. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

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543. Kendall 2009, pp. 17–18; Yun 2019, pp. 54, 57. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

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558. Kendall 2009, p. 10; Kim 2018, pp. 86–87; Yun 2019, p. 65; Sarfati 2021, p. 5. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

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563. Kim 2018, p. 209. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

564. Kendall 2009, p. xxii. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

565. Kendall 2009, p. 20; Kim 2018, pp. 195–196; Sarfati 2021, pp. 84, 86. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

566. Kendall 2009, p. 20; Yun 2019, p. 70. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

567. Kendall, Yang & Yoon 2015, p. 124. - Kendall, Laurel; Yang, Jongsung; Yoon, Yul Soo (2015). God Pictures in Korean Contexts: The Ownership and Meaning of Shaman Paintings. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.21313/hawaii/9780824847647.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-8248-6833-8. OCLC 986613847. https://doi.org/10.21313%2Fhawaii%2F9780824847647.001.0001 ↩

568. Kendall 2009, pp. 21–22; Sarfati 2021, pp. 5–6. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

569. Kendall 2009, pp. 15–16. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

570. Kendall 2009, pp. 15–16. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

571. Kendall 2009, p. 109. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

572. Sarfati 2021, pp. 18, 177. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

573. Sarfati 2021, p. 2. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

574. Sarfati 2021, p. 6. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

575. Lee 2010s, passim. - Lee, Chi-ran (2010s). "The Emergence of National Religions in Korea" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 April 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140413124433/http://manak.org.in/wp-content/uploads/pdf-manak/The%20Emergence%20of%20National%20Religions%20in%20Korea.pdf ↩

576. Lee 1981, p. 12; Kendall 1988, p. 6; Kendall 2009, p. xx; Kim 2018, p. 34; Yun 2019, p. 22; Sarfati 2021, p. 19. - Lee, Jung Young (1981). Korean Shamanistic Rituals. Religion and Society. The Hague: Mouton. ISBN 978-90-279-3378-2. ↩

577. Lee 1981, p. 12. - Lee, Jung Young (1981). Korean Shamanistic Rituals. Religion and Society. The Hague: Mouton. ISBN 978-90-279-3378-2. ↩

578. Sarfati 2021, p. 19. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

579. Sarfati 2021, pp. 18–19. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

580. Yun 2019, p. 22. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

581. Sarfati 2021, p. 119. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

582. Kim 2018, pp. 51–52, 208. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

583. Sarfati 2021, p. 9. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

584. Guillemoz 1992, p. 116. - Guillemoz, Alexandre (1992). "Seoul, the Widow, and the Mudang: Transformations of Urban Korean Shamanism". Diogenes. 40 (158): 115–127. doi:10.1177/039219219204015810. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F039219219204015810 ↩

585. Sarfati 2021, p. 9. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

586. Sarfati 2021, p. 14. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

587. Yun 2019, p. 145. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

588. Sarfati 2021, p. 3. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

589. Yun 2019, p. 146. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

590. Guillemoz 1992, p. 116; Baker 2008, p. 4. - Guillemoz, Alexandre (1992). "Seoul, the Widow, and the Mudang: Transformations of Urban Korean Shamanism". Diogenes. 40 (158): 115–127. doi:10.1177/039219219204015810. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F039219219204015810 ↩

591. Kim 2018, p. 7. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

592. "Country Profile: Korea, North (Democratic People's Republic of Korea)". Religious Intelligence UK. Archived from the original on 13 October 2007. https://web.archive.org/web/20071013201130/http://www.religiousintelligence.co.uk/country/?CountryID=37 ↩

593. Kim 2018, p. 72. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

594. Yun 2019, pp. 23, 81; Sarfati 2021, p. 168. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

595. Sarfati 2021, p. 167. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

596. Sarfati 2021, p. 144. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

597. Kendall 2009, p. 207. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

598. Kim 2018, p. 160. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

599. Kim 2018, p. xiii; Yun 2019, p. 80. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

600. Sarfati 2021, p. 4. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

601. Kim 2018, pp. 166, 167; Yun 2019, pp. 4, 162. - Kim, Chongho (2018) [2003]. Korean Shamanism: The Cultural Paradox. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-71051-1. ↩

602. Yun 2019, p. 132. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

603. Sarfati 2021, p. 166. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

604. Yun 2019, p. 66. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

605. Sarfati 2021, p. 166. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

606. Kendall 2009, p. xx. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

607. Kendall 2009, p. 6. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

608. Guillemoz 1992, p. 123. - Guillemoz, Alexandre (1992). "Seoul, the Widow, and the Mudang: Transformations of Urban Korean Shamanism". Diogenes. 40 (158): 115–127. doi:10.1177/039219219204015810. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F039219219204015810 ↩

609. Kendall 1996, p. 514; Kendall 2009, p. 131. - Kendall, Laurel (1996). "Korean Shamans and the Spirits of Capitalism". American Anthropologist. 98 (3): 512–527. doi:10.1525/aa.1996.98.3.02a00060. JSTOR 682720. https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1996.98.3.02a00060 ↩

610. Kendall 2009, p. 24; Kim 2018, pp. 157–158. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

611. Kendall 2009, p. 24. - Kendall, Laurel (2009). Shamans, Nostalgias and the IMF: South Korean Popular Religion in Motion. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3398-5. ↩

612. Sarfati 2021, p. 59. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

613. Sarfati 2021, pp. 64–65. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

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618. Sarfati 2021, p. 96–97. - Sarfati, Lora (2021). Contemporary Korean Shamanism: From Ritual to Digital. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-05717-4. ↩

619. Yun 2019, p. 165. - Yun, Kyoim (2019). The Shaman's Wages: Trading in Ritual on Cheju Island. Korean Studies of the Henry M. Jackson School of International Studies. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-74595-4. ↩

620. Kim, Andrew E. (1 July 2000). "Korean Religious Culture and Its Affinity to Christianity: The Rise of Protestant Christianity in South Korea". Sociology of Religion. 61 (2): 117–133. doi:10.2307/3712281. JSTOR 3712281. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩