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Definitions

The resistance between two terminals of an electrical device or circuit is determined by its current–voltage (I–V) curve (characteristic curve), giving the current i {\displaystyle i} through it for any given voltage v {\displaystyle v} across it.¹⁶ Most materials, including the ordinary (positive) resistances encountered in electrical circuits, obey Ohm's law; the current through them is proportional to the voltage over a wide range.¹⁷ So the I–V curve of an ohmic resistance is a straight line through the origin with positive slope. The resistance is the ratio of voltage to current, the inverse slope of the line (in I–V graphs where the voltage v {\displaystyle v} is the independent variable) and is constant.

Negative resistance occurs in a few nonlinear (nonohmic) devices.¹⁸ In a nonlinear component the I–V curve is not a straight line,¹⁹²⁰ so it does not obey Ohm's law.²¹ Resistance can still be defined, but the resistance is not constant; it varies with the voltage or current through the device.²²²³ The resistance of such a nonlinear device can be defined in two ways,²⁴²⁵²⁶ which are equal for ohmic resistances:²⁷

• Static resistance (also called chordal resistance, absolute resistance or just resistance) – This is the common definition of resistance; the voltage divided by the current:²⁸²⁹³⁰ R s t a t i c = v i . {\displaystyle R_{\mathrm {static} }={\frac {v}{i}}.} It is the inverse slope of the line (chord) from the origin through the point on the I–V curve.³¹ In a power source, like a battery or electric generator, positive current flows out of the positive voltage terminal,³² opposite to the direction of current in a resistor, so from the passive sign convention i {\displaystyle i} and v {\displaystyle v} have opposite signs, representing points lying in the 2nd or 4th quadrant of the I–V plane (diagram right). Thus power sources formally have negative static resistance ( R static < 0 ) . {\displaystyle R_{\text{static}}<0).} ³³³⁴³⁵ However this term is never used in practice, because the term "resistance" is only applied to passive components.³⁶³⁷³⁸ Static resistance determines the power dissipation in a component.³⁹⁴⁰ Passive devices, which consume electric power, have positive static resistance; while active devices, which produce electric power, do not.⁴¹⁴²⁴³

• Differential resistance (also called dynamic,⁴⁴⁴⁵ or incremental⁴⁶ resistance) – This is the derivative of the voltage with respect to the current; the ratio of a small change in voltage to the corresponding change in current,⁴⁷ the inverse slope of the I–V curve at a point: r d i f f = d v d i . {\displaystyle r_{\mathrm {diff} }={\frac {dv}{di}}.} Differential resistance is only relevant to time-varying currents.⁴⁸ Points on the curve where the slope is negative (declining to the right), meaning an increase in voltage causes a decrease in current, have negative differential resistance ( r diff < 0 {\displaystyle r_{\text{diff}}<0} ).⁴⁹⁵⁰⁵¹ Devices of this type can amplify signals,⁵²⁵³⁵⁴ and are what is usually meant by the term "negative resistance".⁵⁵⁵⁶

Negative resistance, like positive resistance, is measured in ohms.

Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance.⁵⁷⁵⁸ It is measured in siemens (formerly mho) which is the conductance of a resistor with a resistance of one ohm.⁵⁹ Each type of resistance defined above has a corresponding conductance⁶⁰

• Static conductance G s t a t i c = 1 R s t a t i c = i v {\displaystyle G_{\mathrm {static} }={\frac {1}{R_{\mathrm {static} }}}={\frac {i}{v}}}
• Differential conductance g d i f f = 1 r d i f f = d i d v {\displaystyle g_{\mathrm {diff} }={\frac {1}{r_{\mathrm {diff} }}}={\frac {di}{dv}}}

It can be seen that the conductance has the same sign as its corresponding resistance: a negative resistance will have a negative conductance⁶¹ while a positive resistance will have a positive conductance.⁶²⁶³

Fig. 1: I–V curve of linear or "ohmic" resistance, the common type of resistance encountered in electrical circuits. The current is proportional to the voltage, so both the static and differential resistance is positive R static = r diff = v i > 0 {\displaystyle R_{\text{static}}=r_{\text{diff}}={v \over i}>0} Fig. 2: I–V curve with negative differential resistance (red region).⁶⁴ The differential resistance r diff {\displaystyle r_{\text{diff}}} at a point P is the inverse slope of the line tangent to the graph at that point

r diff = Δ v Δ i = v 2 − v 1 i 2 − i 1 {\displaystyle r_{\text{diff}}={\frac {\Delta v}{\Delta i}}={\frac {v_{2}-v_{1}}{i_{2}-i_{1}}}}

Since Δ v > 0 {\displaystyle \Delta v\;>\;0} and Δ i < 0 {\displaystyle \Delta i<0} , at point P r diff < 0 {\displaystyle r_{\text{diff}}<0} .Fig. 3: I–V curve of a power source.⁶⁵ In the 2nd quadrant (red region) current flows out of the positive terminal, so electric power flows out of the device into the circuit. For example at point P, v < 0 {\displaystyle v<0} and i > 0 {\displaystyle i>0} , so R static = v i < 0 {\displaystyle R_{\text{static}}={\frac {v}{i}}<0} Fig. 4: I–V curve of a negative linear⁶⁶ or "active" resistance⁶⁷⁶⁸⁶⁹ (AR, red). It has negative differential resistance and negative static resistance (is active): R = Δ v Δ i = v i < 0 {\displaystyle R={\frac {\Delta v}{\Delta i}}={\frac {v}{i}}<0}

Operation

One way in which the different types of resistance can be distinguished is in the directions of current and electric power between a circuit and an electronic component. The illustrations below, with a rectangle representing the component attached to a circuit, summarize how the different types work:

The voltage v and current i variables in an electrical component must be defined according to the passive sign convention; positive conventional current is defined to enter the positive voltage terminal; this means power P flowing from the circuit into the component is defined to be positive, while power flowing from the component into the circuit is negative.7071 This applies to both DC and AC current. The diagram shows the directions for positive values of the variables.
In a positive static resistance, R static = v / i > 0 {\displaystyle R_{\text{static}}\;=\;v/i\;>\;0} , so v and i have the same sign.72 Therefore, from the passive sign convention above, conventional current (flow of positive charge) is through the device from the positive to the negative terminal, in the direction of the electric field E (decreasing potential).73 P = v i > 0 {\displaystyle P=vi\;>\;0} so the charges lose potential energy doing work on the device, and electric power flows from the circuit into the device,7475 where it is converted to heat or some other form of energy (yellow). If AC voltage is applied, v {\displaystyle v} and i {\displaystyle i} periodically reverse direction, but the instantaneous i {\displaystyle i} always flows from the higher potential to the lower potential.
In a power source, R static = v / i < 0 {\displaystyle R_{\text{static}}=v/i\;<\;0} ,76 so v {\displaystyle v} and i {\displaystyle i} have opposite signs.77 This means current is forced to flow from the negative to the positive terminal.78 The charges gain potential energy, so power flows out of the device into the circuit:7980 P = v i < 0 {\displaystyle P=vi\;<\;0} . Work (yellow) must be done on the charges by some power source in the device to make them move in this direction against the force of the electric field.
In a passive negative differential resistance, r diff = Δ v / Δ i < 0 {\displaystyle r_{\text{diff}}=\Delta v/\Delta i\;<\;0} , only the AC component of the current flows in the reverse direction. The static resistance is positive818283 so the current flows from positive to negative: P = v i > 0 {\displaystyle P=vi\;>\;0} . But the current (rate of charge flow) decreases as the voltage increases. So when a time-varying (AC) voltage is applied in addition to a DC voltage (right), the time-varying current Δ i {\displaystyle \Delta i} and voltage Δ v {\displaystyle \Delta v} components have opposite signs, so P AC = Δ v Δ i < 0 {\displaystyle P_{\text{AC}}=\Delta v\Delta i\;<\;0} .84 This means the instantaneous AC current Δ i {\displaystyle \Delta i} flows through the device in the direction of increasing AC voltage Δ v {\displaystyle \Delta v} , so AC power flows out of the device into the circuit. The device consumes DC power, some of which is converted to AC signal power which can be delivered to a load in the external circuit,8586 enabling the device to amplify the AC signal applied to it.87

Types and terminology

	rdiff > 0Positive differential resistance	rdiff < 0Negative differential resistance
Rstatic > 0Passive:Consumesnet power	Positive resistances: Resistors Ordinary diodes Most passive components	Passive negative differential resistances: Tunnel diodes Gunn diodes Gas-discharge tubes
Rstatic < 0Active:Producesnet power	Power sources: Batteries Generators Transistors Most active components	"Active resistors"Positive feedback amplifiers used in: Feedback oscillators Negative impedance converters Active filters

In an electronic device, the differential resistance r diff {\displaystyle r_{\text{diff}}} , the static resistance R static {\displaystyle R_{\text{static}}} , or both, can be negative,⁸⁸ so there are three categories of devices (fig. 2–4 above, and table) which could be called "negative resistances".

The term "negative resistance" almost always means negative differential resistance r diff < 0 {\displaystyle r_{\text{diff}}<0} .⁸⁹⁹⁰⁹¹ Negative differential resistance devices have unique capabilities: they can act as one-port amplifiers,^92939495 increasing the power of a time-varying signal applied to their port (terminals), or excite oscillations in a tuned circuit to make an oscillator.⁹⁶⁹⁷⁹⁸ They can also have hysteresis.⁹⁹¹⁰⁰ It is not possible for a device to have negative differential resistance without a power source,¹⁰¹ and these devices can be divided into two categories depending on whether they get their power from an internal source or from their port:^{102103104105106}

• Passive negative differential resistance devices (fig. 2 above): These are the most well-known type of "negative resistances"; passive two-terminal components whose intrinsic I–V curve has a downward "kink", causing the current to decrease with increasing voltage over a limited range.¹⁰⁷¹⁰⁸ The I–V curve, including the negative resistance region, lies in the 1st and 3rd quadrant of the plane¹⁰⁹ so the device has positive static resistance.¹¹⁰ Examples are gas-discharge tubes, tunnel diodes, and Gunn diodes.¹¹¹ These devices have no internal power source and in general work by converting external DC power from their port to time varying (AC) power,¹¹² so they require a DC bias current applied to the port in addition to the signal.¹¹³¹¹⁴ To add to the confusion, some authors^115116117 call these "active" devices, since they can amplify. This category also includes a few three-terminal devices, such as the unijunction transistor.¹¹⁸ They are covered in the Negative differential resistance section below.

• Active negative differential resistance devices (fig. 4): Circuits can be designed in which a positive voltage applied to the terminals will cause a proportional "negative" current; a current out of the positive terminal, the opposite of an ordinary resistor, over a limited range,^{119120121122123} Unlike in the above devices, the downward-sloping region of the I–V curve passes through the origin, so it lies in the 2nd and 4th quadrants of the plane, meaning the device sources power.¹²⁴ Amplifying devices like transistors and op-amps with positive feedback can have this type of negative resistance,^125126127128 and are used in feedback oscillators and active filters.¹²⁹¹³⁰ Since these circuits produce net power from their port, they must have an internal DC power source, or else a separate connection to an external power supply.^131132133 In circuit theory this is called an "active resistor".^134135136137 Although this type is sometimes referred to as "linear",¹³⁸¹³⁹ "absolute",¹⁴⁰ "ideal", or "pure" negative resistance¹⁴¹¹⁴² to distinguish it from "passive" negative differential resistances, in electronics it is more often simply called positive feedback or regeneration. These are covered in the Active resistors section below.

Occasionally ordinary power sources are referred to as "negative resistances"^143144145146 (fig. 3 above). Although the "static" or "absolute" resistance R static {\displaystyle R_{\text{static}}} of active devices (power sources) can be considered negative (see Negative static resistance section below) most ordinary power sources (AC or DC), such as batteries, generators, and (non positive feedback) amplifiers, have positive differential resistance (their source resistance).¹⁴⁷¹⁴⁸ Therefore, these devices cannot function as one-port amplifiers or have the other capabilities of negative differential resistances.

List of negative resistance devices

Electronic components with negative differential resistance include these devices:

• tunnel diode,¹⁴⁹¹⁵⁰ resonant tunneling diode¹⁵¹ and other semiconductor diodes using the tunneling mechanism¹⁵²
• Gunn diode¹⁵³ and other diodes using the transferred electron mechanism¹⁵⁴
• IMPATT diode,¹⁵⁵¹⁵⁶ TRAPATT diode and other diodes using the impact ionization mechanism¹⁵⁷
• Some NPN transistors with E-C reverse biased, known as negistor¹⁵⁸
• unijunction transistor (UJT)¹⁵⁹¹⁶⁰
• thyristors¹⁶¹¹⁶²
• triode and tetrode vacuum tubes operating in the dynatron mode¹⁶³¹⁶⁴
• Some magnetron tubes and other microwave vacuum tubes¹⁶⁵
• maser¹⁶⁶
• parametric amplifier¹⁶⁷

Electric discharges through gases also exhibit negative differential resistance,¹⁶⁸¹⁶⁹ including these devices

• electric arc¹⁷⁰
• thyratron tubes¹⁷¹
• neon lamp¹⁷²
• fluorescent lamp¹⁷³
• other gas discharge tubes¹⁷⁴¹⁷⁵

In addition, active circuits with negative differential resistance can also be built with amplifying devices like transistors and op amps, using feedback.^176177178 A number of new experimental negative differential resistance materials and devices have been discovered in recent years.¹⁷⁹ The physical processes which cause negative resistance are diverse,^180181182 and each type of device has its own negative resistance characteristics, specified by its current–voltage curve.¹⁸³¹⁸⁴

Negative static or "absolute" resistance

A point of some confusion is whether ordinary resistance ("static" or "absolute" resistance, R static = v / i {\displaystyle R_{\text{static}}=v/i} ) can be negative.¹⁸⁵¹⁸⁶ In electronics, the term "resistance" is customarily applied only to passive materials and components¹⁸⁷ – such as wires, resistors and diodes. These cannot have R static < 0 {\displaystyle R_{\text{static}}<0} as shown by Joule's law P = i 2 R static {\displaystyle P=i^{2}R_{\text{static}}} .¹⁸⁸ A passive device consumes electric power, so from the passive sign convention P ≥ 0 {\displaystyle P\geq 0} . Therefore, from Joule's law R static ≥ 0 {\displaystyle R_{\text{static}}\geq 0} .^189190191 In other words, no material can conduct electric current better than a "perfect" conductor with zero resistance.¹⁹²¹⁹³ For a passive device to have R static = v / i < 0 {\displaystyle R_{\text{static}}=v/i\;<\;0} would violate either conservation of energy¹⁹⁴ or the second law of thermodynamics,^195196197198 (diagram). Therefore, some authors^199200201 state that static resistance can never be negative.

However it is easily shown that the ratio of voltage to current v/i at the terminals of any power source (AC or DC) is negative.²⁰² For electric power (potential energy) to flow out of a device into the circuit, charge must flow through the device in the direction of increasing potential energy, conventional current (positive charge) must move from the negative to the positive terminal.^203204205 So the direction of the instantaneous current is out of the positive terminal. This is opposite to the direction of current in a passive device defined by the passive sign convention so the current and voltage have opposite signs, and their ratio is negative R s t a t i c = v i < 0 {\displaystyle R_{\mathrm {static} }={\frac {v}{i}}<0} This can also be proved from Joule's law^206207208 P = i v = i 2 R s t a t i c {\displaystyle P=iv=i^{2}R_{\mathrm {static} }} This shows that power can flow out of a device into the circuit ( P < 0 {\displaystyle P<0} ) if and only if R static < 0 {\displaystyle R_{\text{static}}<0} .^209210211212 Whether or not this quantity is referred to as "resistance" when negative is a matter of convention. The absolute resistance of power sources is negative,²¹³²¹⁴ but this is not to be regarded as "resistance" in the same sense as positive resistances. The negative static resistance of a power source is a rather abstract and not very useful quantity, because it varies with the load. Due to conservation of energy it is always simply equal to the negative of the static resistance of the attached circuit (right).²¹⁵²¹⁶

Work must be done on the charges by some source of energy in the device, to make them move toward the positive terminal against the electric field, so conservation of energy requires that negative static resistances have a source of power.^217218219220 The power may come from an internal source which converts some other form of energy to electric power as in a battery or generator, or from a separate connection to an external power supply circuit²²¹ as in an amplifying device like a transistor, vacuum tube, or op amp.

Eventual passivity

A circuit cannot have negative static resistance (be active) over an infinite voltage or current range, because it would have to be able to produce infinite power.²²² Any active circuit or device with a finite power source is "eventually passive".^223224225 This property means if a large enough external voltage or current of either polarity is applied to it, its static resistance becomes positive and it consumes power²²⁶ ∃ V , I : | v | > V  or  | i | > I ⇒ R s t a t i c = v / i ≥ 0 {\displaystyle \exists V,I:|v|>V{\text{ or }}|i|>I\Rightarrow R_{\mathrm {static} }=v/i\geq 0} where P max = I V {\displaystyle P_{\max }=IV} is the maximum power the device can produce.

Therefore, the ends of the I–V curve will eventually turn and enter the 1st and 3rd quadrants.²²⁷ Thus the range of the curve having negative static resistance is limited,²²⁸ confined to a region around the origin. For example, applying a voltage to a generator or battery (graph, above) greater than its open-circuit voltage²²⁹ will reverse the direction of current flow, making its static resistance positive so it consumes power. Similarly, applying a voltage to the negative impedance converter below greater than its power supply voltage Vs will cause the amplifier to saturate, also making its resistance positive.

Negative differential resistance

In a device or circuit with negative differential resistance (NDR), in some part of the I–V curve the current decreases as the voltage increases:²³⁰ r d i f f = d v d i < 0 {\displaystyle r_{\mathrm {diff} }={\frac {dv}{di}}<0} The I–V curve is nonmonotonic (having peaks and troughs) with regions of negative slope representing negative differential resistance.

Passive negative differential resistances have positive static resistance;^231232233 they consume net power. Therefore, the I–V curve is confined to the 1st and 3rd quadrants of the graph,²³⁴ and passes through the origin. This requirement means (excluding some asymptotic cases) that the region(s) of negative resistance must be limited,²³⁵²³⁶ and surrounded by regions of positive resistance, and cannot include the origin.²³⁷²³⁸

Types

Negative differential resistances can be classified into two types:²³⁹²⁴⁰

• Voltage controlled negative resistance (VCNR, short-circuit stable,^241242243 or "N" type): In this type the current is a single valued, continuous function of the voltage, but the voltage is a multivalued function of the current.²⁴⁴ In the most common type there is only one negative resistance region, and the graph is a curve shaped generally like the letter "N". As the voltage is increased, the current increases (positive resistance) until it reaches a maximum (i1), then decreases in the region of negative resistance to a minimum (i2), then increases again. Devices with this type of negative resistance include the tunnel diode,²⁴⁵ resonant tunneling diode,²⁴⁶ lambda diode, Gunn diode,²⁴⁷ and dynatron oscillators.²⁴⁸²⁴⁹
• Current controlled negative resistance (CCNR, open-circuit stable,^250251252 or "S" type): In this type, the dual of the VCNR, the voltage is a single valued function of the current, but the current is a multivalued function of the voltage.²⁵³ In the most common type, with one negative resistance region, the graph is a curve shaped like the letter "S". Devices with this type of negative resistance include the IMPATT diode,²⁵⁴ UJT,²⁵⁵ SCRs and other thyristors,²⁵⁶ electric arc, and gas discharge tubes .²⁵⁷

Most devices have a single negative resistance region. However devices with multiple separate negative resistance regions can also be fabricated.²⁵⁸²⁵⁹ These can have more than two stable states, and are of interest for use in digital circuits to implement multivalued logic.²⁶⁰²⁶¹

An intrinsic parameter used to compare different devices is the peak-to-valley current ratio (PVR),²⁶² the ratio of the current at the top of the negative resistance region to the current at the bottom (see graphs, above): PVR = i 1 / i 2 {\displaystyle {\text{PVR}}=i_{1}/i_{2}} The larger this is, the larger the potential AC output for a given DC bias current, and therefore the greater the efficiency

Amplification

A negative differential resistance device can amplify an AC signal applied to it²⁶³²⁶⁴ if the signal is biased with a DC voltage or current to lie within the negative resistance region of its I–V curve.²⁶⁵²⁶⁶

The tunnel diode circuit (see diagram) is an example.²⁶⁷ The tunnel diode TD has voltage controlled negative differential resistance.²⁶⁸ The battery V b {\displaystyle V_{b}} adds a constant voltage (bias) across the diode so it operates in its negative resistance range, and provides power to amplify the signal. Suppose the negative resistance at the bias point is Δ v / Δ i = − r {\displaystyle \Delta v/\Delta i=-r} . For stability R {\displaystyle R} must be less than r {\displaystyle r} .²⁶⁹ Using the formula for a voltage divider, the AC output voltage is²⁷⁰ v o = − r R − r v i = r r − R v i {\displaystyle v_{o}={\frac {-r}{R-r}}v_{i}={\frac {r}{r-R}}v_{i}} so the voltage gain is G v = r r − R {\displaystyle G_{v}={\frac {r}{r-R}}} In a normal voltage divider, the resistance of each branch is less than the resistance of the whole, so the output voltage is less than the input. Here, due to the negative resistance, the total AC resistance r − R {\displaystyle r-R} is less than the resistance of the diode alone r {\displaystyle r} so the AC output voltage v o {\displaystyle v_{o}} is greater than the input v i {\displaystyle v_{i}} . The voltage gain G v {\displaystyle G_{v}} is greater than one, and increases without limit as R {\displaystyle R} approaches r {\displaystyle r} .

Explanation of power gain

The diagrams illustrate how a biased negative differential resistance device can increase the power of a signal applied to it, amplifying it, although it only has two terminals. Due to the superposition principle the voltage and current at the device's terminals can be divided into a DC bias component ( V b i a s , I b i a s {\displaystyle V_{bias},\;I_{bias}} ) and an AC component ( Δ v , Δ i {\displaystyle \Delta v,\;\Delta i} ). v ( t ) = V bias + Δ v ( t ) {\displaystyle v(t)=V_{\text{bias}}+\Delta v(t)} i ( t ) = I bias + Δ i ( t ) {\displaystyle i(t)=I_{\text{bias}}+\Delta i(t)} Since a positive change in voltage Δ v {\displaystyle \Delta v} causes a negative change in current Δ i {\displaystyle \Delta i} , the AC current and voltage in the device are 180° out of phase.^271272273274 This means in the AC equivalent circuit (right), the instantaneous AC current Δi flows through the device in the direction of increasing AC potential Δv, as it would in a generator.²⁷⁵ Therefore, the AC power dissipation is negative; AC power is produced by the device and flows into the external circuit.²⁷⁶ P AC = Δ v Δ i = r diff | Δ i | 2 < 0 {\displaystyle P_{\text{AC}}=\Delta v\Delta i=r_{\text{diff}}|\Delta i|^{2}<0} With the proper external circuit, the device can increase the AC signal power delivered to a load, serving as an amplifier,²⁷⁷ or excite oscillations in a resonant circuit to make an oscillator. Unlike in a two port amplifying device such as a transistor or op amp, the amplified signal leaves the device through the same two terminals (port) as the input signal enters.²⁷⁸

In a passive device, the AC power produced comes from the input DC bias current,²⁷⁹ the device absorbs DC power, some of which is converted to AC power by the nonlinearity of the device, amplifying the applied signal. Therefore, the output power is limited by the bias power²⁸⁰ | P AC | ≤ I bias V bias {\displaystyle |P_{\text{AC}}|\leq I_{\text{bias}}V_{\text{bias}}} The negative differential resistance region cannot include the origin, because it would then be able to amplify a signal with no applied DC bias current, producing AC power with no power input.^281282283 The device also dissipates some power as heat, equal to the difference between the DC power in and the AC power out.

The device may also have reactance and therefore the phase difference between current and voltage may differ from 180° and may vary with frequency.^284285286 As long as the real component of the impedance is negative (phase angle between 90° and 270°),²⁸⁷ the device will have negative resistance and can amplify.²⁸⁸²⁸⁹

The maximum AC output power is limited by size of the negative resistance region ( v 1 , v 2 , i 1 , a n d i 2 {\displaystyle v_{1},\;v_{2},\;i_{1},\;and\;i_{2}} in graphs above)²⁹⁰²⁹¹ P A C ( r m s ) ≤ 1 8 ( v 2 − v 1 ) ( i 1 − i 2 ) {\displaystyle P_{AC(rms)}\leq {\frac {1}{8}}(v_{2}-v_{1})(i_{1}-i_{2})}

Reflection coefficient

The reason that the output signal can leave a negative resistance through the same port that the input signal enters is that from transmission line theory, the AC voltage or current at the terminals of a component can be divided into two oppositely moving waves, the incident wave V I {\displaystyle V_{I}} , which travels toward the device, and the reflected wave V R {\displaystyle V_{R}} , which travels away from the device.²⁹² A negative differential resistance in a circuit can amplify if the magnitude of its reflection coefficient Γ {\displaystyle \Gamma } , the ratio of the reflected wave to the incident wave, is greater than one.²⁹³²⁹⁴ | Γ | ≡ | V R V I | > 1 {\displaystyle |\Gamma |\equiv \left|{\frac {V_{R}}{V_{I}}}\right|>1} where Γ ≡ Z N − Z L Z N + Z L {\displaystyle \Gamma \equiv {\frac {Z_{N}-Z_{L}}{Z_{N}+Z_{L}}}} The "reflected" (output) signal has larger amplitude than the incident; the device has "reflection gain".²⁹⁵ The reflection coefficient is determined by the AC impedance of the negative resistance device, Z N ( j ω ) = R N + j X N {\displaystyle Z_{N}(j\omega )=R_{N}+jX_{N}} , and the impedance of the circuit attached to it, Z L ( j ω ) = R L + j X L {\displaystyle Z_{L}(j\omega )\,=\,R_{L}\,+\,jX_{L}} .²⁹⁶ If R N < 0 {\displaystyle R_{N}<0} and R L > 0 {\displaystyle R_{L}>0} then | Γ | > 0 {\displaystyle |\Gamma |>0} and the device will amplify. On the Smith chart, a graphical aide widely used in the design of high frequency circuits, negative differential resistance corresponds to points outside the unit circle | Γ | = 1 {\displaystyle |\Gamma |=1} , the boundary of the conventional chart, so special "expanded" charts must be used.²⁹⁷²⁹⁸

Stability conditions

Because it is nonlinear, a circuit with negative differential resistance can have multiple equilibrium points (possible DC operating points), which lie on the I–V curve.²⁹⁹ An equilibrium point will be stable, so the circuit converges to it within some neighborhood of the point, if its poles are in the left half of the s plane (LHP), while a point is unstable, causing the circuit to oscillate or "latch up" (converge to another point), if its poles are on the jω axis or right half plane (RHP), respectively.³⁰⁰³⁰¹ In contrast, a linear circuit has a single equilibrium point that may be stable or unstable.³⁰²³⁰³ The equilibrium points are determined by the DC bias circuit, and their stability is determined by the AC impedance Z L ( j ω ) {\displaystyle Z_{L}(j\omega )} of the external circuit. However, because of the different shapes of the curves, the condition for stability is different for VCNR and CCNR types of negative resistance:³⁰⁴³⁰⁵

• In a CCNR (S-type) negative resistance, the resistance function R N {\displaystyle R_{N}} is single-valued. Therefore, stability is determined by the poles of the circuit's impedance equation: Z L ( j ω ) + Z N ( j ω ) = 0 {\displaystyle Z_{L}(j\omega )+Z_{N}(j\omega )=0} .³⁰⁶³⁰⁷

For nonreactive circuits ( X L = X N = 0 {\displaystyle X_{L}=X_{N}=0} ) a sufficient condition for stability is that the total resistance is positive³⁰⁸ Z L + Z N = R L + R N = R L − r > 0 {\displaystyle Z_{L}+Z_{N}=R_{L}+R_{N}=R_{L}-r>0} so the CCNR is stable for^309310311

R L > r . {\displaystyle R_{L}\;>\;r.}

Since CCNRs are stable with no load at all, they are called "open circuit stable".^{312313314315316}

• In a VCNR (N-type) negative resistance, the conductance function G N = 1 / R N {\displaystyle G_{N}=1/R_{N}} is single-valued. Therefore, stability is determined by the poles of the admittance equation Y L ( j ω ) + Y N ( j ω ) = 0 {\displaystyle Y_{L}(j\omega )+Y_{N}(j\omega )=0} .³¹⁷³¹⁸ For this reason the VCNR is sometimes referred to as a negative conductance.^319320321As above, for nonreactive circuits a sufficient condition for stability is that the total conductance in the circuit is positive³²² Y L + Y N = G L + G N = 1 R L + 1 R N = 1 R L + 1 − r > 0 {\displaystyle Y_{L}+Y_{N}=G_{L}+G_{N}={\frac {1}{R_{L}}}+{\frac {1}{R_{N}}}={\frac {1}{R_{L}}}+{\frac {1}{-r}}>0} 1 R L > 1 r {\displaystyle {\frac {1}{R_{L}}}>{\frac {1}{r}}} so the VCNR is stable for³²³³²⁴

R L < r . {\displaystyle R_{L}<r.}

Since VCNRs are even stable with a short-circuited output, they are called "short circuit stable".^325326327328

For general negative resistance circuits with reactance, the stability must be determined by standard tests like the Nyquist stability criterion.³²⁹ Alternatively, in high frequency circuit design, the values of Z L ( j ω ) {\displaystyle Z_{L}(j\omega )} for which the circuit is stable are determined by a graphical technique using "stability circles" on a Smith chart.³³⁰

Operating regions and applications

For simple nonreactive negative resistance devices with R N = − r {\displaystyle R_{N}\;=\;-r} and X N = 0 {\displaystyle X_{N}\;=\;0} the different operating regions of the device can be illustrated by load lines on the I–V curve³³¹ (see graphs).

The DC load line (DCL) is a straight line determined by the DC bias circuit, with equation V = V S − I R {\displaystyle V=V_{S}-IR} where V S {\displaystyle V_{S}} is the DC bias supply voltage and R is the resistance of the supply. The possible DC operating point(s) (Q points) occur where the DC load line intersects the I–V curve. For stability³³²

• VCNRs require a low impedance bias ( R < r {\displaystyle R\;<\;r} ), such as a voltage source.
• CCNRs require a high impedance bias ( R > r {\displaystyle R\;>\;r} ) such as a current source, or voltage source in series with a high resistance.

The AC load line (L1 − L3) is a straight line through the Q point whose slope is the differential (AC) resistance R L {\displaystyle R_{L}} facing the device. Increasing R L {\displaystyle R_{L}} rotates the load line counterclockwise. The circuit operates in one of three possible regions (see diagrams), depending on R L {\displaystyle R_{L}} .³³³

• Stable region (green) (illustrated by line L1): When the load line lies in this region, it intersects the I–V curve at one point Q1.³³⁴ For nonreactive circuits it is a stable equilibrium (poles in the LHP) so the circuit is stable. Negative resistance amplifiers operate in this region. However, due to hysteresis, with an energy storage device like a capacitor or inductor the circuit can become unstable to make a nonlinear relaxation oscillator (astable multivibrator) or a monostable multivibrator.³³⁵
  • VCNRs are stable when R L < r {\displaystyle R_{L}<r} .
  • CCNRs are stable when R L > r {\displaystyle R_{L}>r} .
• Unstable point (Line L2): When R L = r {\displaystyle R_{L}=r} the load line is tangent to the I–V curve. The total differential (AC) resistance of the circuit is zero (poles on the jω axis), so it is unstable and with a tuned circuit can oscillate. Linear oscillators operate at this point. Practical oscillators actually start in the unstable region below, with poles in the RHP, but as the amplitude increases the oscillations become nonlinear, and due to eventual passivity the negative resistance r decreases with increasing amplitude, so the oscillations stabilize at an amplitude where³³⁶ r = R L {\displaystyle r=R_{L}} .
• Bistable region (red) (illustrated by line L3): In this region the load line can intersect the I–V curve at three points.³³⁷ The center point (Q1) is a point of unstable equilibrium (poles in the RHP), while the two outer points, Q2 and Q3 are stable equilibria. So with correct biasing the circuit can be bistable, it will converge to one of the two points Q2 or Q3 and can be switched between them with an input pulse. Switching circuits like flip-flops (bistable multivibrators) and Schmitt triggers operate in this region.
  • VCNRs can be bistable when R L > r {\displaystyle R_{L}>r}
  • CCNRs can be bistable when R L < r {\displaystyle R_{L}<r}

Active resistors – negative resistance from feedback

In addition to the passive devices with intrinsic negative differential resistance above, circuits with amplifying devices like transistors or op amps can have negative resistance at their ports.³³⁸³³⁹ The input or output impedance of an amplifier with enough positive feedback applied to it can be negative.^340341342343 If R i {\displaystyle R_{i}} is the input resistance of the amplifier without feedback, A {\displaystyle A} is the amplifier gain, and β ( j ω ) {\displaystyle \beta (j\omega )} is the transfer function of the feedback path, the input resistance with positive shunt feedback is³⁴⁴³⁴⁵ R if = R i 1 − A β {\displaystyle R_{\text{if}}={\frac {R_{\text{i}}}{1-A\beta }}} So if the loop gain A β {\displaystyle A\beta } is greater than one, R i f {\displaystyle R_{if}} will be negative. The circuit acts like a "negative linear resistor"^346347348349 over a limited range,³⁵⁰ with I–V curve having a straight line segment through the origin with negative slope (see graphs).^{351352353354355} It has both negative differential resistance and is active Δ v Δ i = v i = R if < 0 {\displaystyle {\frac {\Delta v}{\Delta i}}={v \over i}=R_{\text{if}}<0} and thus obeys Ohm's law as if it had a negative value of resistance −R,³⁵⁶³⁵⁷ over its linear range (such amplifiers can also have more complicated negative resistance I–V curves that do not pass through the origin).

In circuit theory these are called "active resistors".^358359360361 Applying a voltage across the terminals causes a proportional current out of the positive terminal, the opposite of an ordinary resistor.^362363364 For example, connecting a battery to the terminals would cause the battery to charge rather than discharge.³⁶⁵

Considered as one-port devices, these circuits function similarly to the passive negative differential resistance components above, and like them can be used to make one-port amplifiers and oscillators³⁶⁶³⁶⁷ with the advantages that:

• because they are active devices they do not require an external DC bias to provide power, and can be DC coupled,
• the amount of negative resistance can be varied by adjusting the loop gain,
• they can be linear circuit elements;^368369370 if operation is confined to the straight segment of the curve near the origin the voltage is proportional to the current, so they do not cause harmonic distortion.

The I–V curve can have voltage-controlled ("N" type) or current-controlled ("S" type) negative resistance, depending on whether the feedback loop is connected in "shunt" or "series".³⁷¹

Negative reactances (below) can also be created, so feedback circuits can be used to create "active" linear circuit elements, resistors, capacitors, and inductors, with negative values.³⁷²³⁷³ They are widely used in active filters³⁷⁴³⁷⁵ because they can create transfer functions that cannot be realized with positive circuit elements.³⁷⁶ Examples of circuits with this type of negative resistance are the negative impedance converter (NIC), gyrator, Deboo integrator,³⁷⁷³⁷⁸ frequency dependent negative resistance (FDNR),³⁷⁹ and generalized immittance converter (GIC).^380381382

Feedback oscillators

If an LC circuit is connected across the input of a positive feedback amplifier like that above, the negative differential input resistance R if {\displaystyle R_{\text{if}}} can cancel the positive loss resistance r loss {\displaystyle r_{\text{loss}}} inherent in the tuned circuit.³⁸³ If R if = − r loss {\displaystyle R_{\text{if}}\;=\;-r_{\text{loss}}} this will create in effect a tuned circuit with zero AC resistance (poles on the jω axis).³⁸⁴³⁸⁵ Spontaneous oscillation will be excited in the tuned circuit at its resonant frequency, sustained by the power from the amplifier. This is how feedback oscillators such as Hartley or Colpitts oscillators work.³⁸⁶³⁸⁷ This negative resistance model is an alternate way of analyzing feedback oscillator operation.^{388389390391392393394} All linear oscillator circuits have negative resistance^395396397398 although in most feedback oscillators the tuned circuit is an integral part of the feedback network, so the circuit does not have negative resistance at all frequencies but only near the oscillation frequency.³⁹⁹

Q enhancement

A tuned circuit connected to a negative resistance which cancels some but not all of its parasitic loss resistance (so | R if | < r loss {\displaystyle |R_{\text{if}}|\;<\;r_{\text{loss}}} ) will not oscillate, but the negative resistance will decrease the damping in the circuit (moving its poles toward the jω axis), increasing its Q factor so it has a narrower bandwidth and more selectivity.^400401402403 Q enhancement, also called regeneration, was first used in the regenerative radio receiver invented by Edwin Armstrong in 1912⁴⁰⁴⁴⁰⁵ and later in "Q multipliers".⁴⁰⁶ It is widely used in active filters.⁴⁰⁷ For example, RF integrated circuits use integrated inductors to save space, consisting of a spiral conductor fabricated on chip. These have high losses and low Q, so to create high Q tuned circuits their Q is increased by applying negative resistance.⁴⁰⁸⁴⁰⁹

Chaotic circuits

Circuits which exhibit chaotic behavior can be considered quasi-periodic or nonperiodic oscillators, and like all oscillators require a negative resistance in the circuit to provide power.⁴¹⁰ Chua's circuit, a simple nonlinear circuit widely used as the standard example of a chaotic system, requires a nonlinear active resistor component, sometimes called Chua's diode.⁴¹¹ This is usually synthesized using a negative impedance converter circuit.⁴¹²

Negative impedance converter

A common example of an "active resistance" circuit is the negative impedance converter (NIC)^413414415416 shown in the diagram. The two resistors R 1 {\displaystyle R_{\text{1}}} and the op amp constitute a negative feedback non-inverting amplifier with gain of 2.⁴¹⁷ The output voltage of the op-amp is v o = v ( R 1 + R 1 ) / R 1 = 2 v {\displaystyle v_{o}=v(R_{1}+R_{1})/R_{1}=2v} So if a voltage v {\displaystyle v} is applied to the input, the same voltage is applied "backwards" across Z {\displaystyle Z} , causing current to flow through it out of the input.⁴¹⁸ The current is i = v − v o Z = v − 2 v Z = − v Z {\displaystyle i={\frac {v-v_{o}}{Z}}={\frac {v-2v}{Z}}=-{\frac {v}{Z}}} So the input impedance to the circuit is⁴¹⁹ z in = v i = − Z {\displaystyle z_{\text{in}}={\frac {v}{i}}=-Z} The circuit converts the impedance Z {\displaystyle Z} to its negative. If Z {\displaystyle Z} is a resistor of value R {\displaystyle R} , within the linear range of the op amp V S / 2 < v < − V S / 2 {\displaystyle V_{\text{S}}/2<v<-V_{\text{S}}/2} the input impedance acts like a linear "negative resistor" of value − R {\displaystyle -R} .⁴²⁰ The input port of the circuit is connected into another circuit as if it was a component. An NIC can cancel undesired positive resistance in another circuit,⁴²¹ for example they were originally developed to cancel resistance in telephone cables, serving as repeaters.⁴²²

Negative capacitance and inductance

By replacing Z {\displaystyle Z} in the above circuit with a capacitor ( C {\displaystyle C} ) or inductor ( L {\displaystyle L} ), negative capacitances and inductances can also be synthesized.⁴²³⁴²⁴ A negative capacitance will have an I–V relation and an impedance Z C ( j ω ) {\displaystyle Z_{\text{C}}(j\omega )} of i = − C d v d t Z C = − 1 / j ω C {\displaystyle i=-C{dv \over dt}\qquad \qquad Z_{C}=-1/j\omega C} where C > 0 {\displaystyle C\;>\;0} . Applying a positive current to a negative capacitance will cause it to discharge; its voltage will decrease. Similarly, a negative inductance will have an I–V characteristic and impedance Z L ( j ω ) {\displaystyle Z_{\text{L}}(j\omega )} of v = − L d i d t Z L = − j ω L {\displaystyle v=-L{di \over dt}\qquad \qquad Z_{L}=-j\omega L} A circuit having negative capacitance or inductance can be used to cancel unwanted positive capacitance or inductance in another circuit.⁴²⁵ NIC circuits were used to cancel reactance on telephone cables.

There is also another way of looking at them. In a negative capacitance the current will be 180° opposite in phase to the current in a positive capacitance. Instead of leading the voltage by 90° it will lag the voltage by 90°, as in an inductor.⁴²⁶ Therefore, a negative capacitance acts like an inductance in which the impedance has a reverse dependence on frequency ω; decreasing instead of increasing like a real inductance⁴²⁷ Similarly a negative inductance acts like a capacitance that has an impedance which increases with frequency. Negative capacitances and inductances are "non-Foster" circuits which violate Foster's reactance theorem.⁴²⁸ One application being researched is to create an active matching network which could match an antenna to a transmission line over a broad range of frequencies, rather than just a single frequency as with current networks.⁴²⁹ This would allow the creation of small compact antennas that would have broad bandwidth,⁴³⁰ exceeding the Chu–Harrington limit.

Oscillators

Negative differential resistance devices are widely used to make electronic oscillators.^431432433 In a negative resistance oscillator, a negative differential resistance device such as an IMPATT diode, Gunn diode, or microwave vacuum tube is connected across an electrical resonator such as an LC circuit, a quartz crystal, dielectric resonator or cavity resonator⁴³⁴ with a DC source to bias the device into its negative resistance region and provide power.⁴³⁵⁴³⁶ A resonator such as an LC circuit is "almost" an oscillator; it can store oscillating electrical energy, but because all resonators have internal resistance or other losses, the oscillations are damped and decay to zero.^437438439 The negative resistance cancels the positive resistance of the resonator, creating in effect a lossless resonator, in which spontaneous continuous oscillations occur at the resonator's resonant frequency.⁴⁴⁰⁴⁴¹

Uses

Negative resistance oscillators are mainly used at high frequencies in the microwave range or above, since feedback oscillators function poorly at these frequencies.⁴⁴²⁴⁴³ Microwave diodes are used in low- to medium-power oscillators for applications such as radar speed guns, and local oscillators for satellite receivers. They are a widely used source of microwave energy, and virtually the only solid-state source of millimeter wave⁴⁴⁴ and terahertz energy⁴⁴⁵ Negative resistance microwave vacuum tubes such as magnetrons produce higher power outputs,⁴⁴⁶ in such applications as radar transmitters and microwave ovens. Lower frequency relaxation oscillators can be made with UJTs and gas-discharge lamps such as neon lamps.

The negative resistance oscillator model is not limited to one-port devices like diodes but can also be applied to feedback oscillator circuits with two port devices such as transistors and tubes.^447448449450 In addition, in modern high frequency oscillators, transistors are increasingly used as one-port negative resistance devices like diodes. At microwave frequencies, transistors with certain loads applied to one port can become unstable due to internal feedback and show negative resistance at the other port.^451452453 So high frequency transistor oscillators are designed by applying a reactive load to one port to give the transistor negative resistance, and connecting the other port across a resonator to make a negative resistance oscillator as described below.⁴⁵⁴⁴⁵⁵

Gunn diode oscillator

Main article: Gunn oscillator

The common Gunn diode oscillator (circuit diagrams)⁴⁵⁶ illustrates how negative resistance oscillators work. The diode D has voltage controlled ("N" type) negative resistance and the voltage source V b {\displaystyle V_{\text{b}}} biases it into its negative resistance region where its differential resistance is d v / d i = − r {\displaystyle dv/di\;=\;-r} . The choke RFC prevents AC current from flowing through the bias source.⁴⁵⁷ R {\displaystyle R} is the equivalent resistance due to damping and losses in the series tuned circuit L C {\displaystyle LC} , plus any load resistance. Analyzing the AC circuit with Kirchhoff's Voltage Law gives a differential equation for i ( t ) {\displaystyle i(t)} , the AC current⁴⁵⁸ d 2 i d t 2 + R − r L d i d t + 1 L C i = 0 {\displaystyle {\frac {d^{2}i}{dt^{2}}}+{\frac {R-r}{L}}{\frac {di}{dt}}+{\frac {1}{LC}}i=0} Solving this equation gives a solution of the form⁴⁵⁹ i ( t ) = i 0 e α t cos ⁡ ( ω t + ϕ ) {\displaystyle i(t)=i_{0}e^{\alpha t}\cos(\omega t+\phi )} where α = r − R 2 L ω = 1 L C − ( r − R 2 L ) 2 {\displaystyle \alpha ={\frac {r-R}{2L}}\quad \omega ={\sqrt {{\frac {1}{LC}}-\left({\frac {r-R}{2L}}\right)^{2}}}} This shows that the current through the circuit, i ( t ) {\displaystyle i(t)} , varies with time about the DC Q point, I bias {\displaystyle I_{\text{bias}}} . When started from a nonzero initial current i ( t ) = i 0 {\displaystyle i(t)=i_{0}} the current oscillates sinusoidally at the resonant frequency ω of the tuned circuit, with amplitude either constant, increasing, or decreasing exponentially, depending on the value of α. Whether the circuit can sustain steady oscillations depends on the balance between R {\displaystyle R} and r {\displaystyle r} , the positive and negative resistance in the circuit:⁴⁶⁰

1. r < R ⇒ α < 0 {\displaystyle r<R\Rightarrow \alpha <0} : (poles in left half plane) If the diode's negative resistance is less than the positive resistance of the tuned circuit, the damping is positive. Any oscillations in the circuit will lose energy as heat in the resistance R {\displaystyle R} and die away exponentially to zero, as in an ordinary tuned circuit.⁴⁶¹ So the circuit does not oscillate.
2. r = R ⇒ α = 0 {\displaystyle r=R\Rightarrow \alpha =0} : (poles on jω axis) If the positive and negative resistances are equal, the net resistance is zero, so the damping is zero. The diode adds just enough energy to compensate for energy lost in the tuned circuit and load, so oscillations in the circuit, once started, will continue at a constant amplitude.⁴⁶² This is the condition during steady-state operation of the oscillator.
3. r > R ⇒ α > 0 {\displaystyle r>R\Rightarrow \alpha >0} : (poles in right half plane) If the negative resistance is greater than the positive resistance, damping is negative, so oscillations will grow exponentially in energy and amplitude.⁴⁶³ This is the condition during startup.

Practical oscillators are designed in region (3) above, with net negative resistance, to get oscillations started.⁴⁶⁴ A widely used rule of thumb is to make R = r / 3 {\displaystyle R\;=\;r/3} .⁴⁶⁵⁴⁶⁶ When the power is turned on, electrical noise in the circuit provides a signal i 0 {\displaystyle i_{0}} to start spontaneous oscillations, which grow exponentially. However, the oscillations cannot grow forever; the nonlinearity of the diode eventually limits the amplitude.

At large amplitudes the circuit is nonlinear, so the linear analysis above does not strictly apply and differential resistance is undefined; but the circuit can be understood by considering r {\displaystyle r} to be the "average" resistance over the cycle. As the amplitude of the sine wave exceeds the width of the negative resistance region and the voltage swing extends into regions of the curve with positive differential resistance, the average negative differential resistance r {\displaystyle r} becomes smaller, and thus the total resistance R − r {\displaystyle R\;-\;r} and the damping α {\displaystyle \alpha } becomes less negative and eventually turns positive. Therefore, the oscillations will stabilize at the amplitude at which the damping becomes zero, which is when r = R {\displaystyle r\;=\;R} .⁴⁶⁷

Gunn diodes have negative resistance in the range −5 to −25 ohms.⁴⁶⁸ In oscillators where R {\displaystyle R} is close to r {\displaystyle r} ; just small enough to allow the oscillator to start, the voltage swing will be mostly limited to the linear portion of the I–V curve, the output waveform will be nearly sinusoidal and the frequency will be most stable. In circuits in which R {\displaystyle R} is far below r {\displaystyle r} , the swing extends further into the nonlinear part of the curve, the clipping distortion of the output sine wave is more severe,⁴⁶⁹ and the frequency will be increasingly dependent on the supply voltage.

Types of circuit

Negative resistance oscillator circuits can be divided into two types, which are used with the two types of negative differential resistance – voltage controlled (VCNR), and current controlled (CCNR)⁴⁷⁰⁴⁷¹

• Negative resistance (voltage controlled) oscillator: Since VCNR ("N" type) devices require a low impedance bias and are stable for load impedances less than r,⁴⁷² the ideal oscillator circuit for this device has the form shown at top right, with a voltage source Vbias to bias the device into its negative resistance region, and parallel resonant circuit load LC. The resonant circuit has high impedance only at its resonant frequency, so the circuit will be unstable and oscillate only at that frequency.

• Negative conductance (current controlled) oscillator: CCNR ("S" type) devices, in contrast, require a high impedance bias and are stable for load impedances greater than r.⁴⁷³ The ideal oscillator circuit is like that at bottom right, with a current source bias Ibias (which may consist of a voltage source in series with a large resistor) and series resonant circuit LC. The series LC circuit has low impedance only at its resonant frequency and so will only oscillate there.

Conditions for oscillation

Most oscillators are more complicated than the Gunn diode example, since both the active device and the load may have reactance (X) as well as resistance (R). Modern negative resistance oscillators are designed by a frequency domain technique due to Kaneyuki Kurokawa.^474475476 The circuit diagram is imagined to be divided by a "reference plane" (red) which separates the negative resistance part, the active device, from the positive resistance part, the resonant circuit and output load (right).⁴⁷⁷ The complex impedance of the negative resistance part Z N = R N ( I , ω ) + j X N ( I , ω ) {\displaystyle Z_{N}=R_{N}(I,\omega )+jX_{N}(I,\omega )} depends on frequency ω but is also nonlinear, in general declining with the amplitude of the AC oscillation current I; while the resonator part Z L = R L ( ω ) + j X L ( ω ) {\displaystyle Z_{L}=R_{L}(\omega )+jX_{L}(\omega )} is linear, depending only on frequency.^478479480 The circuit equation is ( Z N + Z L ) I = 0 {\displaystyle (Z_{N}+Z_{L})I=0} so it will only oscillate (have nonzero I) at the frequency ω and amplitude I for which the total impedance Z N + Z L {\displaystyle Z_{N}+Z_{L}} is zero.⁴⁸¹ This means the magnitude of the negative and positive resistances must be equal, and the reactances must be conjugate^482483484485

R N ≤ − R L {\displaystyle R_{N}\leq -R_{L}} and X N = − X L {\displaystyle X_{N}=-X_{L}} For steady-state oscillation the equal sign applies. During startup the inequality applies, because the circuit must have excess negative resistance for oscillations to start.^486487488

Alternately, the condition for oscillation can be expressed using the reflection coefficient.⁴⁸⁹ The voltage waveform at the reference plane can be divided into a component V1 travelling toward the negative resistance device and a component V2 travelling in the opposite direction, toward the resonator part. The reflection coefficient of the active device Γ N = V 2 / V 1 {\displaystyle \Gamma _{N}=V_{2}/V_{1}} is greater than one, while that of the resonator part Γ L = V 1 / V 2 {\displaystyle \Gamma _{L}=V_{1}/V_{2}} is less than one. During operation the waves are reflected back and forth in a round trip so the circuit will oscillate only if^490491492 | Γ N Γ L | ≥ 1 {\displaystyle |\Gamma _{N}\Gamma _{L}|\geq 1} As above, the equality gives the condition for steady oscillation, while the inequality is required during startup to provide excess negative resistance. The above conditions are analogous to the Barkhausen criterion for feedback oscillators; they are necessary but not sufficient,⁴⁹³ so there are some circuits that satisfy the equations but do not oscillate. Kurokawa also derived more complicated sufficient conditions,⁴⁹⁴ which are often used instead.⁴⁹⁵⁴⁹⁶

Amplifiers

Negative differential resistance devices such as Gunn and IMPATT diodes are also used to make amplifiers, particularly at microwave frequencies, but not as commonly as oscillators.⁴⁹⁷ Because negative resistance devices have only one port (two terminals), unlike two-port devices such as transistors, the outgoing amplified signal has to leave the device by the same terminals as the incoming signal enters it.⁴⁹⁸⁴⁹⁹ Without some way of separating the two signals, a negative resistance amplifier is bilateral; it amplifies in both directions, so it suffers from sensitivity to load impedance and feedback problems.⁵⁰⁰ To separate the input and output signals, many negative resistance amplifiers use nonreciprocal devices such as isolators and directional couplers.⁵⁰¹

Reflection amplifier

One widely used circuit is the reflection amplifier in which the separation is accomplished by a circulator.^502503504505 A circulator is a nonreciprocal solid-state component with three ports (connectors) which transfers a signal applied to one port to the next in only one direction, port 1 to port 2, 2 to 3, and 3 to 1. In the reflection amplifier diagram the input signal is applied to port 1, a biased VCNR negative resistance diode N is attached through a filter F to port 2, and the output circuit is attached to port 3. The input signal is passed from port 1 to the diode at port 2, but the outgoing "reflected" amplified signal from the diode is routed to port 3, so there is little coupling from output to input. The characteristic impedance Z 0 {\displaystyle Z_{0}} of the input and output transmission lines, usually 50Ω, is matched to the port impedance of the circulator. The purpose of the filter F is to present the correct impedance to the diode to set the gain. At radio frequencies NR diodes are not pure resistive loads and have reactance, so a second purpose of the filter is to cancel the diode reactance with a conjugate reactance to prevent standing waves.⁵⁰⁶⁵⁰⁷

The filter has only reactive components and so does not absorb any power itself, so power is passed between the diode and the ports without loss. The input signal power to the diode is P in = V I 2 / R 1 {\displaystyle P_{\text{in}}=V_{I}^{2}/R_{1}} The output power from the diode is P out = V R 2 / R 1 {\displaystyle P_{\text{out}}=V_{R}^{2}/R_{1}} So the power gain G P {\displaystyle G_{P}} of the amplifier is the square of the reflection coefficient^508509510 G P = P out P in = V R 2 V I 2 = | Γ | 2 {\displaystyle G_{\text{P}}={P_{\text{out}} \over P_{\text{in}}}={V_{R}^{2} \over V_{I}^{2}}=|\Gamma |^{2}}

| Γ | 2 = | Z N − Z 1 Z N + Z 1 | 2 {\displaystyle |\Gamma |^{2}=\left|{Z_{N}-Z_{1} \over Z_{N}+Z_{1}}\right|^{2}} | Γ | 2 = | R N + j X N − ( R 1 + j X 1 ) R N + j X N + R 1 + j X 1 | 2 {\displaystyle |\Gamma |^{2}=\left|{R_{N}+jX_{N}-(R_{1}+jX_{1}) \over R_{N}+jX_{N}+R_{1}+jX_{1}}\right|^{2}} R N {\displaystyle R_{\text{N}}} is the negative resistance of the diode −r. Assuming the filter is matched to the diode so X 1 = − X N {\displaystyle X_{1}=-X_{N}} ⁵¹¹ then the gain is G P = | Γ | 2 = ( r + R 1 ) 2 + 4 X N 2 ( r − R 1 ) 2 {\displaystyle G_{\text{P}}=|\Gamma |^{2}={(r+R_{1})^{2}+4X_{N}^{2} \over (r-R_{1})^{2}}} The VCNR reflection amplifier above is stable for R 1 < r {\displaystyle R_{1}<r} .⁵¹² while a CCNR amplifier is stable for R 1 > r {\displaystyle R_{1}>r} . It can be seen that the reflection amplifier can have unlimited gain, approaching infinity as R 1 {\displaystyle R_{1}} approaches the point of oscillation at r {\displaystyle r} .⁵¹³ This is a characteristic of all NR amplifiers,⁵¹⁴ contrasting with the behavior of two-port amplifiers, which generally have limited gain but are often unconditionally stable. In practice the gain is limited by the backward "leakage" coupling between circulator ports.

Masers and parametric amplifiers are extremely low noise NR amplifiers that are also implemented as reflection amplifiers; they are used in applications like radio telescopes.⁵¹⁵

Switching circuits

Negative differential resistance devices are also used in switching circuits in which the device operates nonlinearly, changing abruptly from one state to another, with hysteresis.⁵¹⁶ The advantage of using a negative resistance device is that a relaxation oscillator, flip-flop or memory cell can be built with a single active device,⁵¹⁷ whereas the standard logic circuit for these functions, the Eccles-Jordan multivibrator, requires two active devices (transistors). Three switching circuits built with negative resistances are

• Astable multivibrator – a circuit with two unstable states, in which the output periodically switches back and forth between the states. The time it remains in each state is determined by the time constant of an RC circuit. Therefore, it is a relaxation oscillator, and can produce square waves or triangle waves.
• Monostable multivibrator – is a circuit with one unstable state and one stable state. When in its stable state a pulse is applied to the input, the output switches to its other state and remains in it for a period of time dependent on the time constant of the RC circuit, then switches back to the stable state. Thus the monostable can be used as a timer or delay element.
• Bistable multivibrator or flip flop – is a circuit with two stable states. A pulse at the input switches the circuit to its other state. Therefore, bistables can be used as memory circuits, and digital counters.

Other applications

Neuronal models

Some instances of neurons display regions of negative slope conductances (RNSC) in voltage-clamp experiments.⁵¹⁸ The negative resistance here is implied were one to consider the neuron a typical Hodgkin–Huxley style circuit model.

History

Negative resistance was first recognized during investigations of electric arcs, which were used for lighting during the 19th century.⁵¹⁹ In 1881 Alfred Niaudet⁵²⁰ had observed that the voltage across arc electrodes decreased temporarily as the arc current increased, but many researchers thought this was a secondary effect due to temperature.⁵²¹ The term "negative resistance" was applied by some to this effect, but the term was controversial because it was known that the resistance of a passive device could not be negative.^522523524 Beginning in 1895 Hertha Ayrton, extending her husband William's research with a series of meticulous experiments measuring the I–V curve of arcs, established that the curve had regions of negative slope, igniting controversy.^525526527 Frith and Rodgers in 1896⁵²⁸⁵²⁹ with the support of the Ayrtons⁵³⁰ introduced the concept of differential resistance, dv/di, and it was slowly accepted that arcs had negative differential resistance. In recognition of her research, Hertha Ayrton became the first woman voted for induction into the Institute of Electrical Engineers.⁵³¹

Arc transmitters

George Francis FitzGerald first realized in 1892 that if the damping resistance in a resonant circuit could be made zero or negative, it would produce continuous oscillations.⁵³²⁵³³ In the same year Elihu Thomson built a negative resistance oscillator by connecting an LC circuit to the electrodes of an arc,⁵³⁴⁵³⁵ perhaps the first example of an electronic oscillator. William Duddell, a student of Ayrton at London Central Technical College, brought Thomson's arc oscillator to public attention.^536537538 Due to its negative resistance, the current through an arc was unstable, and arc lights would often produce hissing, humming, or even howling noises. In 1899, investigating this effect, Duddell connected an LC circuit across an arc and the negative resistance excited oscillations in the tuned circuit, producing a musical tone from the arc.^539540541 To demonstrate his invention Duddell wired several tuned circuits to an arc and played a tune on it.⁵⁴²⁵⁴³ Duddell's "singing arc" oscillator was limited to audio frequencies.⁵⁴⁴ However, in 1903 Danish engineers Valdemar Poulsen and P. O. Pederson increased the frequency into the radio range by operating the arc in a hydrogen atmosphere in a magnetic field,⁵⁴⁵ inventing the Poulsen arc radio transmitter, which was widely used until the 1920s.⁵⁴⁶⁵⁴⁷

Vacuum tubes

By the early 20th century, although the physical causes of negative resistance were not understood, engineers knew it could generate oscillations and had begun to apply it.⁵⁴⁸ Heinrich Barkhausen in 1907 showed that oscillators must have negative resistance.⁵⁴⁹ Ernst Ruhmer and Adolf Pieper discovered that mercury vapor lamps could produce oscillations, and by 1912 AT&T had used them to build amplifying repeaters for telephone lines.⁵⁵⁰

In 1918 Albert Hull at GE discovered that vacuum tubes could have negative resistance in parts of their operating ranges, due to a phenomenon called secondary emission.^551552553 In a vacuum tube when electrons strike the plate electrode they can knock additional electrons out of the surface into the tube. This represents a current away from the plate, reducing the plate current.⁵⁵⁴ Under certain conditions increasing the plate voltage causes a decrease in plate current. By connecting an LC circuit to the tube Hull created an oscillator, the dynatron oscillator. Other negative resistance tube oscillators followed, such as the magnetron invented by Hull in 1920.⁵⁵⁵

The negative impedance converter originated from work by Marius Latour around 1920.⁵⁵⁶⁵⁵⁷ He was also one of the first to report negative capacitance and inductance.⁵⁵⁸ A decade later, vacuum tube NICs were developed as telephone line repeaters at Bell Labs by George Crisson and others,⁵⁵⁹⁵⁶⁰ which made transcontinental telephone service possible.⁵⁶¹ Transistor NICs, pioneered by Linvill in 1953, initiated a great increase in interest in NICs and many new circuits and applications developed.⁵⁶²⁵⁶³

Solid state devices

Negative differential resistance in semiconductors was observed around 1909 in the first point-contact junction diodes, called cat's whisker detectors, by researchers such as William Henry Eccles⁵⁶⁴⁵⁶⁵ and G. W. Pickard.⁵⁶⁶⁵⁶⁷ They noticed that when junctions were biased with a DC voltage to improve their sensitivity as radio detectors, they would sometimes break into spontaneous oscillations.⁵⁶⁸ However the effect was not pursued.

The first person to exploit negative resistance diodes practically was Russian radio researcher Oleg Losev, who in 1922 discovered negative differential resistance in biased zincite (zinc oxide) point contact junctions.^{569570571572573} He used these to build solid-state amplifiers, oscillators, and amplifying and regenerative radio receivers, 25 years before the invention of the transistor.^574575576577 Later he even built a superheterodyne receiver.⁵⁷⁸ However his achievements were overlooked because of the success of vacuum tube technology. After ten years he abandoned research into this technology (dubbed "Crystodyne" by Hugo Gernsback),⁵⁷⁹ and it was forgotten.⁵⁸⁰

The first widely used solid-state negative resistance device was the tunnel diode, invented in 1957 by Japanese physicist Leo Esaki.⁵⁸¹⁵⁸² Because they have lower parasitic capacitance than vacuum tubes due to their small junction size, diodes can function at higher frequencies, and tunnel diode oscillators proved able to produce power at microwave frequencies, above the range of ordinary vacuum tube oscillators. Its invention set off a search for other negative resistance semiconductor devices for use as microwave oscillators,⁵⁸³ resulting in the discovery of the IMPATT diode, Gunn diode, TRAPATT diode, and others. In 1969 Kurokawa derived conditions for stability in negative resistance circuits.⁵⁸⁴ Currently negative differential resistance diode oscillators are the most widely used sources of microwave energy,⁵⁸⁵ and many new negative resistance devices have been discovered in recent decades.⁵⁸⁶

Notes

Further reading

• Gottlieb, Irving M. (1997). Practical Oscillator Handbook. Elsevier. ISBN 978-0080539386. How negative differential resistance devices work in oscillators.
• Hong, Sungook (2001). Wireless: From Marconi's Black-Box to the Audion (PDF). USA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0262082983., ch. 6 Account of discovery of negative resistance and its role in early radio.
• Snelgrove, Martin (2008). "Negative resistance circuits". AccessScience Online Encyclopedia. McGraw-Hill. doi:10.1036/1097-8542.446710. Retrieved May 17, 2012. Elementary one-page introduction to negative resistance.

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61. Some microwave texts use this term in a more specialized sense: a voltage controlled negative resistance device (VCNR) such as a tunnel diode is called a "negative conductance" while a current controlled negative resistance device (CCNR) such as an IMPATT diode is called a "negative resistance". See the Stability conditions section /wiki/Tunnel_diode ↩

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84. Ghadiri, Aliakbar (Fall 2011). "Design of Active-Based Passive Components for Radio Frequency Applications". PhD Thesis. Electrical and Computer Engineering Dept., Univ. of Alberta: 9–10. doi:10.7939/R3N88J. Archived from the original on June 28, 2012. Retrieved March 21, 2014. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) http://era.library.ualberta.ca/public/datastream/get/uuid:a590efa3-a428-4823-88e3-f071bac3f1d0/DS1 ↩

85. Carr, Joseph J. (1997). Microwave & Wireless Communications Technology. USA: Newnes. pp. 313–314. ISBN 978-0750697071. Archived from the original on 2017-07-07. 978-0750697071 ↩

86. Ghadiri, Aliakbar (Fall 2011). "Design of Active-Based Passive Components for Radio Frequency Applications". PhD Thesis. Electrical and Computer Engineering Dept., Univ. of Alberta: 9–10. doi:10.7939/R3N88J. Archived from the original on June 28, 2012. Retrieved March 21, 2014. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) http://era.library.ualberta.ca/public/datastream/get/uuid:a590efa3-a428-4823-88e3-f071bac3f1d0/DS1 ↩

87. "In semiconductor physics, it is known that if a two-terminal device shows negative differential resistance it can amplify." Suzuki, Yoshishige; Kuboda, Hitoshi (March 10, 2008). "Spin-torque diode effect and its application". Journal of the Physical Society of Japan. 77 (3): 031002. Bibcode:2008JPSJ...77c1002S. doi:10.1143/JPSJ.77.031002. Archived from the original on December 21, 2017. Retrieved June 13, 2013. http://jpsj.ipap.jp/link?JPSJ/77/031002/ ↩

88. Chua, Leon (2000). Linear and Non Linear Circuits (PDF). McGraw-Hill Education. pp. 49–50. ISBN 978-0071166508. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-07-26., 978-0071166508 ↩

89. Aluf, Ofer (2012). Optoisolation Circuits: Nonlinearity Applications in Engineering. World Scientific. pp. 8–11. ISBN 978-9814317009. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. This source uses the term "absolute negative differential resistance" to refer to active resistance 978-9814317009 ↩

90. Gilmore, Rowan; Besser, Les (2003). Active Circuits and Systems. USA: Artech House. pp. 27–29. ISBN 9781580535229. 9781580535229 ↩

91. Simpson, R. E. (1987). Introductory Electronics for Scientists and Engineers, 2nd Ed (PDF). US: Addison-Wesley. pp. 4–5. ISBN 978-0205083770. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-08-19. Retrieved 2014-08-18. 978-0205083770 ↩

92. Aluf, Ofer (2012). Optoisolation Circuits: Nonlinearity Applications in Engineering. World Scientific. pp. 8–11. ISBN 978-9814317009. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. This source uses the term "absolute negative differential resistance" to refer to active resistance 978-9814317009 ↩

93. "In semiconductor physics, it is known that if a two-terminal device shows negative differential resistance it can amplify." Suzuki, Yoshishige; Kuboda, Hitoshi (March 10, 2008). "Spin-torque diode effect and its application". Journal of the Physical Society of Japan. 77 (3): 031002. Bibcode:2008JPSJ...77c1002S. doi:10.1143/JPSJ.77.031002. Archived from the original on December 21, 2017. Retrieved June 13, 2013. http://jpsj.ipap.jp/link?JPSJ/77/031002/ ↩

94. Shahinpoor, Mohsen; Schneider, Hans-Jörg (2008). Intelligent Materials. London: Royal Society of Chemistry. p. 209. ISBN 978-0854043354. 978-0854043354 ↩

95. Razavi, Behzad (2001). Design of Analog CMOS Integrated Circuits. The McGraw-Hill Companies. pp. 505–506. ISBN 978-7302108863. 978-7302108863 ↩

96. Ghadiri, Aliakbar (Fall 2011). "Design of Active-Based Passive Components for Radio Frequency Applications". PhD Thesis. Electrical and Computer Engineering Dept., Univ. of Alberta: 9–10. doi:10.7939/R3N88J. Archived from the original on June 28, 2012. Retrieved March 21, 2014. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) http://era.library.ualberta.ca/public/datastream/get/uuid:a590efa3-a428-4823-88e3-f071bac3f1d0/DS1 ↩

97. Razavi, Behzad (2001). Design of Analog CMOS Integrated Circuits. The McGraw-Hill Companies. pp. 505–506. ISBN 978-7302108863. 978-7302108863 ↩

98. Solymar, Laszlo; Donald Walsh (2009). Electrical Properties of Materials, 8th Ed. UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 181–182. ISBN 978-0199565917. 978-0199565917 ↩

99. Kumar, Umesh (April 2000). "Design of an indigenized negative resistance characteristics curve tracer" (PDF). Active and Passive Elect. Components. 23. Hindawi Publishing Corp.: 1–2. Archived (PDF) from the original on August 19, 2014. Retrieved May 3, 2013. http://downloads.hindawi.com/journals/apec/2000/969073.pdf ↩

100. Beneking, H. (1994). High Speed Semiconductor Devices: Circuit aspects and fundamental behaviour. Springer. pp. 114–117. ISBN 978-0412562204. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. 978-0412562204 ↩

101. Reich, Herbert J. (1941). Principles of Electron Tubes (PDF). US: McGraw-Hill. p. 215. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-04-02. on Peter Millet's Tubebooks Archived 2015-03-24 at the Wayback Machine website http://www.tubebooks.org/Books/reich_principles.pdf ↩

102. Beneking, H. (1994). High Speed Semiconductor Devices: Circuit aspects and fundamental behaviour. Springer. pp. 114–117. ISBN 978-0412562204. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. 978-0412562204 ↩

103. Ghadiri, Aliakbar (Fall 2011). "Design of Active-Based Passive Components for Radio Frequency Applications". PhD Thesis. Electrical and Computer Engineering Dept., Univ. of Alberta: 9–10. doi:10.7939/R3N88J. Archived from the original on June 28, 2012. Retrieved March 21, 2014. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) http://era.library.ualberta.ca/public/datastream/get/uuid:a590efa3-a428-4823-88e3-f071bac3f1d0/DS1 ↩

104. Solymar, Laszlo; Donald Walsh (2009). Electrical Properties of Materials, 8th Ed. UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 181–182. ISBN 978-0199565917. 978-0199565917 ↩

105. Prasad, Sheila; Hermann Schumacher; Anand Gopinath (2009). High-Speed Electronics and Optoelectronics: Devices and Circuits. Cambridge Univ. Press. p. 388. ISBN 978-0521862837. 978-0521862837 ↩

106. Deliyannis, T.; Yichuang Sun; J.K. Fidler (1998). Continuous-Time Active Filter Design. CRC Press. pp. 82–84. ISBN 978-0849325731. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. 978-0849325731 ↩

107. Prasad, Sheila; Hermann Schumacher; Anand Gopinath (2009). High-Speed Electronics and Optoelectronics: Devices and Circuits. Cambridge Univ. Press. p. 388. ISBN 978-0521862837. 978-0521862837 ↩

108. Deliyannis, T.; Yichuang Sun; J.K. Fidler (1998). Continuous-Time Active Filter Design. CRC Press. pp. 82–84. ISBN 978-0849325731. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. 978-0849325731 ↩

109. Kumar, Umesh (April 2000). "Design of an indigenized negative resistance characteristics curve tracer" (PDF). Active and Passive Elect. Components. 23. Hindawi Publishing Corp.: 1–2. Archived (PDF) from the original on August 19, 2014. Retrieved May 3, 2013. http://downloads.hindawi.com/journals/apec/2000/969073.pdf ↩

110. Lesurf, Jim (2006). "Negative Resistance Oscillators". The Scots Guide to Electronics. School of Physics and Astronomy, Univ. of St. Andrews. Archived from the original on July 16, 2012. Retrieved August 20, 2012. http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~www_pa/Scots_Guide/RadCom/part5/page1.html ↩

111. Rybin, Yu. K. (2011). Electronic Devices for Analog Signal Processing. Springer. pp. 155–156. ISBN 978-9400722040. 978-9400722040 ↩

112. Carr, Joseph J. (1997). Microwave & Wireless Communications Technology. USA: Newnes. pp. 313–314. ISBN 978-0750697071. Archived from the original on 2017-07-07. 978-0750697071 ↩

113. Ghadiri, Aliakbar (Fall 2011). "Design of Active-Based Passive Components for Radio Frequency Applications". PhD Thesis. Electrical and Computer Engineering Dept., Univ. of Alberta: 9–10. doi:10.7939/R3N88J. Archived from the original on June 28, 2012. Retrieved March 21, 2014. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) http://era.library.ualberta.ca/public/datastream/get/uuid:a590efa3-a428-4823-88e3-f071bac3f1d0/DS1 ↩

114. Solymar, Laszlo; Donald Walsh (2009). Electrical Properties of Materials, 8th Ed. UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 181–182. ISBN 978-0199565917. 978-0199565917 ↩

115. Gilmore, Rowan; Besser, Les (2003). Active Circuits and Systems. USA: Artech House. pp. 27–29. ISBN 9781580535229. 9781580535229 ↩

116. Rybin, Yu. K. (2011). Electronic Devices for Analog Signal Processing. Springer. pp. 155–156. ISBN 978-9400722040. 978-9400722040 ↩

117. Solymar, Laszlo; Donald Walsh (2009). Electrical Properties of Materials, 8th Ed. UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 181–182. ISBN 978-0199565917. 978-0199565917 ↩

118. Rybin, Yu. K. (2011). Electronic Devices for Analog Signal Processing. Springer. pp. 155–156. ISBN 978-9400722040. 978-9400722040 ↩

119. Aluf, Ofer (2012). Optoisolation Circuits: Nonlinearity Applications in Engineering. World Scientific. pp. 8–11. ISBN 978-9814317009. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. This source uses the term "absolute negative differential resistance" to refer to active resistance 978-9814317009 ↩

120. Crisson, George (July 1931). "Negative Impedances and the Twin 21-Type Repeater". Bell System Tech. J. 10 (3): 485–487. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1931.tb01288.x. Retrieved December 4, 2012. https://archive.org/details/bstj10-3-485 ↩

121. Wilson, Marcus (November 16, 2010). "Negative Resistance". Sciblog 2010 Archive. Science Media Center. Archived from the original on October 4, 2012. Retrieved September 26, 2012., archived http://sciblogs.co.nz/physics-stop/2010/11/16/negative-resistance/ ↩

122. Horowitz, Paul (2004). "Negative Resistor – Physics 123 demonstration with Paul Horowitz". Video lecture, Physics 123, Harvard Univ. YouTube. Archived from the original on December 17, 2015. Retrieved November 20, 2012. In this video Prof. Horowitz demonstrates that negative static resistance actually exists. He has a black box with two terminals, labelled "−10 kilohms" and shows with ordinary test equipment that it acts like a linear negative resistor (active resistor) with a resistance of −10 KΩ: a positive voltage across it causes a proportional negative current through it, and when connected in a voltage divider with an ordinary resistor the output of the divider is greater than the input, it can amplify. At the end he opens the box and shows it contains an op-amp negative impedance converter circuit and battery. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qKqrXcU2jGo ↩

123. Hickman, Ian (2013). Analog Circuits Cookbook. New York: Elsevier. pp. 8–9. ISBN 978-1483105352. Archived from the original on 2016-05-27. 978-1483105352 ↩

124. Chua, Leon (2000). Linear and Non Linear Circuits (PDF). McGraw-Hill Education. pp. 49–50. ISBN 978-0071166508. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-07-26., 978-0071166508 ↩

125. Ghadiri, Aliakbar (Fall 2011). "Design of Active-Based Passive Components for Radio Frequency Applications". PhD Thesis. Electrical and Computer Engineering Dept., Univ. of Alberta: 9–10. doi:10.7939/R3N88J. Archived from the original on June 28, 2012. Retrieved March 21, 2014. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) http://era.library.ualberta.ca/public/datastream/get/uuid:a590efa3-a428-4823-88e3-f071bac3f1d0/DS1 ↩

126. see "Negative resistance by means of feedback" section, Pippard, A. B. (2007). The Physics of Vibration. Cambridge University Press. pp. 314–326. ISBN 978-0521033336. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. 978-0521033336 ↩

127. Crisson, George (July 1931). "Negative Impedances and the Twin 21-Type Repeater". Bell System Tech. J. 10 (3): 485–487. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1931.tb01288.x. Retrieved December 4, 2012. https://archive.org/details/bstj10-3-485 ↩

128. Deliyannis, T.; Yichuang Sun; J.K. Fidler (1998). Continuous-Time Active Filter Design. CRC Press. pp. 82–84. ISBN 978-0849325731. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. 978-0849325731 ↩

129. Deliyannis, T.; Yichuang Sun; J.K. Fidler (1998). Continuous-Time Active Filter Design. CRC Press. pp. 82–84. ISBN 978-0849325731. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. 978-0849325731 ↩

130. Hickman, Ian (2013). Analog Circuits Cookbook. New York: Elsevier. pp. 8–9. ISBN 978-1483105352. Archived from the original on 2016-05-27. 978-1483105352 ↩

131. Chua, Leon (2000). Linear and Non Linear Circuits (PDF). McGraw-Hill Education. pp. 49–50. ISBN 978-0071166508. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-07-26., 978-0071166508 ↩

132. Crisson, George (July 1931). "Negative Impedances and the Twin 21-Type Repeater". Bell System Tech. J. 10 (3): 485–487. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1931.tb01288.x. Retrieved December 4, 2012. https://archive.org/details/bstj10-3-485 ↩

133. Wilson, Marcus (November 16, 2010). "Negative Resistance". Sciblog 2010 Archive. Science Media Center. Archived from the original on October 4, 2012. Retrieved September 26, 2012., archived http://sciblogs.co.nz/physics-stop/2010/11/16/negative-resistance/ ↩

134. Chua, Leon (2000). Linear and Non Linear Circuits (PDF). McGraw-Hill Education. pp. 49–50. ISBN 978-0071166508. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-07-26., 978-0071166508 ↩

135. Kouřil, František; Vrba, Kamil (1988). Non-linear and parametric circuits: principles, theory and applications. Ellis Horwood. p. 38. ISBN 978-0853126065. 978-0853126065 ↩

136. Popa, Cosmin Radu (2012). "Active Resistor Circuits". Synthesis of Analog Structures for Computational Signal Processing. Springer. p. 323. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-0403-3_7. ISBN 978-1-4614-0403-3. 978-1-4614-0403-3 ↩

137. Miano, Giovanni; Antonio Maffucci (2001). Transmission Lines and Lumped Circuits. Academic Press. pp. 396, 397. ISBN 978-0121897109. Archived from the original on 2017-10-09. This source calls negative differential resistances "passive resistors" and negative static resistances "active resistors". 978-0121897109 ↩

138. Chua, Leon (2000). Linear and Non Linear Circuits (PDF). McGraw-Hill Education. pp. 49–50. ISBN 978-0071166508. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-07-26., 978-0071166508 ↩

139. Dimopoulos, Hercules G. (2011). Analog Electronic Filters: Theory, Design and Synthesis. Springer. pp. 372–374. ISBN 978-9400721890. Archived from the original on 2017-11-16. 978-9400721890 ↩

140. Aluf, Ofer (2012). Optoisolation Circuits: Nonlinearity Applications in Engineering. World Scientific. pp. 8–11. ISBN 978-9814317009. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. This source uses the term "absolute negative differential resistance" to refer to active resistance 978-9814317009 ↩

141. Aluf, Ofer (2012). Optoisolation Circuits: Nonlinearity Applications in Engineering. World Scientific. pp. 8–11. ISBN 978-9814317009. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. This source uses the term "absolute negative differential resistance" to refer to active resistance 978-9814317009 ↩

142. Hickman, Ian (2013). Analog Circuits Cookbook. New York: Elsevier. pp. 8–9. ISBN 978-1483105352. Archived from the original on 2016-05-27. 978-1483105352 ↩

143. Simpson, R. E. (1987). Introductory Electronics for Scientists and Engineers, 2nd Ed (PDF). US: Addison-Wesley. pp. 4–5. ISBN 978-0205083770. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-08-19. Retrieved 2014-08-18. 978-0205083770 ↩

144. Morecroft, John Harold; A. Pinto; Walter Andrew Curry (1921). Principles of Radio Communication. US: John Wiley and Sons. p. 112. https://archive.org/details/PrinciplesOfRadioCommunication ↩

145. Baker, R. Jacob (2011). CMOS: Circuit Design, Layout, and Simulation. John Wiley & Sons. p. 21.29. ISBN 978-1118038239. In this source "negative resistance" refers to negative static resistance. 978-1118038239 ↩

146. Fett, G. H. (October 4, 1943). "Negative Resistance as a Machine Parameter". Journal of Applied Physics. 14 (12): 674–678. Bibcode:1943JAP....14..674F. doi:10.1063/1.1714945. Archived from the original on March 17, 2014. Retrieved December 2, 2012., abstract. https://archive.today/20140317074058/http://jap.aip.org/resource/1/japiau/v14/i12/p674_s1?isAuthorized=no ↩

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149. Fogiel, Max (1988). The electronics problem solver. Research & Education Assoc. pp. 1032.B – 1032.D. ISBN 978-0878915439. 978-0878915439 ↩

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152. Kapoor, Virender; S. Tatke (1999). Telecom Today: Application and Management of Information Technology. Allied Publishers. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-8170239604. 978-8170239604 ↩

153. Radmanesh, Matthew M. (2009). Advanced RF & Microwave Circuit Design. AuthorHouse. pp. 479–480. ISBN 978-1425972431. 978-1425972431 ↩

154. Kapoor, Virender; S. Tatke (1999). Telecom Today: Application and Management of Information Technology. Allied Publishers. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-8170239604. 978-8170239604 ↩

155. Rybin, Yu. K. (2011). Electronic Devices for Analog Signal Processing. Springer. pp. 155–156. ISBN 978-9400722040. 978-9400722040 ↩

156. Radmanesh, Matthew M. (2009). Advanced RF & Microwave Circuit Design. AuthorHouse. pp. 479–480. ISBN 978-1425972431. 978-1425972431 ↩

157. Kapoor, Virender; S. Tatke (1999). Telecom Today: Application and Management of Information Technology. Allied Publishers. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-8170239604. 978-8170239604 ↩

158. url = "KeelyNet on negative resistance - 04/07/00". Archived from the original on 2006-09-06. Retrieved 2006-09-08. https://web.archive.org/web/20060906055849/http://www.keelynet.com/zpe/negistor.htm ↩

159. Fogiel, Max (1988). The electronics problem solver. Research & Education Assoc. pp. 1032.B – 1032.D. ISBN 978-0878915439. 978-0878915439 ↩

160. Rybin, Yu. K. (2011). Electronic Devices for Analog Signal Processing. Springer. pp. 155–156. ISBN 978-9400722040. 978-9400722040 ↩

161. Fogiel, Max (1988). The electronics problem solver. Research & Education Assoc. pp. 1032.B – 1032.D. ISBN 978-0878915439. 978-0878915439 ↩

162. Rybin, Yu. K. (2011). Electronic Devices for Analog Signal Processing. Springer. pp. 155–156. ISBN 978-9400722040. 978-9400722040 ↩

163. Gottlieb, Irving M. (1997). Practical Oscillator Handbook. Elsevier. pp. 75–76. ISBN 978-0080539386. Archived from the original on 2016-05-15. 978-0080539386 ↩

164. Whitaker, Jerry C. (2005). The electronics handbook, 2nd Ed. CRC Press. p. 379. ISBN 978-0849318894. Archived from the original on 2017-03-31. 978-0849318894 ↩

165. Gilmour, A. S. (2011). Klystrons, Traveling Wave Tubes, Magnetrons, Cross-Field Amplifiers, and Gyrotrons. Artech House. pp. 489–491. ISBN 978-1608071845. Archived from the original on 2014-07-28. 978-1608071845 ↩

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169. Siegman, A. E. (1986). Lasers. University Science Books. pp. 63. ISBN 978-0935702118. neon negative resistance glow discharge., fig. 1.54 978-0935702118 ↩

170. Ayrton, Hertha (August 16, 1901). "The Mechanism of the Electric Arc". The Electrician. 47 (17). London: The Electrician Printing & Publishing Co.: 635–636. Retrieved January 2, 2013. https://books.google.com/books?id=TQ1RAAAAYAAJ&q=%22negative+resistance&pg=PA635 ↩

171. Satyam, M.; K. Ramkumar (1990). Foundations of Electronic Devices. New Age International. p. 501. ISBN 978-8122402940. Archived from the original on 2014-09-10. 978-8122402940 ↩

172. Shanefield, Daniel J. (2001). Industrial Electronics for Engineers, Chemists, and Technicians. Elsevier. pp. 18–19. ISBN 978-0815514671. 978-0815514671 ↩

173. Kularatna, Nihal (1998). Power Electronics Design Handbook. Newnes. pp. 232–233. ISBN 978-0750670739. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. 978-0750670739 ↩

174. Sinclair, Ian Robertson (2001). Sensors and transducers, 3rd Ed. Newnes. pp. 69–70. ISBN 978-0750649322. 978-0750649322 ↩

175. Rybin, Yu. K. (2011). Electronic Devices for Analog Signal Processing. Springer. pp. 155–156. ISBN 978-9400722040. 978-9400722040 ↩

176. Rybin, Yu. K. (2011). Electronic Devices for Analog Signal Processing. Springer. pp. 155–156. ISBN 978-9400722040. 978-9400722040 ↩

177. Ghadiri, Aliakbar (Fall 2011). "Design of Active-Based Passive Components for Radio Frequency Applications". PhD Thesis. Electrical and Computer Engineering Dept., Univ. of Alberta: 9–10. doi:10.7939/R3N88J. Archived from the original on June 28, 2012. Retrieved March 21, 2014. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) http://era.library.ualberta.ca/public/datastream/get/uuid:a590efa3-a428-4823-88e3-f071bac3f1d0/DS1 ↩

178. see "Negative resistance by means of feedback" section, Pippard, A. B. (2007). The Physics of Vibration. Cambridge University Press. pp. 314–326. ISBN 978-0521033336. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. 978-0521033336 ↩

179. Franz, Roger L. (June 24, 2010). "Use nonlinear devices as linchpins to next-generation design". Electronic Design Magazine. Penton Media Inc. Archived from the original on June 18, 2015. Retrieved September 17, 2012., . An expanded version of this article with graphs and an extensive list of new negative resistance devices appears in Franz, Roger L. (2012). "Overview of Nonlinear Devices and Circuit Applications". Sustainable Technology. Roger L. Franz personal website. Retrieved September 17, 2012. http://electronicdesign.com/archive/use-nonlinear-devices-linchpins-next-generation-design ↩

180. Iniewski, Krzysztof (2007). Wireless Technologies: Circuits, Systems, and Devices. CRC Press. p. 488. ISBN 978-0849379963. 978-0849379963 ↩

181. Kapoor, Virender; S. Tatke (1999). Telecom Today: Application and Management of Information Technology. Allied Publishers. pp. 144–145. ISBN 978-8170239604. 978-8170239604 ↩

182. Franz, Roger L. (June 24, 2010). "Use nonlinear devices as linchpins to next-generation design". Electronic Design Magazine. Penton Media Inc. Archived from the original on June 18, 2015. Retrieved September 17, 2012., . An expanded version of this article with graphs and an extensive list of new negative resistance devices appears in Franz, Roger L. (2012). "Overview of Nonlinear Devices and Circuit Applications". Sustainable Technology. Roger L. Franz personal website. Retrieved September 17, 2012. http://electronicdesign.com/archive/use-nonlinear-devices-linchpins-next-generation-design ↩

183. Kaplan, Ross M. (December 1968). "Equivalent circuits for negative resistance devices" (PDF). Technical Report No. RADC-TR-68-356. Rome Air Development Center, US Air Force Systems Command: 5–8. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 19, 2014. Retrieved September 21, 2012. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) https://web.archive.org/web/20140819082258/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/846083.pdf ↩

184. Rybin, Yu. K. (2011). Electronic Devices for Analog Signal Processing. Springer. pp. 155–156. ISBN 978-9400722040. 978-9400722040 ↩

185. Thompson, Sylvanus P. (July 3, 1896). "On the properties of a body having a negative electric resistance". The Electrician. 37 (10). London: Benn Bros.: 316–318. Archived from the original on November 6, 2017. Retrieved June 7, 2014. also see editorial, "Positive evidence and negative resistance", p. 312 https://books.google.com/books?id=8vIfAQAAMAAJ&q=negative+resistance&pg=PA316 ↩

186. resonant.freq (November 2, 2011). "Confusion regarding negative resistance circuits". Electrical Engineering forum. Physics Forums, Arizona State Univ. Archived from the original on August 19, 2014. Retrieved August 17, 2014. https://www.physicsforums.com/showthread.php?t=546744 ↩

187. "Since the energy absorbed by a (static) resistance is always positive, resistances are passive devices." Bakshi, U.A.; V.U.Bakshi (2009). Electrical And Electronics Engineering. Technical Publications. p. 1.12. ISBN 978-8184316971. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. 978-8184316971 ↩

188. "...since [static] resistance is always positive...the resultant power [from Joule's law] must also always be positive. ...[this] means that the resistor always absorbs power." Karady, George G.; Holbert, Keith E. (2013). Electrical Energy Conversion and Transport: An Interactive Computer-Based Approach, 2nd Ed. John Wiley and Sons. p. 3.21. ISBN 978-1118498033. 978-1118498033 ↩

189. Simin, Grigory (2011). "Lecture 08: Tunnel Diodes (Esaki diode)" (PDF). ELCT 569: Semiconductor Electronic Devices. Prof. Grigory Simin, Univ. of South Carolina. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 23, 2015. Retrieved September 25, 2012., pp. 18–19, https://web.archive.org/web/20150923233956/http://www.ee.sc.edu/personal/faculty/simin/ELCT563/08%20Tunnel%20Diodes.pdf ↩

190. Morecroft, John Harold; A. Pinto; Walter Andrew Curry (1921). Principles of Radio Communication. US: John Wiley and Sons. p. 112. https://archive.org/details/PrinciplesOfRadioCommunication ↩

191. "...since [static] resistance is always positive...the resultant power [from Joule's law] must also always be positive. ...[this] means that the resistor always absorbs power." Karady, George G.; Holbert, Keith E. (2013). Electrical Energy Conversion and Transport: An Interactive Computer-Based Approach, 2nd Ed. John Wiley and Sons. p. 3.21. ISBN 978-1118498033. 978-1118498033 ↩

192. Shanefield, Daniel J. (2001). Industrial Electronics for Engineers, Chemists, and Technicians. Elsevier. pp. 18–19. ISBN 978-0815514671. 978-0815514671 ↩

193. Gibilisco, Stan (2002). Physics Demystified. McGraw Hill Professional. p. 391. ISBN 978-0071412124. 978-0071412124 ↩

194. Aluf, Ofer (2012). Optoisolation Circuits: Nonlinearity Applications in Engineering. World Scientific. pp. 8–11. ISBN 978-9814317009. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. This source uses the term "absolute negative differential resistance" to refer to active resistance 978-9814317009 ↩

195. Solymar, Laszlo; Donald Walsh (2009). Electrical Properties of Materials, 8th Ed. UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 181–182. ISBN 978-0199565917. 978-0199565917 ↩

196. Wilson, Marcus (November 16, 2010). "Negative Resistance". Sciblog 2010 Archive. Science Media Center. Archived from the original on October 4, 2012. Retrieved September 26, 2012., archived http://sciblogs.co.nz/physics-stop/2010/11/16/negative-resistance/ ↩

197. Thompson, Sylvanus P. (July 3, 1896). "On the properties of a body having a negative electric resistance". The Electrician. 37 (10). London: Benn Bros.: 316–318. Archived from the original on November 6, 2017. Retrieved June 7, 2014. also see editorial, "Positive evidence and negative resistance", p. 312 https://books.google.com/books?id=8vIfAQAAMAAJ&q=negative+resistance&pg=PA316 ↩

198. Klein, Sanford; Gregory Nellis (2011). Thermodynamics. Cambridge University Press. p. 206. ISBN 978-1139498180. 978-1139498180 ↩

199. Shanefield, Daniel J. (2001). Industrial Electronics for Engineers, Chemists, and Technicians. Elsevier. pp. 18–19. ISBN 978-0815514671. 978-0815514671 ↩

200. "...since [static] resistance is always positive...the resultant power [from Joule's law] must also always be positive. ...[this] means that the resistor always absorbs power." Karady, George G.; Holbert, Keith E. (2013). Electrical Energy Conversion and Transport: An Interactive Computer-Based Approach, 2nd Ed. John Wiley and Sons. p. 3.21. ISBN 978-1118498033. 978-1118498033 ↩

201. Grant, Paul M. (July 17, 1998). "Journey Down the Path of Least Resistance" (PDF). OutPost on the Endless Frontier blog. EPRI News, Electric Power Research Institute. Archived (PDF) from the original on April 21, 2013. Retrieved December 8, 2012. on Paul Grant personal website Archived 2013-07-22 at the Wayback Machine http://www.w2agz.com/Publications/Opinion%20&%20Commentary/EPRI/OutPost/outpost4.pdf ↩

202. Morecroft, John Harold; A. Pinto; Walter Andrew Curry (1921). Principles of Radio Communication. US: John Wiley and Sons. p. 112. https://archive.org/details/PrinciplesOfRadioCommunication ↩

203. Simin, Grigory (2011). "Lecture 08: Tunnel Diodes (Esaki diode)" (PDF). ELCT 569: Semiconductor Electronic Devices. Prof. Grigory Simin, Univ. of South Carolina. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 23, 2015. Retrieved September 25, 2012., pp. 18–19, https://web.archive.org/web/20150923233956/http://www.ee.sc.edu/personal/faculty/simin/ELCT563/08%20Tunnel%20Diodes.pdf ↩

204. Butler, Lloyd (November 1995). "Negative Resistance Revisited". Amateur Radio magazine. Wireless Institute of Australia, Bayswater, Victoria. Archived from the original on September 14, 2012. Retrieved September 22, 2012. on Lloyd Butler's personal website Archived 2014-08-19 at the Wayback Machine http://users.tpg.com.au/users/ldbutler/NegativeResistance.htm ↩

205. Wilson, Marcus (November 16, 2010). "Negative Resistance". Sciblog 2010 Archive. Science Media Center. Archived from the original on October 4, 2012. Retrieved September 26, 2012., archived http://sciblogs.co.nz/physics-stop/2010/11/16/negative-resistance/ ↩

206. Simin, Grigory (2011). "Lecture 08: Tunnel Diodes (Esaki diode)" (PDF). ELCT 569: Semiconductor Electronic Devices. Prof. Grigory Simin, Univ. of South Carolina. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 23, 2015. Retrieved September 25, 2012., pp. 18–19, https://web.archive.org/web/20150923233956/http://www.ee.sc.edu/personal/faculty/simin/ELCT563/08%20Tunnel%20Diodes.pdf ↩

207. Morecroft, John Harold; A. Pinto; Walter Andrew Curry (1921). Principles of Radio Communication. US: John Wiley and Sons. p. 112. https://archive.org/details/PrinciplesOfRadioCommunication ↩

208. Thompson, Sylvanus P. (July 3, 1896). "On the properties of a body having a negative electric resistance". The Electrician. 37 (10). London: Benn Bros.: 316–318. Archived from the original on November 6, 2017. Retrieved June 7, 2014. also see editorial, "Positive evidence and negative resistance", p. 312 https://books.google.com/books?id=8vIfAQAAMAAJ&q=negative+resistance&pg=PA316 ↩

209. Simin, Grigory (2011). "Lecture 08: Tunnel Diodes (Esaki diode)" (PDF). ELCT 569: Semiconductor Electronic Devices. Prof. Grigory Simin, Univ. of South Carolina. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 23, 2015. Retrieved September 25, 2012., pp. 18–19, https://web.archive.org/web/20150923233956/http://www.ee.sc.edu/personal/faculty/simin/ELCT563/08%20Tunnel%20Diodes.pdf ↩

210. Chua, Leon (2000). Linear and Non Linear Circuits (PDF). McGraw-Hill Education. pp. 49–50. ISBN 978-0071166508. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-07-26., 978-0071166508 ↩

211. Baker, R. Jacob (2011). CMOS: Circuit Design, Layout, and Simulation. John Wiley & Sons. p. 21.29. ISBN 978-1118038239. In this source "negative resistance" refers to negative static resistance. 978-1118038239 ↩

212. Thompson, Sylvanus P. (July 3, 1896). "On the properties of a body having a negative electric resistance". The Electrician. 37 (10). London: Benn Bros.: 316–318. Archived from the original on November 6, 2017. Retrieved June 7, 2014. also see editorial, "Positive evidence and negative resistance", p. 312 https://books.google.com/books?id=8vIfAQAAMAAJ&q=negative+resistance&pg=PA316 ↩

213. Aluf, Ofer (2012). Optoisolation Circuits: Nonlinearity Applications in Engineering. World Scientific. pp. 8–11. ISBN 978-9814317009. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. This source uses the term "absolute negative differential resistance" to refer to active resistance 978-9814317009 ↩

214. Chua, Leon (2000). Linear and Non Linear Circuits (PDF). McGraw-Hill Education. pp. 49–50. ISBN 978-0071166508. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-07-26., 978-0071166508 ↩

215. Morecroft, John Harold; A. Pinto; Walter Andrew Curry (1921). Principles of Radio Communication. US: John Wiley and Sons. p. 112. https://archive.org/details/PrinciplesOfRadioCommunication ↩

216. Deliyannis, T.; Yichuang Sun; J.K. Fidler (1998). Continuous-Time Active Filter Design. CRC Press. pp. 82–84. ISBN 978-0849325731. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. 978-0849325731 ↩

217. Aluf, Ofer (2012). Optoisolation Circuits: Nonlinearity Applications in Engineering. World Scientific. pp. 8–11. ISBN 978-9814317009. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. This source uses the term "absolute negative differential resistance" to refer to active resistance 978-9814317009 ↩

218. Simin, Grigory (2011). "Lecture 08: Tunnel Diodes (Esaki diode)" (PDF). ELCT 569: Semiconductor Electronic Devices. Prof. Grigory Simin, Univ. of South Carolina. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 23, 2015. Retrieved September 25, 2012., pp. 18–19, https://web.archive.org/web/20150923233956/http://www.ee.sc.edu/personal/faculty/simin/ELCT563/08%20Tunnel%20Diodes.pdf ↩

219. Solymar, Laszlo; Donald Walsh (2009). Electrical Properties of Materials, 8th Ed. UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 181–182. ISBN 978-0199565917. 978-0199565917 ↩

220. Wilson, Marcus (November 16, 2010). "Negative Resistance". Sciblog 2010 Archive. Science Media Center. Archived from the original on October 4, 2012. Retrieved September 26, 2012., archived http://sciblogs.co.nz/physics-stop/2010/11/16/negative-resistance/ ↩

221. Wilson, Marcus (November 16, 2010). "Negative Resistance". Sciblog 2010 Archive. Science Media Center. Archived from the original on October 4, 2012. Retrieved September 26, 2012., archived http://sciblogs.co.nz/physics-stop/2010/11/16/negative-resistance/ ↩

222. Kaplan, Ross M. (December 1968). "Equivalent circuits for negative resistance devices" (PDF). Technical Report No. RADC-TR-68-356. Rome Air Development Center, US Air Force Systems Command: 5–8. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 19, 2014. Retrieved September 21, 2012. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) https://web.archive.org/web/20140819082258/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/846083.pdf ↩

223. Miano, Giovanni; Antonio Maffucci (2001). Transmission Lines and Lumped Circuits. Academic Press. pp. 396, 397. ISBN 978-0121897109. Archived from the original on 2017-10-09. This source calls negative differential resistances "passive resistors" and negative static resistances "active resistors". 978-0121897109 ↩

224. Chen, Wai-Kai (2006). Nonlinear and distributed circuits. CRC Press. pp. 1.18 – 1.19. ISBN 978-0849372766. Archived from the original on 2017-08-24. 978-0849372766 ↩

225. see Chua, Leon O. (November 1980). "Dynamic Nonlinear Networks: State of the Art" (PDF). IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems. CAS-27 (11). US: Inst. of Electrical and Electronic Engineers: 1076–1077. Archived (PDF) from the original on August 19, 2014. Retrieved September 17, 2012. Definitions 6 & 7, fig. 27, and Theorem 10 for precise definitions of what this condition means for the circuit solution. http://www.elettrotecnica.unina.it/files/demagistris/didattica/TdC/Chua_Dynamic_Circuits.pdf ↩

226. Chen, Wai-Kai (2006). Nonlinear and distributed circuits. CRC Press. pp. 1.18 – 1.19. ISBN 978-0849372766. Archived from the original on 2017-08-24. 978-0849372766 ↩

227. see Chua, Leon O. (November 1980). "Dynamic Nonlinear Networks: State of the Art" (PDF). IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems. CAS-27 (11). US: Inst. of Electrical and Electronic Engineers: 1076–1077. Archived (PDF) from the original on August 19, 2014. Retrieved September 17, 2012. Definitions 6 & 7, fig. 27, and Theorem 10 for precise definitions of what this condition means for the circuit solution. http://www.elettrotecnica.unina.it/files/demagistris/didattica/TdC/Chua_Dynamic_Circuits.pdf ↩

228. Kaplan, Ross M. (December 1968). "Equivalent circuits for negative resistance devices" (PDF). Technical Report No. RADC-TR-68-356. Rome Air Development Center, US Air Force Systems Command: 5–8. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 19, 2014. Retrieved September 21, 2012. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) https://web.archive.org/web/20140819082258/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/846083.pdf ↩

229. Muthuswamy, Bharathwaj; Joerg Mossbrucker (2010). "A framework for teaching nonlinear op-amp circuits to junior undergraduate electrical engineering students". 2010 Conference Proceedings. American Society for Engineering Education. Retrieved October 18, 2012.[permanent dead link], Appendix B. This derives a slightly more complicated circuit where the two voltage divider resistors are different to allow scaling, but it reduces to the text circuit by setting R2 and R3 in the source to R1 in the text, and R1 in source to Z in the text. The I–V curve is the same. http://search.asee.org/search/fetch;jsessionid=13wo7tplbh5np?url=file%3A%2F%2Flocalhost%2FE%3A%2Fsearch%2Fconference%2F32%2FAC%25202010Full182.pdf&index=conference_papers&space=129746797203605791716676178&type=application%2Fpdf&charset= ↩

230. Lesurf, Jim (2006). "Negative Resistance Oscillators". The Scots Guide to Electronics. School of Physics and Astronomy, Univ. of St. Andrews. Archived from the original on July 16, 2012. Retrieved August 20, 2012. http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~www_pa/Scots_Guide/RadCom/part5/page1.html ↩

231. Aluf, Ofer (2012). Optoisolation Circuits: Nonlinearity Applications in Engineering. World Scientific. pp. 8–11. ISBN 978-9814317009. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. This source uses the term "absolute negative differential resistance" to refer to active resistance 978-9814317009 ↩

232. Shanefield, Daniel J. (2001). Industrial Electronics for Engineers, Chemists, and Technicians. Elsevier. pp. 18–19. ISBN 978-0815514671. 978-0815514671 ↩

233. Lesurf, Jim (2006). "Negative Resistance Oscillators". The Scots Guide to Electronics. School of Physics and Astronomy, Univ. of St. Andrews. Archived from the original on July 16, 2012. Retrieved August 20, 2012. http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~www_pa/Scots_Guide/RadCom/part5/page1.html ↩

234. Kumar, Umesh (April 2000). "Design of an indigenized negative resistance characteristics curve tracer" (PDF). Active and Passive Elect. Components. 23. Hindawi Publishing Corp.: 1–2. Archived (PDF) from the original on August 19, 2014. Retrieved May 3, 2013. http://downloads.hindawi.com/journals/apec/2000/969073.pdf ↩

235. Gilmore, Rowan; Besser, Les (2003). Active Circuits and Systems. USA: Artech House. pp. 27–29. ISBN 9781580535229. 9781580535229 ↩

236. Kumar, Anand (2004). Pulse and Digital Circuits. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. pp. 274, 283–289. ISBN 978-8120325968. 978-8120325968 ↩

237. Aluf, Ofer (2012). Optoisolation Circuits: Nonlinearity Applications in Engineering. World Scientific. pp. 8–11. ISBN 978-9814317009. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. This source uses the term "absolute negative differential resistance" to refer to active resistance 978-9814317009 ↩

238. Kaplan, Ross M. (December 1968). "Equivalent circuits for negative resistance devices" (PDF). Technical Report No. RADC-TR-68-356. Rome Air Development Center, US Air Force Systems Command: 5–8. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 19, 2014. Retrieved September 21, 2012. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) https://web.archive.org/web/20140819082258/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/846083.pdf ↩

239. Beneking, H. (1994). High Speed Semiconductor Devices: Circuit aspects and fundamental behaviour. Springer. pp. 114–117. ISBN 978-0412562204. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. 978-0412562204 ↩

240. Kumar, Anand (2004). Pulse and Digital Circuits. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. pp. 274, 283–289. ISBN 978-8120325968. 978-8120325968 ↩

241. Kumar, Anand (2004). Pulse and Digital Circuits. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. pp. 274, 283–289. ISBN 978-8120325968. 978-8120325968 ↩

242. Tellegen, B. d. h. (April 1972). "Stability of negative resistances". International Journal of Electronics. 32 (6): 681–686. doi:10.1080/00207217208938331. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

243. The terms "open-circuit stable" and "short-circuit stable" have become somewhat confused over the years, and are used in the opposite sense by some authors. The reason is that in linear circuits if the load line crosses the I-V curve of the NR device at one point, the circuit is stable, while in nonlinear switching circuits that operate by hysteresis the same condition causes the circuit to become unstable and oscillate as an astable multivibrator, and the bistable region is considered the "stable" one. This article uses the former "linear" definition, the earliest one, which is found in the Abraham, Bangert, Dorf, Golio, and Tellegen sources. The latter "switching circuit" definition is found in the Kumar and Taub sources. /wiki/Linear_circuit ↩

244. Kumar, Anand (2004). Pulse and Digital Circuits. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. pp. 274, 283–289. ISBN 978-8120325968. 978-8120325968 ↩

245. Fogiel, Max (1988). The electronics problem solver. Research & Education Assoc. pp. 1032.B – 1032.D. ISBN 978-0878915439. 978-0878915439 ↩

246. Kidner, C.; I. Mehdi; J. R. East; J. I. Haddad (March 1990). "Potential and limitations of resonant tunneling diodes" (PDF). First International Symposium on Space Terahertz Technology, March 5–6, 1990, Univ. of Michigan. Ann Arbor, M: US National Radio Astronomy Observatory. p. 85. Archived (PDF) from the original on August 19, 2014. Retrieved October 17, 2012. http://www.nrao.edu/meetings/isstt/papers/1990/1990084103.pdf ↩

247. Du, Ke-Lin; M. N. S. Swamy (2010). Wireless Communication Systems: From RF Subsystems to 4G Enabling Technologies. Cambridge Univ. Press. p. 438. ISBN 978-0521114035. Archived from the original on 2017-10-31. 978-0521114035 ↩

248. Rybin, Yu. K. (2011). Electronic Devices for Analog Signal Processing. Springer. pp. 155–156. ISBN 978-9400722040. 978-9400722040 ↩

249. Whitaker, Jerry C. (2005). The electronics handbook, 2nd Ed. CRC Press. p. 379. ISBN 978-0849318894. Archived from the original on 2017-03-31. 978-0849318894 ↩

250. Kumar, Anand (2004). Pulse and Digital Circuits. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. pp. 274, 283–289. ISBN 978-8120325968. 978-8120325968 ↩

251. Tellegen, B. d. h. (April 1972). "Stability of negative resistances". International Journal of Electronics. 32 (6): 681–686. doi:10.1080/00207217208938331. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

252. The terms "open-circuit stable" and "short-circuit stable" have become somewhat confused over the years, and are used in the opposite sense by some authors. The reason is that in linear circuits if the load line crosses the I-V curve of the NR device at one point, the circuit is stable, while in nonlinear switching circuits that operate by hysteresis the same condition causes the circuit to become unstable and oscillate as an astable multivibrator, and the bistable region is considered the "stable" one. This article uses the former "linear" definition, the earliest one, which is found in the Abraham, Bangert, Dorf, Golio, and Tellegen sources. The latter "switching circuit" definition is found in the Kumar and Taub sources. /wiki/Linear_circuit ↩

253. Kumar, Anand (2004). Pulse and Digital Circuits. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. pp. 274, 283–289. ISBN 978-8120325968. 978-8120325968 ↩

254. Du, Ke-Lin; M. N. S. Swamy (2010). Wireless Communication Systems: From RF Subsystems to 4G Enabling Technologies. Cambridge Univ. Press. p. 438. ISBN 978-0521114035. Archived from the original on 2017-10-31. 978-0521114035 ↩

255. Fogiel, Max (1988). The electronics problem solver. Research & Education Assoc. pp. 1032.B – 1032.D. ISBN 978-0878915439. 978-0878915439 ↩

256. Fogiel, Max (1988). The electronics problem solver. Research & Education Assoc. pp. 1032.B – 1032.D. ISBN 978-0878915439. 978-0878915439 ↩

257. Rybin, Yu. K. (2011). Electronic Devices for Analog Signal Processing. Springer. pp. 155–156. ISBN 978-9400722040. 978-9400722040 ↩

258. Franz, Roger L. (June 24, 2010). "Use nonlinear devices as linchpins to next-generation design". Electronic Design Magazine. Penton Media Inc. Archived from the original on June 18, 2015. Retrieved September 17, 2012., . An expanded version of this article with graphs and an extensive list of new negative resistance devices appears in Franz, Roger L. (2012). "Overview of Nonlinear Devices and Circuit Applications". Sustainable Technology. Roger L. Franz personal website. Retrieved September 17, 2012. http://electronicdesign.com/archive/use-nonlinear-devices-linchpins-next-generation-design ↩

259. Abraham, George (1974). "Multistable semiconductor devices and integrated circuits". Advances in Electronics and Electron Physics, Vol. 34–35. Academic Press. pp. 270–398. ISBN 9780080576992. Retrieved September 17, 2012. 9780080576992 ↩

260. Franz, Roger L. (June 24, 2010). "Use nonlinear devices as linchpins to next-generation design". Electronic Design Magazine. Penton Media Inc. Archived from the original on June 18, 2015. Retrieved September 17, 2012., . An expanded version of this article with graphs and an extensive list of new negative resistance devices appears in Franz, Roger L. (2012). "Overview of Nonlinear Devices and Circuit Applications". Sustainable Technology. Roger L. Franz personal website. Retrieved September 17, 2012. http://electronicdesign.com/archive/use-nonlinear-devices-linchpins-next-generation-design ↩

261. Abraham, George (1974). "Multistable semiconductor devices and integrated circuits". Advances in Electronics and Electron Physics, Vol. 34–35. Academic Press. pp. 270–398. ISBN 9780080576992. Retrieved September 17, 2012. 9780080576992 ↩

262. Franz, Roger L. (June 24, 2010). "Use nonlinear devices as linchpins to next-generation design". Electronic Design Magazine. Penton Media Inc. Archived from the original on June 18, 2015. Retrieved September 17, 2012., . An expanded version of this article with graphs and an extensive list of new negative resistance devices appears in Franz, Roger L. (2012). "Overview of Nonlinear Devices and Circuit Applications". Sustainable Technology. Roger L. Franz personal website. Retrieved September 17, 2012. http://electronicdesign.com/archive/use-nonlinear-devices-linchpins-next-generation-design ↩

263. "In semiconductor physics, it is known that if a two-terminal device shows negative differential resistance it can amplify." Suzuki, Yoshishige; Kuboda, Hitoshi (March 10, 2008). "Spin-torque diode effect and its application". Journal of the Physical Society of Japan. 77 (3): 031002. Bibcode:2008JPSJ...77c1002S. doi:10.1143/JPSJ.77.031002. Archived from the original on December 21, 2017. Retrieved June 13, 2013. http://jpsj.ipap.jp/link?JPSJ/77/031002/ ↩

264. Shahinpoor, Mohsen; Schneider, Hans-Jörg (2008). Intelligent Materials. London: Royal Society of Chemistry. p. 209. ISBN 978-0854043354. 978-0854043354 ↩

265. Carr, Joseph J. (1997). Microwave & Wireless Communications Technology. USA: Newnes. pp. 313–314. ISBN 978-0750697071. Archived from the original on 2017-07-07. 978-0750697071 ↩

266. Iniewski, Krzysztof (2007). Wireless Technologies: Circuits, Systems, and Devices. CRC Press. p. 488. ISBN 978-0849379963. 978-0849379963 ↩

267. Weaver, Robert (2009). "Negative Resistance Devices: Graphical Analysis and Load Lines". Bob's Electron Bunker. Robert Weaver personal website. Archived from the original on February 4, 2013. Retrieved December 4, 2012. http://electronbunker.ca/eb/NegativeResistance.html ↩

268. Fogiel, Max (1988). The electronics problem solver. Research & Education Assoc. pp. 1032.B – 1032.D. ISBN 978-0878915439. 978-0878915439 ↩

269. Butler, Lloyd (November 1995). "Negative Resistance Revisited". Amateur Radio magazine. Wireless Institute of Australia, Bayswater, Victoria. Archived from the original on September 14, 2012. Retrieved September 22, 2012. on Lloyd Butler's personal website Archived 2014-08-19 at the Wayback Machine http://users.tpg.com.au/users/ldbutler/NegativeResistance.htm ↩

270. Weaver, Robert (2009). "Negative Resistance Devices: Graphical Analysis and Load Lines". Bob's Electron Bunker. Robert Weaver personal website. Archived from the original on February 4, 2013. Retrieved December 4, 2012. http://electronbunker.ca/eb/NegativeResistance.html ↩

271. Carr, Joseph J. (1997). Microwave & Wireless Communications Technology. USA: Newnes. pp. 313–314. ISBN 978-0750697071. Archived from the original on 2017-07-07. 978-0750697071 ↩

272. Radmanesh, Matthew M. (2009). Advanced RF & Microwave Circuit Design. AuthorHouse. pp. 479–480. ISBN 978-1425972431. 978-1425972431 ↩

273. Butler, Lloyd (November 1995). "Negative Resistance Revisited". Amateur Radio magazine. Wireless Institute of Australia, Bayswater, Victoria. Archived from the original on September 14, 2012. Retrieved September 22, 2012. on Lloyd Butler's personal website Archived 2014-08-19 at the Wayback Machine http://users.tpg.com.au/users/ldbutler/NegativeResistance.htm ↩

274. The requirements for negative resistance in oscillators were first set forth by Heinrich Barkhausen in 1907 in Das Problem Der Schwingungserzeugung according to Duncan, R. D. (March 1921). "Stability conditions in vacuum tube circuits". Physical Review. 17 (3): 304. Bibcode:1921PhRv...17..302D. doi:10.1103/physrev.17.302. Retrieved July 17, 2013.: "For alternating current power to be available in a circuit which has externally applied only continuous voltages, the average power consumption during a cycle must be negative...which demands the introduction of negative resistance [which] requires that the phase difference between voltage and current lie between 90° and 270°...[and for nonreactive circuits] the value 180° must hold... The volt-ampere characteristic of such a resistance will therefore be linear, with a negative slope..." /wiki/Heinrich_Barkhausen ↩

275. Butler, Lloyd (November 1995). "Negative Resistance Revisited". Amateur Radio magazine. Wireless Institute of Australia, Bayswater, Victoria. Archived from the original on September 14, 2012. Retrieved September 22, 2012. on Lloyd Butler's personal website Archived 2014-08-19 at the Wayback Machine http://users.tpg.com.au/users/ldbutler/NegativeResistance.htm ↩

276. Frank, Brian (2006). "Microwave Oscillators" (PDF). Class Notes: ELEC 483 – Microwave and RF Circuits and Systems. Dept. of Elec. and Computer Eng., Queen's Univ., Ontario. pp. 4–9. Retrieved September 22, 2012.[permanent dead link] http://bmf.ece.queensu.ca/elec483/slides/oscillators.pdf ↩

277. Butler, Lloyd (November 1995). "Negative Resistance Revisited". Amateur Radio magazine. Wireless Institute of Australia, Bayswater, Victoria. Archived from the original on September 14, 2012. Retrieved September 22, 2012. on Lloyd Butler's personal website Archived 2014-08-19 at the Wayback Machine http://users.tpg.com.au/users/ldbutler/NegativeResistance.htm ↩

278. Golio (2000) The RF and Microwave Handbook, pp. 7.25–7.26, 7.29 https://books.google.com/books?id=UIHMnx0k9oAC&dq=golio+%22open+circuit+stable&pg=SA7-PA29 ↩

279. Lesurf, Jim (2006). "Negative Resistance Oscillators". The Scots Guide to Electronics. School of Physics and Astronomy, Univ. of St. Andrews. Archived from the original on July 16, 2012. Retrieved August 20, 2012. http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~www_pa/Scots_Guide/RadCom/part5/page1.html ↩

280. Lesurf, Jim (2006). "Negative Resistance Oscillators". The Scots Guide to Electronics. School of Physics and Astronomy, Univ. of St. Andrews. Archived from the original on July 16, 2012. Retrieved August 20, 2012. http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~www_pa/Scots_Guide/RadCom/part5/page1.html ↩

281. Aluf, Ofer (2012). Optoisolation Circuits: Nonlinearity Applications in Engineering. World Scientific. pp. 8–11. ISBN 978-9814317009. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. This source uses the term "absolute negative differential resistance" to refer to active resistance 978-9814317009 ↩

282. Kaplan, Ross M. (December 1968). "Equivalent circuits for negative resistance devices" (PDF). Technical Report No. RADC-TR-68-356. Rome Air Development Center, US Air Force Systems Command: 5–8. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 19, 2014. Retrieved September 21, 2012. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) https://web.archive.org/web/20140819082258/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/846083.pdf ↩

283. Lesurf, Jim (2006). "Negative Resistance Oscillators". The Scots Guide to Electronics. School of Physics and Astronomy, Univ. of St. Andrews. Archived from the original on July 16, 2012. Retrieved August 20, 2012. http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~www_pa/Scots_Guide/RadCom/part5/page1.html ↩

284. Groszkowski, Janusz (1964). Frequency of Self-Oscillations. Warsaw: Pergamon Press - PWN (Panstwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe). pp. 45–51. ISBN 978-1483280301. Archived from the original on 2016-04-05. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) 978-1483280301 ↩

285. Deliyannis, T.; Yichuang Sun; J.K. Fidler (1998). Continuous-Time Active Filter Design. CRC Press. pp. 82–84. ISBN 978-0849325731. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. 978-0849325731 ↩

286. Chang, Kai (2000). RF and Microwave Wireless Systems. USA: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 139–140. ISBN 978-0471351993. 978-0471351993 ↩

287. The requirements for negative resistance in oscillators were first set forth by Heinrich Barkhausen in 1907 in Das Problem Der Schwingungserzeugung according to Duncan, R. D. (March 1921). "Stability conditions in vacuum tube circuits". Physical Review. 17 (3): 304. Bibcode:1921PhRv...17..302D. doi:10.1103/physrev.17.302. Retrieved July 17, 2013.: "For alternating current power to be available in a circuit which has externally applied only continuous voltages, the average power consumption during a cycle must be negative...which demands the introduction of negative resistance [which] requires that the phase difference between voltage and current lie between 90° and 270°...[and for nonreactive circuits] the value 180° must hold... The volt-ampere characteristic of such a resistance will therefore be linear, with a negative slope..." /wiki/Heinrich_Barkhausen ↩

288. Chang, Kai (2000). RF and Microwave Wireless Systems. USA: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 139–140. ISBN 978-0471351993. 978-0471351993 ↩

289. Maas, Stephen A. (2003). Nonlinear Microwave and RF Circuits, 2nd Ed. Artech House. pp. 542–544. ISBN 978-1580534840. Archived from the original on 2017-02-25. 978-1580534840 ↩

290. Lesurf, Jim (2006). "Negative Resistance Oscillators". The Scots Guide to Electronics. School of Physics and Astronomy, Univ. of St. Andrews. Archived from the original on July 16, 2012. Retrieved August 20, 2012. http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~www_pa/Scots_Guide/RadCom/part5/page1.html ↩

291. Mazda, F. F. (1981). Discrete Electronic Components. CUP Archive. p. 8. ISBN 978-0521234702. Archived from the original on 2017-08-03. 978-0521234702 ↩

292. Bowick, Chris Bowick; John Blyler; Cheryl J. Ajluni (2008). RF Circuit Design, 2nd Ed. USA: Newnes. p. 111. ISBN 978-0750685184. 978-0750685184 ↩

293. Gilmore, Rowan; Besser, Les (2003). Active Circuits and Systems. USA: Artech House. pp. 27–29. ISBN 9781580535229. 9781580535229 ↩

294. Frank, Brian (2006). "Microwave Oscillators" (PDF). Class Notes: ELEC 483 – Microwave and RF Circuits and Systems. Dept. of Elec. and Computer Eng., Queen's Univ., Ontario. pp. 4–9. Retrieved September 22, 2012.[permanent dead link] http://bmf.ece.queensu.ca/elec483/slides/oscillators.pdf ↩

295. Gilmore, Rowan; Besser, Les (2003). Active Circuits and Systems. USA: Artech House. pp. 27–29. ISBN 9781580535229. 9781580535229 ↩

296. Frank, Brian (2006). "Microwave Oscillators" (PDF). Class Notes: ELEC 483 – Microwave and RF Circuits and Systems. Dept. of Elec. and Computer Eng., Queen's Univ., Ontario. pp. 4–9. Retrieved September 22, 2012.[permanent dead link] http://bmf.ece.queensu.ca/elec483/slides/oscillators.pdf ↩

297. Gilmore, Rowan; Besser, Les (2003). Active Circuits and Systems. USA: Artech House. pp. 27–29. ISBN 9781580535229. 9781580535229 ↩

298. Rhea, Randall W. (2010). Discrete Oscillator Design: Linear, Nonlinear, Transient, and Noise Domains. USA: Artech House. pp. 57, 59. ISBN 978-1608070473. Archived from the original on 2017-10-11. 978-1608070473 ↩

299. Chen, Wai Kai (2004). The Electrical Engineering Handbook. Academic Press. pp. 80–81. ISBN 978-0080477480. Archived from the original on 2016-08-19. 978-0080477480 ↩

300. Dorf, Richard C. (1997). The Electrical Engineering Handbook (2 ed.). CRC Press. p. 179. ISBN 978-1420049763. 978-1420049763 ↩

301. Vukic, Zoran (2003). Nonlinear Control Systems. CRC Press. pp. 53–54. ISBN 978-0203912652. Archived from the original on 2017-10-11. 978-0203912652 ↩

302. Ballard, Dana H. (1999). An Introduction to Natural Computation. MIT Press. p. 143. ISBN 978-0262522588. 978-0262522588 ↩

303. Vukic, Zoran (2003) Nonlinear Control Systems, p. 50, 54 https://books.google.com/books?id=7SE6VAjyifgC&dq=%22one+equilibrium+state%22&pg=PA50 ↩

304. Golio (2000) The RF and Microwave Handbook, pp. 7.25–7.26, 7.29 https://books.google.com/books?id=UIHMnx0k9oAC&dq=golio+%22open+circuit+stable&pg=SA7-PA29 ↩

305. Crisson (1931) Negative Impedances and the Twin 21-Type Repeater Archived 2013-12-16 at the Wayback Machine, pp. 488–492 http://www3.alcatel-lucent.com/bstj/vol10-1931/articles/bstj10-3-485.pdf ↩

306. Karp, M. A. (May 1956). "A transistor D-C negative immittance converter" (PDF). APL/JHU CF-2524. Advanced Physics Lab, Johns Hopkins Univ.: 3, 25–27. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 19, 2014. Retrieved December 3, 2012. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) on US Defense Technical Information Center Archived 2009-03-16 at the Wayback Machine website https://web.archive.org/web/20140819125516/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/657144.pdf ↩

307. Giannini, Franco; Leuzzi, Giorgio (2004). Non-linear Microwave Circuit Design. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 230–233. ISBN 978-0470847015. 978-0470847015 ↩

308. Yngvesson, Sigfrid (1991). Microwave Semiconductor Devices. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 143. ISBN 978-0792391562. 978-0792391562 ↩

309. Beneking, H. (1994). High Speed Semiconductor Devices: Circuit aspects and fundamental behaviour. Springer. pp. 114–117. ISBN 978-0412562204. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. 978-0412562204 ↩

310. Kumar, Anand (2004). Pulse and Digital Circuits. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. pp. 274, 283–289. ISBN 978-8120325968. 978-8120325968 ↩

311. Crisson (1931) Negative Impedances and the Twin 21-Type Repeater Archived 2013-12-16 at the Wayback Machine, pp. 488–492 http://www3.alcatel-lucent.com/bstj/vol10-1931/articles/bstj10-3-485.pdf ↩

312. Kumar, Anand (2004). Pulse and Digital Circuits. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. pp. 274, 283–289. ISBN 978-8120325968. 978-8120325968 ↩

313. Tellegen, B. d. h. (April 1972). "Stability of negative resistances". International Journal of Electronics. 32 (6): 681–686. doi:10.1080/00207217208938331. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

314. Golio (2000) The RF and Microwave Handbook, pp. 7.25–7.26, 7.29 https://books.google.com/books?id=UIHMnx0k9oAC&dq=golio+%22open+circuit+stable&pg=SA7-PA29 ↩

315. Bangert, J. T. (March 1954). "The Transistor as a Network Element". Bell System Tech. J. 33 (2): 330. Bibcode:1954ITED....1....7B. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1954.tb03734.x. S2CID 51671649. Retrieved June 20, 2014. https://archive.org/details/bstj33-2-329 ↩

316. The terms "open-circuit stable" and "short-circuit stable" have become somewhat confused over the years, and are used in the opposite sense by some authors. The reason is that in linear circuits if the load line crosses the I-V curve of the NR device at one point, the circuit is stable, while in nonlinear switching circuits that operate by hysteresis the same condition causes the circuit to become unstable and oscillate as an astable multivibrator, and the bistable region is considered the "stable" one. This article uses the former "linear" definition, the earliest one, which is found in the Abraham, Bangert, Dorf, Golio, and Tellegen sources. The latter "switching circuit" definition is found in the Kumar and Taub sources. /wiki/Linear_circuit ↩

317. Karp, M. A. (May 1956). "A transistor D-C negative immittance converter" (PDF). APL/JHU CF-2524. Advanced Physics Lab, Johns Hopkins Univ.: 3, 25–27. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 19, 2014. Retrieved December 3, 2012. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) on US Defense Technical Information Center Archived 2009-03-16 at the Wayback Machine website https://web.archive.org/web/20140819125516/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/657144.pdf ↩

318. Giannini, Franco; Leuzzi, Giorgio (2004). Non-linear Microwave Circuit Design. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 230–233. ISBN 978-0470847015. 978-0470847015 ↩

319. Beneking, H. (1994). High Speed Semiconductor Devices: Circuit aspects and fundamental behaviour. Springer. pp. 114–117. ISBN 978-0412562204. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. 978-0412562204 ↩

320. Karp, M. A. (May 1956). "A transistor D-C negative immittance converter" (PDF). APL/JHU CF-2524. Advanced Physics Lab, Johns Hopkins Univ.: 3, 25–27. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 19, 2014. Retrieved December 3, 2012. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) on US Defense Technical Information Center Archived 2009-03-16 at the Wayback Machine website https://web.archive.org/web/20140819125516/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/657144.pdf ↩

321. Giannini, Franco; Leuzzi, Giorgio (2004). Non-linear Microwave Circuit Design. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 230–233. ISBN 978-0470847015. 978-0470847015 ↩

322. Yngvesson, Sigfrid (1991). Microwave Semiconductor Devices. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 143. ISBN 978-0792391562. 978-0792391562 ↩

323. Beneking, H. (1994). High Speed Semiconductor Devices: Circuit aspects and fundamental behaviour. Springer. pp. 114–117. ISBN 978-0412562204. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. 978-0412562204 ↩

324. Crisson (1931) Negative Impedances and the Twin 21-Type Repeater Archived 2013-12-16 at the Wayback Machine, pp. 488–492 http://www3.alcatel-lucent.com/bstj/vol10-1931/articles/bstj10-3-485.pdf ↩

325. Kumar, Anand (2004). Pulse and Digital Circuits. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. pp. 274, 283–289. ISBN 978-8120325968. 978-8120325968 ↩

326. Tellegen, B. d. h. (April 1972). "Stability of negative resistances". International Journal of Electronics. 32 (6): 681–686. doi:10.1080/00207217208938331. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

327. Bangert, J. T. (March 1954). "The Transistor as a Network Element". Bell System Tech. J. 33 (2): 330. Bibcode:1954ITED....1....7B. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1954.tb03734.x. S2CID 51671649. Retrieved June 20, 2014. https://archive.org/details/bstj33-2-329 ↩

328. The terms "open-circuit stable" and "short-circuit stable" have become somewhat confused over the years, and are used in the opposite sense by some authors. The reason is that in linear circuits if the load line crosses the I-V curve of the NR device at one point, the circuit is stable, while in nonlinear switching circuits that operate by hysteresis the same condition causes the circuit to become unstable and oscillate as an astable multivibrator, and the bistable region is considered the "stable" one. This article uses the former "linear" definition, the earliest one, which is found in the Abraham, Bangert, Dorf, Golio, and Tellegen sources. The latter "switching circuit" definition is found in the Kumar and Taub sources. /wiki/Linear_circuit ↩

329. Gilmore, Rowan; Besser, Les (2003). Practical RF Circuit Design for Modern Wireless Systems. Vol. 2. Artech House. pp. 209–214. ISBN 978-1580536745. 978-1580536745 ↩

330. Gilmore, Rowan; Besser, Les (2003). Active Circuits and Systems. USA: Artech House. pp. 27–29. ISBN 9781580535229. 9781580535229 ↩

331. Kumar, Anand (2004). Pulse and Digital Circuits. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. pp. 274, 283–289. ISBN 978-8120325968. 978-8120325968 ↩

332. Krugman, Leonard M. (1954). Fundamentals of Transistors. New York: John F. Rider. pp. 101–102. Archived from the original on 2014-08-19. reprinted on Virtual Institute of Applied Science Archived 2014-12-23 at the Wayback Machine website http://www.vias.org/transistor_basics/transistor_basics_06_03_03.html ↩

333. Kumar, Anand (2004). Pulse and Digital Circuits. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. pp. 274, 283–289. ISBN 978-8120325968. 978-8120325968 ↩

334. Kumar, Anand (2004). Pulse and Digital Circuits. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. pp. 274, 283–289. ISBN 978-8120325968. 978-8120325968 ↩

335. Gottlieb 1997 Practical Oscillator Handbook, pp. 105–108 Archived 2016-05-15 at the Wayback Machine https://books.google.com/books?id=e_oZ69GAuxAC&dq=%22negative+resistance&pg=PA106 ↩

336. Nahin, Paul J. (2001). The Science of Radio: With Matlab and Electronics Workbench Demonstration, 2nd Ed. Springer. pp. 81–85. ISBN 978-0387951508. Archived from the original on 2017-02-25. 978-0387951508 ↩

337. Kumar, Anand (2004). Pulse and Digital Circuits. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. pp. 274, 283–289. ISBN 978-8120325968. 978-8120325968 ↩

338. Aluf, Ofer (2012). Optoisolation Circuits: Nonlinearity Applications in Engineering. World Scientific. pp. 8–11. ISBN 978-9814317009. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. This source uses the term "absolute negative differential resistance" to refer to active resistance 978-9814317009 ↩

339. Ghadiri, Aliakbar (Fall 2011). "Design of Active-Based Passive Components for Radio Frequency Applications". PhD Thesis. Electrical and Computer Engineering Dept., Univ. of Alberta: 9–10. doi:10.7939/R3N88J. Archived from the original on June 28, 2012. Retrieved March 21, 2014. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) http://era.library.ualberta.ca/public/datastream/get/uuid:a590efa3-a428-4823-88e3-f071bac3f1d0/DS1 ↩

340. see "Negative resistance by means of feedback" section, Pippard, A. B. (2007). The Physics of Vibration. Cambridge University Press. pp. 314–326. ISBN 978-0521033336. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. 978-0521033336 ↩

341. Razavi, Behzad (2001). Design of Analog CMOS Integrated Circuits. The McGraw-Hill Companies. pp. 505–506. ISBN 978-7302108863. 978-7302108863 ↩

342. Armstrong, Edwin H. (August 1922). "Some recent developments of regenerative circuits". Proceedings of the IRE. 10 (4): 244–245. doi:10.1109/jrproc.1922.219822. S2CID 51637458. Retrieved September 9, 2013.. "Regeneration" means "positive feedback" https://books.google.com/books?id=bNI1AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA244 ↩

343. Technical Manual no. 11-685: Fundamentals of Single-Sideband Communication. US Dept. of the Army and Dept. of the Navy. 1961. p. 93. https://books.google.com/books?id=mcEXAAAAYAAJ&q=%22input+impedance+%22negative+resistance&pg=PA93 ↩

344. Aluf, Ofer (2012). Optoisolation Circuits: Nonlinearity Applications in Engineering. World Scientific. pp. 8–11. ISBN 978-9814317009. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. This source uses the term "absolute negative differential resistance" to refer to active resistance 978-9814317009 ↩

345. Singh, Balwinder; Dixit, Ashish (2007). Analog Electronics. Firewall Media. p. 143. ISBN 978-8131802458. 978-8131802458 ↩

346. Aluf, Ofer (2012). Optoisolation Circuits: Nonlinearity Applications in Engineering. World Scientific. pp. 8–11. ISBN 978-9814317009. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. This source uses the term "absolute negative differential resistance" to refer to active resistance 978-9814317009 ↩

347. Horowitz, Paul (2004). "Negative Resistor – Physics 123 demonstration with Paul Horowitz". Video lecture, Physics 123, Harvard Univ. YouTube. Archived from the original on December 17, 2015. Retrieved November 20, 2012. In this video Prof. Horowitz demonstrates that negative static resistance actually exists. He has a black box with two terminals, labelled "−10 kilohms" and shows with ordinary test equipment that it acts like a linear negative resistor (active resistor) with a resistance of −10 KΩ: a positive voltage across it causes a proportional negative current through it, and when connected in a voltage divider with an ordinary resistor the output of the divider is greater than the input, it can amplify. At the end he opens the box and shows it contains an op-amp negative impedance converter circuit and battery. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qKqrXcU2jGo ↩

348. Dimopoulos, Hercules G. (2011). Analog Electronic Filters: Theory, Design and Synthesis. Springer. pp. 372–374. ISBN 978-9400721890. Archived from the original on 2017-11-16. 978-9400721890 ↩

349. Pippard, A. B. (1985). Response and stability: an introduction to the physical theory. CUP Archive. pp. 11–12. ISBN 978-0521266734. This source uses "negative resistance" to mean active resistance 978-0521266734 ↩

350. Deliyannis, T.; Yichuang Sun; J.K. Fidler (1998). Continuous-Time Active Filter Design. CRC Press. pp. 82–84. ISBN 978-0849325731. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. 978-0849325731 ↩

351. Franz, Roger L. (June 24, 2010). "Use nonlinear devices as linchpins to next-generation design". Electronic Design Magazine. Penton Media Inc. Archived from the original on June 18, 2015. Retrieved September 17, 2012., . An expanded version of this article with graphs and an extensive list of new negative resistance devices appears in Franz, Roger L. (2012). "Overview of Nonlinear Devices and Circuit Applications". Sustainable Technology. Roger L. Franz personal website. Retrieved September 17, 2012. http://electronicdesign.com/archive/use-nonlinear-devices-linchpins-next-generation-design ↩

352. Chua, Leon (2000). Linear and Non Linear Circuits (PDF). McGraw-Hill Education. pp. 49–50. ISBN 978-0071166508. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-07-26., 978-0071166508 ↩

353. Crisson, George (July 1931). "Negative Impedances and the Twin 21-Type Repeater". Bell System Tech. J. 10 (3): 485–487. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1931.tb01288.x. Retrieved December 4, 2012. https://archive.org/details/bstj10-3-485 ↩

354. Pippard, A. B. (2007). The Physics of Vibration. Cambridge University Press. pp. 350, fig. 36, p. 351, fig. 37a, p. 352 fig. 38c, p. 327, fig. 14c. ISBN 978-0521033336. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. In some of these graphs, the curve is reflected in the vertical axis so the negative resistance region appears to have positive slope. 978-0521033336 ↩

355. Spangenberg, Karl R. (1948). Vacuum Tubes (PDF). McGraw-Hill. p. 721. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-03-20., fig. 20.20 http://www.tubebooks.org/Books/Spangenberg_vacuum_tubes.pdf ↩

356. Franz, Roger L. (June 24, 2010). "Use nonlinear devices as linchpins to next-generation design". Electronic Design Magazine. Penton Media Inc. Archived from the original on June 18, 2015. Retrieved September 17, 2012., . An expanded version of this article with graphs and an extensive list of new negative resistance devices appears in Franz, Roger L. (2012). "Overview of Nonlinear Devices and Circuit Applications". Sustainable Technology. Roger L. Franz personal website. Retrieved September 17, 2012. http://electronicdesign.com/archive/use-nonlinear-devices-linchpins-next-generation-design ↩

357. Hickman, Ian (2013). Analog Circuits Cookbook. New York: Elsevier. pp. 8–9. ISBN 978-1483105352. Archived from the original on 2016-05-27. 978-1483105352 ↩

358. Chua, Leon (2000). Linear and Non Linear Circuits (PDF). McGraw-Hill Education. pp. 49–50. ISBN 978-0071166508. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-07-26., 978-0071166508 ↩

359. Kouřil, František; Vrba, Kamil (1988). Non-linear and parametric circuits: principles, theory and applications. Ellis Horwood. p. 38. ISBN 978-0853126065. 978-0853126065 ↩

360. Popa, Cosmin Radu (2012). "Active Resistor Circuits". Synthesis of Analog Structures for Computational Signal Processing. Springer. p. 323. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-0403-3_7. ISBN 978-1-4614-0403-3. 978-1-4614-0403-3 ↩

361. Miano, Giovanni; Antonio Maffucci (2001). Transmission Lines and Lumped Circuits. Academic Press. pp. 396, 397. ISBN 978-0121897109. Archived from the original on 2017-10-09. This source calls negative differential resistances "passive resistors" and negative static resistances "active resistors". 978-0121897109 ↩

362. Crisson, George (July 1931). "Negative Impedances and the Twin 21-Type Repeater". Bell System Tech. J. 10 (3): 485–487. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1931.tb01288.x. Retrieved December 4, 2012. https://archive.org/details/bstj10-3-485 ↩

363. Horowitz, Paul (2004). "Negative Resistor – Physics 123 demonstration with Paul Horowitz". Video lecture, Physics 123, Harvard Univ. YouTube. Archived from the original on December 17, 2015. Retrieved November 20, 2012. In this video Prof. Horowitz demonstrates that negative static resistance actually exists. He has a black box with two terminals, labelled "−10 kilohms" and shows with ordinary test equipment that it acts like a linear negative resistor (active resistor) with a resistance of −10 KΩ: a positive voltage across it causes a proportional negative current through it, and when connected in a voltage divider with an ordinary resistor the output of the divider is greater than the input, it can amplify. At the end he opens the box and shows it contains an op-amp negative impedance converter circuit and battery. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qKqrXcU2jGo ↩

364. Hickman, Ian (2013). Analog Circuits Cookbook. New York: Elsevier. pp. 8–9. ISBN 978-1483105352. Archived from the original on 2016-05-27. 978-1483105352 ↩

365. Wilson, Marcus (November 16, 2010). "Negative Resistance". Sciblog 2010 Archive. Science Media Center. Archived from the original on October 4, 2012. Retrieved September 26, 2012., archived http://sciblogs.co.nz/physics-stop/2010/11/16/negative-resistance/ ↩

366. Aluf, Ofer (2012). Optoisolation Circuits: Nonlinearity Applications in Engineering. World Scientific. pp. 8–11. ISBN 978-9814317009. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. This source uses the term "absolute negative differential resistance" to refer to active resistance 978-9814317009 ↩

367. "In semiconductor physics, it is known that if a two-terminal device shows negative differential resistance it can amplify." Suzuki, Yoshishige; Kuboda, Hitoshi (March 10, 2008). "Spin-torque diode effect and its application". Journal of the Physical Society of Japan. 77 (3): 031002. Bibcode:2008JPSJ...77c1002S. doi:10.1143/JPSJ.77.031002. Archived from the original on December 21, 2017. Retrieved June 13, 2013. http://jpsj.ipap.jp/link?JPSJ/77/031002/ ↩

368. Groszkowski, Janusz (1964). Frequency of Self-Oscillations. Warsaw: Pergamon Press - PWN (Panstwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe). pp. 45–51. ISBN 978-1483280301. Archived from the original on 2016-04-05. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) 978-1483280301 ↩

369. Deliyannis, T.; Yichuang Sun; J.K. Fidler (1998). Continuous-Time Active Filter Design. CRC Press. pp. 82–84. ISBN 978-0849325731. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. 978-0849325731 ↩

370. Dimopoulos, Hercules G. (2011). Analog Electronic Filters: Theory, Design and Synthesis. Springer. pp. 372–374. ISBN 978-9400721890. Archived from the original on 2017-11-16. 978-9400721890 ↩

371. Crisson, George (July 1931). "Negative Impedances and the Twin 21-Type Repeater". Bell System Tech. J. 10 (3): 485–487. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1931.tb01288.x. Retrieved December 4, 2012. https://archive.org/details/bstj10-3-485 ↩

372. Ghadiri, Aliakbar (Fall 2011). "Design of Active-Based Passive Components for Radio Frequency Applications". PhD Thesis. Electrical and Computer Engineering Dept., Univ. of Alberta: 9–10. doi:10.7939/R3N88J. Archived from the original on June 28, 2012. Retrieved March 21, 2014. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) http://era.library.ualberta.ca/public/datastream/get/uuid:a590efa3-a428-4823-88e3-f071bac3f1d0/DS1 ↩

373. Hickman, Ian (2013). Analog Circuits Cookbook. New York: Elsevier. pp. 8–9. ISBN 978-1483105352. Archived from the original on 2016-05-27. 978-1483105352 ↩

374. Deliyannis, T.; Yichuang Sun; J.K. Fidler (1998). Continuous-Time Active Filter Design. CRC Press. pp. 82–84. ISBN 978-0849325731. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. 978-0849325731 ↩

375. Dimopoulos, Hercules G. (2011). Analog Electronic Filters: Theory, Design and Synthesis. Springer. pp. 372–374. ISBN 978-9400721890. Archived from the original on 2017-11-16. 978-9400721890 ↩

376. Podell, A.F.; Cristal, E.G. (May 1971). "Negative-Impedance Converters (NIC) for VHF Through Microwave Circuit Applications". Microwave Symposium Digest, 1971 IEEE GMTT International 16–19 May 1971. USA: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. pp. 182–183. doi:10.1109/GMTT.1971.1122957. on IEEE website /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

377. Dimopoulos, Hercules G. (2011). Analog Electronic Filters: Theory, Design and Synthesis. Springer. pp. 372–374. ISBN 978-9400721890. Archived from the original on 2017-11-16. 978-9400721890 ↩

378. Simons, Elliot (March 18, 2002). "Consider the "Deboo" integrator for unipolar noninverting designs". Electronic Design magazine website. Penton Media, Inc. Archived from the original on December 20, 2012. Retrieved November 20, 2012. http://electronicdesign.com/article/analog-and-mixed-signal/consider-the-deboo-integrator-for-unipolar-noninve ↩

379. Hickman, Ian (2013). Analog Circuits Cookbook. New York: Elsevier. pp. 8–9. ISBN 978-1483105352. Archived from the original on 2016-05-27. 978-1483105352 ↩

380. Deliyannis, T.; Yichuang Sun; J.K. Fidler (1998). Continuous-Time Active Filter Design. CRC Press. pp. 82–84. ISBN 978-0849325731. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. 978-0849325731 ↩

381. Karp, M. A. (May 1956). "A transistor D-C negative immittance converter" (PDF). APL/JHU CF-2524. Advanced Physics Lab, Johns Hopkins Univ.: 3, 25–27. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 19, 2014. Retrieved December 3, 2012. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) on US Defense Technical Information Center Archived 2009-03-16 at the Wayback Machine website https://web.archive.org/web/20140819125516/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/657144.pdf ↩

382. Hamilton, Scott (2007). An Analog Electronics Companion: Basic Circuit Design for Engineers and Scientists. Cambridge University Press. p. 528. ISBN 978-0521687805. Archived from the original on 2017-07-12. 978-0521687805 ↩

383. this property was often called "resistance neutralization" in the days of vacuum tubes, see Bennett, Edward; Leo James Peters (January 1921). "Resistance Neutralization: An application of thermionic amplifier circuits". Journal of the AIEE. 41 (1). New York: American Institute of Electrical Engineers: 234–248. Retrieved August 14, 2013. and Ch. 3: "Resistance Neutralization" in Peters, Leo James (1927). Theory of Thermionic Vacuum Tube Circuits (PDF). McGraw-Hill. pp. 62–87. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-03-04. https://books.google.com/books?id=TnZJAQAAIAAJ&q=%22resistance+neutralization&pg=PA234 ↩

384. Solymar, Laszlo; Donald Walsh (2009). Electrical Properties of Materials, 8th Ed. UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 181–182. ISBN 978-0199565917. 978-0199565917 ↩

385. Armstrong, Edwin H. (August 1922). "Some recent developments of regenerative circuits". Proceedings of the IRE. 10 (4): 244–245. doi:10.1109/jrproc.1922.219822. S2CID 51637458. Retrieved September 9, 2013.. "Regeneration" means "positive feedback" https://books.google.com/books?id=bNI1AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA244 ↩

386. Prasad, Sheila; Hermann Schumacher; Anand Gopinath (2009). High-Speed Electronics and Optoelectronics: Devices and Circuits. Cambridge Univ. Press. p. 388. ISBN 978-0521862837. 978-0521862837 ↩

387. Lee, Thomas H. (2004). The Design of CMOS Radio-Frequency Integrated Circuits, 2nd Ed. UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 641–642. ISBN 978-0521835398. 978-0521835398 ↩

388. Golio, Mike (2000). The RF and Microwave Handbook. CRC Press. p. 5.91. ISBN 978-1420036763. Archived from the original on 2017-12-21. 978-1420036763 ↩

389. Butler, Lloyd (November 1995). "Negative Resistance Revisited". Amateur Radio magazine. Wireless Institute of Australia, Bayswater, Victoria. Archived from the original on September 14, 2012. Retrieved September 22, 2012. on Lloyd Butler's personal website Archived 2014-08-19 at the Wayback Machine http://users.tpg.com.au/users/ldbutler/NegativeResistance.htm ↩

390. Gottlieb 1997 Practical Oscillator Handbook, pp. 105–108 Archived 2016-05-15 at the Wayback Machine https://books.google.com/books?id=e_oZ69GAuxAC&dq=%22negative+resistance&pg=PA106 ↩

391. Technical Manual no. 11-685: Fundamentals of Single-Sideband Communication. US Dept. of the Army and Dept. of the Navy. 1961. p. 93. https://books.google.com/books?id=mcEXAAAAYAAJ&q=%22input+impedance+%22negative+resistance&pg=PA93 ↩

392. Kung, Fabian Wai Lee (2009). "Lesson 9: Oscillator Design" (PDF). RF/Microwave Circuit Design. Prof. Kung's website, Multimedia University. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 22, 2015. Retrieved October 17, 2012., Sec. 3 Negative Resistance Oscillators, pp. 9–10, 14, https://web.archive.org/web/20150722165131/http://pesona.mmu.edu.my/~wlkung/ADS/rf/lesson9.pdf ↩

393. Räisänen, Antti V.; Arto Lehto (2003). Radio Engineering for Wireless Communication and Sensor Applications. USA: Artech House. pp. 180–182. ISBN 978-1580535427. Archived from the original on 2017-02-25. 978-1580535427 ↩

394. Ellinger, Frank (2008). Radio Frequency Integrated Circuits and Technologies, 2nd Ed. USA: Springer. pp. 391–394. ISBN 978-3540693246. Archived from the original on 2016-07-31. 978-3540693246 ↩

395. Butler, Lloyd (November 1995). "Negative Resistance Revisited". Amateur Radio magazine. Wireless Institute of Australia, Bayswater, Victoria. Archived from the original on September 14, 2012. Retrieved September 22, 2012. on Lloyd Butler's personal website Archived 2014-08-19 at the Wayback Machine http://users.tpg.com.au/users/ldbutler/NegativeResistance.htm ↩

396. The requirements for negative resistance in oscillators were first set forth by Heinrich Barkhausen in 1907 in Das Problem Der Schwingungserzeugung according to Duncan, R. D. (March 1921). "Stability conditions in vacuum tube circuits". Physical Review. 17 (3): 304. Bibcode:1921PhRv...17..302D. doi:10.1103/physrev.17.302. Retrieved July 17, 2013.: "For alternating current power to be available in a circuit which has externally applied only continuous voltages, the average power consumption during a cycle must be negative...which demands the introduction of negative resistance [which] requires that the phase difference between voltage and current lie between 90° and 270°...[and for nonreactive circuits] the value 180° must hold... The volt-ampere characteristic of such a resistance will therefore be linear, with a negative slope..." /wiki/Heinrich_Barkhausen ↩

397. Gottlieb 1997 Practical Oscillator Handbook, pp. 105–108 Archived 2016-05-15 at the Wayback Machine https://books.google.com/books?id=e_oZ69GAuxAC&dq=%22negative+resistance&pg=PA106 ↩

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399. Gottlieb 1997, Practical Oscillator Handbook, p. 84 Archived 2016-05-15 at the Wayback Machine https://books.google.com/books?id=e_oZ69GAuxAC&dq=%22negative-resistance%22&pg=PA84 ↩

400. this property was often called "resistance neutralization" in the days of vacuum tubes, see Bennett, Edward; Leo James Peters (January 1921). "Resistance Neutralization: An application of thermionic amplifier circuits". Journal of the AIEE. 41 (1). New York: American Institute of Electrical Engineers: 234–248. Retrieved August 14, 2013. and Ch. 3: "Resistance Neutralization" in Peters, Leo James (1927). Theory of Thermionic Vacuum Tube Circuits (PDF). McGraw-Hill. pp. 62–87. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-03-04. https://books.google.com/books?id=TnZJAQAAIAAJ&q=%22resistance+neutralization&pg=PA234 ↩

401. Li, Dandan; Yannis Tsividis (2002). "Active filters using integrated inductors". Design of High Frequency Integrated Analogue Filters. Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET). p. 58. ISBN 0852969767. Retrieved July 23, 2013. 0852969767 ↩

402. Rembovsky, Anatoly (2009). Radio Monitoring: Problems, Methods and Equipment. Springer. p. 24. ISBN 978-0387981000. Archived from the original on 2017-07-19. 978-0387981000 ↩

403. Sun, Yichuang Sun (2002). Design of High Frequency Integrated Analogue Filters. IET. pp. 58, 60–62. ISBN 978-0852969762. 978-0852969762 ↩

404. Armstrong, Edwin H. (August 1922). "Some recent developments of regenerative circuits". Proceedings of the IRE. 10 (4): 244–245. doi:10.1109/jrproc.1922.219822. S2CID 51637458. Retrieved September 9, 2013.. "Regeneration" means "positive feedback" https://books.google.com/books?id=bNI1AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA244 ↩

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408. Li, Dandan; Yannis Tsividis (2002). "Active filters using integrated inductors". Design of High Frequency Integrated Analogue Filters. Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET). p. 58. ISBN 0852969767. Retrieved July 23, 2013. 0852969767 ↩

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412. Kennedy, Michael Peter (October 1993). "Three Steps to Chaos: Part 1 – Evolution" (PDF). IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems. 40 (10): 640. doi:10.1109/81.246140. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 5, 2013. Retrieved February 26, 2014. http://www.eecs.berkeley.edu/~chua/papers/Kennedy93.pdf ↩

413. Horowitz, Paul (2004). "Negative Resistor – Physics 123 demonstration with Paul Horowitz". Video lecture, Physics 123, Harvard Univ. YouTube. Archived from the original on December 17, 2015. Retrieved November 20, 2012. In this video Prof. Horowitz demonstrates that negative static resistance actually exists. He has a black box with two terminals, labelled "−10 kilohms" and shows with ordinary test equipment that it acts like a linear negative resistor (active resistor) with a resistance of −10 KΩ: a positive voltage across it causes a proportional negative current through it, and when connected in a voltage divider with an ordinary resistor the output of the divider is greater than the input, it can amplify. At the end he opens the box and shows it contains an op-amp negative impedance converter circuit and battery. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qKqrXcU2jGo ↩

414. Hickman, Ian (2013). Analog Circuits Cookbook. New York: Elsevier. pp. 8–9. ISBN 978-1483105352. Archived from the original on 2016-05-27. 978-1483105352 ↩

415. Lee, Thomas H. (2004). The Design of CMOS Radio-Frequency Integrated Circuits, 2nd Ed. UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 641–642. ISBN 978-0521835398. 978-0521835398 ↩

416. Linvill, J.G. (1953). "Transistor Negative-Impedance Converters". Proceedings of the IRE. 41 (6): 725–729. doi:10.1109/JRPROC.1953.274251. S2CID 51654698. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

417. Lee, Thomas H. (2004). The Design of CMOS Radio-Frequency Integrated Circuits, 2nd Ed. UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 641–642. ISBN 978-0521835398. 978-0521835398 ↩

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419. Muthuswamy, Bharathwaj; Joerg Mossbrucker (2010). "A framework for teaching nonlinear op-amp circuits to junior undergraduate electrical engineering students". 2010 Conference Proceedings. American Society for Engineering Education. Retrieved October 18, 2012.[permanent dead link], Appendix B. This derives a slightly more complicated circuit where the two voltage divider resistors are different to allow scaling, but it reduces to the text circuit by setting R2 and R3 in the source to R1 in the text, and R1 in source to Z in the text. The I–V curve is the same. http://search.asee.org/search/fetch;jsessionid=13wo7tplbh5np?url=file%3A%2F%2Flocalhost%2FE%3A%2Fsearch%2Fconference%2F32%2FAC%25202010Full182.pdf&index=conference_papers&space=129746797203605791716676178&type=application%2Fpdf&charset= ↩

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431. Carr, Joseph J. (1997). Microwave & Wireless Communications Technology. USA: Newnes. pp. 313–314. ISBN 978-0750697071. Archived from the original on 2017-07-07. 978-0750697071 ↩

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433. Haddad, G. I.; J. R. East; H. Eisele (2003). "Two-terminal active devices for terahertz sources". Terahertz Sensing Technology: Electronic devices and advanced systems technology. World Scientific. p. 45. ISBN 9789812796820. Retrieved October 17, 2012. 9789812796820 ↩

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435. Laplante, Philip A. Laplante (2005). Comprehensive Dictionary of Electrical Engineering, 2nd Ed. CRC Press. p. 466. ISBN 978-0849330865. 978-0849330865 ↩

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437. Lesurf, Jim (2006). "Negative Resistance Oscillators". The Scots Guide to Electronics. School of Physics and Astronomy, Univ. of St. Andrews. Archived from the original on July 16, 2012. Retrieved August 20, 2012. http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~www_pa/Scots_Guide/RadCom/part5/page1.html ↩

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440. Lesurf, Jim (2006). "Negative Resistance Oscillators". The Scots Guide to Electronics. School of Physics and Astronomy, Univ. of St. Andrews. Archived from the original on July 16, 2012. Retrieved August 20, 2012. http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~www_pa/Scots_Guide/RadCom/part5/page1.html ↩

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443. Kung, Fabian Wai Lee (2009). "Lesson 9: Oscillator Design" (PDF). RF/Microwave Circuit Design. Prof. Kung's website, Multimedia University. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 22, 2015. Retrieved October 17, 2012., Sec. 3 Negative Resistance Oscillators, pp. 9–10, 14, https://web.archive.org/web/20150722165131/http://pesona.mmu.edu.my/~wlkung/ADS/rf/lesson9.pdf ↩

444. Du, Ke-Lin; M. N. S. Swamy (2010). Wireless Communication Systems: From RF Subsystems to 4G Enabling Technologies. Cambridge University Press. p. 438. ISBN 978-0521114035. 978-0521114035 ↩

445. Haddad, G. I.; J. R. East; H. Eisele (2003). "Two-terminal active devices for terahertz sources". Terahertz Sensing Technology: Electronic devices and advanced systems technology. World Scientific. p. 45. ISBN 9789812796820. Retrieved October 17, 2012. 9789812796820 ↩

446. Räisänen, Antti V.; Arto Lehto (2003). Radio Engineering for Wireless Communication and Sensor Applications. USA: Artech House. pp. 180–182. ISBN 978-1580535427. Archived from the original on 2017-02-25. 978-1580535427 ↩

447. Kung, Fabian Wai Lee (2009). "Lesson 9: Oscillator Design" (PDF). RF/Microwave Circuit Design. Prof. Kung's website, Multimedia University. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 22, 2015. Retrieved October 17, 2012., Sec. 3 Negative Resistance Oscillators, pp. 9–10, 14, https://web.archive.org/web/20150722165131/http://pesona.mmu.edu.my/~wlkung/ADS/rf/lesson9.pdf ↩

448. Räisänen, Antti V.; Arto Lehto (2003). Radio Engineering for Wireless Communication and Sensor Applications. USA: Artech House. pp. 180–182. ISBN 978-1580535427. Archived from the original on 2017-02-25. 978-1580535427 ↩

449. Ellinger, Frank (2008). Radio Frequency Integrated Circuits and Technologies, 2nd Ed. USA: Springer. pp. 391–394. ISBN 978-3540693246. Archived from the original on 2016-07-31. 978-3540693246 ↩

450. Gottlieb, Irving M. (1997). Practical Oscillator Handbook. Elsevier. pp. 84–85. ISBN 978-0080539386. Archived from the original on 2016-05-15. 978-0080539386 ↩

451. Ghadiri, Aliakbar (Fall 2011). "Design of Active-Based Passive Components for Radio Frequency Applications". PhD Thesis. Electrical and Computer Engineering Dept., Univ. of Alberta: 9–10. doi:10.7939/R3N88J. Archived from the original on June 28, 2012. Retrieved March 21, 2014. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) http://era.library.ualberta.ca/public/datastream/get/uuid:a590efa3-a428-4823-88e3-f071bac3f1d0/DS1 ↩

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453. Kung, Fabian Wai Lee (2009). "Lesson 9: Oscillator Design" (PDF). RF/Microwave Circuit Design. Prof. Kung's website, Multimedia University. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 22, 2015. Retrieved October 17, 2012., Sec. 3 Negative Resistance Oscillators, pp. 9–10, 14, https://web.archive.org/web/20150722165131/http://pesona.mmu.edu.my/~wlkung/ADS/rf/lesson9.pdf ↩

454. Kung, Fabian Wai Lee (2009). "Lesson 9: Oscillator Design" (PDF). RF/Microwave Circuit Design. Prof. Kung's website, Multimedia University. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 22, 2015. Retrieved October 17, 2012., Sec. 3 Negative Resistance Oscillators, pp. 9–10, 14, https://web.archive.org/web/20150722165131/http://pesona.mmu.edu.my/~wlkung/ADS/rf/lesson9.pdf ↩

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456. Lesurf, Jim (2006). "Negative Resistance Oscillators". The Scots Guide to Electronics. School of Physics and Astronomy, Univ. of St. Andrews. Archived from the original on July 16, 2012. Retrieved August 20, 2012. http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~www_pa/Scots_Guide/RadCom/part5/page1.html ↩

457. Lesurf, Jim (2006). "Negative Resistance Oscillators". The Scots Guide to Electronics. School of Physics and Astronomy, Univ. of St. Andrews. Archived from the original on July 16, 2012. Retrieved August 20, 2012. http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~www_pa/Scots_Guide/RadCom/part5/page1.html ↩

458. Lesurf, Jim (2006). "Negative Resistance Oscillators". The Scots Guide to Electronics. School of Physics and Astronomy, Univ. of St. Andrews. Archived from the original on July 16, 2012. Retrieved August 20, 2012. http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~www_pa/Scots_Guide/RadCom/part5/page1.html ↩

459. Lesurf, Jim (2006). "Negative Resistance Oscillators". The Scots Guide to Electronics. School of Physics and Astronomy, Univ. of St. Andrews. Archived from the original on July 16, 2012. Retrieved August 20, 2012. http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~www_pa/Scots_Guide/RadCom/part5/page1.html ↩

460. Lesurf, Jim (2006). "Negative Resistance Oscillators". The Scots Guide to Electronics. School of Physics and Astronomy, Univ. of St. Andrews. Archived from the original on July 16, 2012. Retrieved August 20, 2012. http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~www_pa/Scots_Guide/RadCom/part5/page1.html ↩

461. Solymar, Laszlo; Donald Walsh (2009). Electrical Properties of Materials, 8th Ed. UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 181–182. ISBN 978-0199565917. 978-0199565917 ↩

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464. Ellinger, Frank (2008). Radio Frequency Integrated Circuits and Technologies, 2nd Ed. USA: Springer. pp. 391–394. ISBN 978-3540693246. Archived from the original on 2016-07-31. 978-3540693246 ↩

465. Gilmore, Rowan; Besser, Les (2003). Active Circuits and Systems. USA: Artech House. pp. 27–29. ISBN 9781580535229. 9781580535229 ↩

466. Kung, Fabian Wai Lee (2009). "Lesson 9: Oscillator Design" (PDF). RF/Microwave Circuit Design. Prof. Kung's website, Multimedia University. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 26, 2012. Retrieved October 17, 2012., Sec. 3 Negative Resistance Oscillators, p. 21 https://web.archive.org/web/20120526153220/http://pesona.mmu.edu.my/~wlkung/ADS/rf/lesson9.pdf ↩

467. Lesurf, Jim (2006). "Negative Resistance Oscillators". The Scots Guide to Electronics. School of Physics and Astronomy, Univ. of St. Andrews. Archived from the original on July 16, 2012. Retrieved August 20, 2012. http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/~www_pa/Scots_Guide/RadCom/part5/page1.html ↩

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