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Ismail I was the founder and first shah of Safavid Iran, ruling from 1501 to 1524 and unifying Iran under native rule for the first time since the Islamic conquest. He inherited leadership of the Safavid Sufi order and established the Twelver Shia Islam as the state religion, profoundly shaping Iranian and Islamic history. Despite his 1514 defeat at the Battle of Chaldiran against the Ottoman Empire, his dynasty ruled vast territories spanning modern-day Iran, Azerbaijan, Armenia, and beyond, fostering Iranian identity, bureaucratic governance, and cultural patronage. Ismail was also a notable poet, writing under the pen name Khaṭāwī, contributing significantly to Azerbaijani and Persian literature.

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Origins

See also: Safavid dynasty and Safavid family tree

Ismail I was born to Shaykh Haydar and his wife Halima Begum on 17 July 1487, in Ardabil. His father was the sheikh of the Safavid tariqa (Sufi order) and a direct descendant of its Kurdish founder,171819 Safi-ad-din Ardabili (1252–1334). Ismail was the last in this line of hereditary Grand Masters of the order, prior to his founding of a ruling dynasty.

His mother Halima Begum was the daughter of Uzun Hasan, the ruler of the Turkoman Aq Qoyunlu dynasty, by his Pontic Greek wife Theodora Megale Komnene, better known as Despina Khatun.20 Despina Khatun was the daughter of Emperor John IV of Trebizond. She had married Uzun Hassan in a deal to protect the Empire of Trebizond from the Ottoman Turks.21 Ismail was a great-great-grandson of Emperor Alexios IV of Trebizond and King Alexander I of Georgia.

Roger Savory suggests that Ismail's family was of Iranian origin, likely from Iranian Kurdistan, and later moved to Azerbaijan where they assimilated into the Turkic Azeri population.22 Ismail was bilingual in Persian and a Southern Turkic dialect, a precursor of modern Azeri Turkic.2324 His ancestry was mixed, from various ethnic groups such as Georgians, Greeks, Kurds and Turkomans;252627 the majority of scholars agree that his empire was an Iranian one.2829303132

In 700/1301, Safi al-Din assumed the leadership of the Zahediyeh, a significant Sufi order in Gilan, from his spiritual master and father-in-law Zahed Gilani. The order was later known as the Safavid. One genealogy claimed that Sheikh Safi (the founder of the order and Ismael's ancestor) was a lineal descendant of Ali. Ismail also proclaimed himself the Mahdi and a reincarnation of Ali.33

Early years

In 1488, Ismail's father was killed in a battle at Tabasaran against the forces of the Shirvanshah Farrukh Yassar and his overlord, the Aq Qoyunlu, a Turkic tribal federation which controlled most of Iran. In 1494, the Aq Qoyunlu captured Ardabil, killing Ali Mirza Safavi, the eldest son of Haydar, and forcing the seven-year-old Ismail to go into hiding in Gilan, where under the Kar-Kiya ruler Soltan-Ali Mirza, he received education under the guidance of scholars.

When Ismail reached the age of twelve, he came out of hiding and returned to what is now Iranian Azerbaijan along with his followers. Ismail's rise to power was made possible by the Turkoman tribes of Anatolia and Azerbaijan, who formed the most important part of the Qizilbash movement.34

Reign

Conquest of Iran and its surroundings

Main article: Campaigns of Ismail I

In the summer of 1500, Ismail rallied about 7,000 Qizilbash troops at Erzincan, including members of the Ustajlu, Rumlu, Takkalu, Dhu'l-Qadar, Afshar, Qajar, and Varsaq tribes.35 Qizilbash forces passed over the Kura River in December 1500 and marched towards the Shirvanshah's state. They defeated the forces of the Shirvanshah Farrukh Yassar near Cabanı (present-day Shamakhi Rayon, Azerbaijan Republic)36 or at Gulistan (present-day Gülüstan, Goranboy, Azerbaijan),3738 and subsequently went on to conquer Baku.3940 Thus, Shirvan and its dependencies (up to southern Dagestan in the north) were now Ismail's. The Shirvanshah line nevertheless continued to rule Shirvan under Safavid suzerainty until 1538, when, during the reign of Ismail's son, Tahmasp I (r. 1524–1576), it was placed under the rule of a Safavid governor.41 After the conquest, Ismail had Alexander I of Kakheti send his son Demetre to Shirvan to negotiate a peace agreement.42

The successful conquest alarmed the ruler of the Aq Qoyunlu, Alvand, who subsequently proceeded north from Tabriz and crossed the Aras River in order to challenge the Safavid forces. Both sides met at the Battle of Sharur, which Ismail's army won despite being outnumbered by four to one.43 Shortly before his attack on Shirvan, Ismail had made the Georgian kings Constantine II and Alexander I of the kingdoms of Kartli and Kakheti, respectively, attack the Ottoman possessions near Tabriz, on the promise that he would cancel the tribute that Constantine was forced to pay to the Aq Qoyunlu once Tabriz was captured.44 After eventually conquering Tabriz and Nakhchivan, Ismail broke the promise he had made to Constantine II and made the kingdoms of Kartli and Kakheti both his vassals.45

In July 1501, following his occupation of Tabriz, Ismail took the title Pādshāh-i Irān (King of Iran).46 He appointed his former guardian and mentor Husayn Beg Shamlu as the vakil (vicegerent) of the empire and the commander-in-chief (amir al-umara) of the Qizilbash army.4748 His army was composed of tribal units, the majority of which were Turkmen from Anatolia and Syria with the remainder Kurds and Chagatai.49 He also appointed a former Iranian vizier of the Aq Qoyunlu named Amir Zakariya as his vizier.50 After proclaiming himself Shah, Ismail also proclaimed Twelver Shi'ism to be the official and compulsory religion of Iran. He enforced this new standard by the sword, dissolving Sunni Brotherhoods and executing anyone who refused to comply to the newly implemented Shi'ism.51

Qasim Beg Hayati Tabrizi (fl. 1554), a poet and bureaucrat of early Safavid era, states that he had heard from several witnesses that Shah Ismail's enthronement took place in Tabriz immediately after the Battle of Sharur on 1 Jumada al-Thani 907 / 22 December 1501, making Hayati's book entitled Tarikh (1554) the only known narrative source to give the exact date of Shah Ismail's ascent to the throne.52

After defeating an Aq Qoyunlu army in 1502, Ismail took the title of "Shah of Iran".53 In the same year he gained possession of Erzincan and Erzurum,54 while a year later, in 1503, he conquered Eraq-e Ajam and Fars in the Battle of Hamadan (1503). One year later he conquered Mazandaran, Gorgan, and Yazd.

In 1507, he conquered Diyarbakır. During the same year, Ismail appointed the Iranian Amir Najm al-Din Mas'ud Gilani as the new vakil. This was because Ismail had begun favoring the Iranians more than the Qizilbash, who, although they had played a crucial role in Ismail's campaigns, possessed too much power and were no longer considered trustworthy.5556 One year later, Ismail forced the rulers of Khuzestan, Lorestan, and Kurdistan to become his vassals. The same year, Ismail and Husayn Beg Shamlu seized Baghdad, putting an end to the Aq Qoyunlu.5758 Ismail then began destroying Sunni sites in Baghdad, including the tombs of Abbasid Caliphs and tombs of Imam Abu Hanifah and Abdul Qadir Gilani.59

By 1510, he had conquered the whole of Iran (including Shirvan), southern Dagestan (with its important city of Derbent), Mesopotamia, Armenia, Khorasan, and Eastern Anatolia, and had made the Georgian kingdoms of Kartli and Kakheti his vassals.6061 In the same year, Husayn Beg Shamlu lost his office as commander-in-chief in favor of a man of humble origins, Mohammad Beg Ustajlu.62 Ismail also appointed Najm-e Sani as the new vakil of the empire due to the death of Mas'ud Gilani.63

Ismail I moved against the Uzbeks. In the Battle of Merv (1510), some 17,000 Qizilbash warriors trapped an Uzbek force. The Uzbek ruler, Muhammad Shaybani, was caught and killed trying to escape the battle, and the shah had his skull made into a jewelled drinking goblet.64 In 1512, Najm-e Sani was killed during a clash with the Uzbeks, which made Ismail appoint Abd al-Baqi Yazdi as the new vakil of the empire.65

War against the Ottomans

The active recruitment of support for the Safavid cause among the Turcoman tribes of Eastern Anatolia, among tribesmen who were Ottoman subjects, had inevitably placed the neighbouring Ottoman empire and the Safavid state on a collision course.66 As the Encyclopædia Iranica states, "As orthodox or Sunni Muslims, the Ottomans had reason to view with alarm the progress of Shīʿī ideas in the territories under their control, but there was also a grave political danger that the Ṣafawīya, if allowed to extend its influence still further, might bring about the transfer of large areas in Asia Minor from Ottoman to Persian allegiance".67 By the early 1510s, Ismail's rapidly expansionist policies had made the Safavid border in Asia Minor shift even further west. In 1511, there was a widespread pro-Safavid rebellion in southern Anatolia by the Takkalu Qizilbash tribe, known as the Şahkulu Rebellion,68 and an Ottoman army that was sent in order to put down the rebellion down was defeated.69 A large-scale incursion into Eastern Anatolia by Safavid ghazis under Nur-Ali Khalifa coincided with the accession of Sultan Selim I in 1512 to the Ottoman throne. Such incursions were one of the reasons for Selim's decision to invade Safavid Iran two years later.70 Selim and Ismail had been exchanging a series of belligerent letters prior to the attack. While the Safavid forces were at Chaldiran and planning on how to confront the Ottomans, Mohammad Khan Ustajlu, who served as the governor of Diyarbakır, and Nur-Ali Khalifa, a commander who knew how the Ottomans fought, proposed that they should attack as quickly as possible.71 This proposal was rejected by the powerful Qizilbash officer Durmish Khan Shamlu, who rudely said that Mohammad Khan Ustajlu was only interested in the province which he governed. The proposal was rejected by Ismail himself, who said; "I am not a caravan-thief; whatever is decreed by God, will occur."72

Selim I eventually defeated Ismail at the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514.73 Ismail's army was more mobile, and his soldiers were better prepared, but the Ottomans prevailed in large part due to their efficient modern army and possession of artillery, black powder and muskets. Ismail was wounded and almost captured in battle. Selim entered the Iranian capital of Tabriz in triumph on September 574 but did not linger. A mutiny among his troops, fearing a counterattack and entrapment by fresh Safavid forces called in from the interior, forced the triumphant Ottomans to withdraw prematurely. This allowed Ismail to recover. Among the booty from Tabriz was Ismail's favorite wife, for whose release the Sultan demanded huge concessions, which were refused. Despite his defeat at the Battle of Chaldiran, Ismail quickly recovered most of his kingdom, from east of Lake Van to the Persian Gulf. However, the Ottomans managed to annex for the first time Eastern Anatolia and parts of Mesopotamia, as well as briefly northwestern Iran.75

The Venetian ambassador Caterino Zeno describes the events as follows:

The monarch [Selim], seeing the slaughter, began to retreat, and to turn about, and was about to fly, when Sinan, coming to the rescue at the time of need, caused the artillery to be brought up and fired on both the janissaries [sic] and the Persians. The Persian horses hearing the thunder of those infernal machines, scattered and divided themselves over the plain, not obeying their riders bit or spur anymore, from the terror they were in ... It is certainly said, that if it had not been for the artillery, which terrified in the manner related the Persian horses which had never before heard such a din, all his forces would have been routed and put to edge of the sword.76

He also adds:

[...] if the Turk had been beaten, the power of Ismail would have become greater than that of Tamerlane, as by the fame alone of such a victory he would have made himself absolute lord of the East.77

Late reign and death

Shah Ismail's death ensued after a few years of a very saddening and depressing period of his life. After the Battle of Chaldiran, Ismail lost his supernatural air and the aura of invincibility, gradually falling into heavy drinking.78 He retired to his palace and never again participated in a military campaign,79 and left the affairs of the state to his vizier Mirza Shah Husayn,80 who became his close friend and Nadeem (i.e. drinking companion). This allowed Mirza Shah Husayn to gain influence and expand his authority.81 Mirza Shah Husayn was assassinated in 1523 by a group of Qizilbash officers, after which Ismail appointed Zakariya's son Jalal al-Din Mohammad Tabrizi as his new vizier. Ismail died on 23 May 1524 aged 36 and was buried in Ardabil. He was succeeded by his son Tahmasp I.

The consequences of the defeat at Chaldiran were also psychological for Ismail; his relationships with the Qizilbash followers were fundamentally altered. The tribal rivalries between the Qizilbash which had ceased temporarily before the defeat at Chaldiran resurfaced intensely immediately after his death and led to ten years of civil war (930–40/1524–33) until Shah Tahmasp regained control of the affairs of the state. The Safavids later briefly lost Balkh and Kandahar to the Mughals, and nearly lost Herat to the Uzbeks.82

During Ismail's reign, mainly in the late 1510s, the first steps for the Habsburg–Persian alliance were taken with Charles V and Ludwig II of Hungary being in contact with a view of combining against the common Ottoman Turkish enemy.83

Policies

One of the main problems of Ismail I's reign was the integration of the Safavid order into the administrative structure inherited from previous Muslim polities. Ismail sought to stabilize the newly established Safavid state and restore economic prosperity to the realm, but some of his supporters wanted to continue the revolutionary struggle. The Qizilbash raids in Anatolia, which were one of the causes of the first Ottoman–Safavid war, have been interpreted by Roger Savory as Ismail's attempt to "siphon off this excess revolutionary fervour". Another major issue was the competition between the Qizilbash, who expected important positions in the Safavid state in return for their services, and the Iranians, who had traditionally dominated the sphere of administration and made up most of the ulama (religious leadership).84 The chiefs (amirs) of the Qizilbash tribes held the governorships of provinces in early Safavid Iran and occupied the most important state offices.85 Ismail instituted the office of vakil-i nafs-i nafis-i humayun;86 its holder was to serve as the shah's representative in both religious and secular matters. The Qizilbash amir Husayn Beg Shamlu was the first vakil.87 The top military offices of amir al-umara (commander-in-chief) and qurchibashi were also granted to Qizilbash leaders.88 Ismail also made the office of sadr (head of the ulama) an appointee of the shah; this office was held by an Iranian.89 Iranians also occupied the office of vizier, the traditional chief of the bureaucracy, but this office was less powerful than that of vakil.9091 Eventually, Ismail appointed a succession of Iranians to the office of vakil in an apparent attempt to counterbalance the power of the Qizilbash. This provoked the resistance of the Qizilbash, who assassinated the Iranian vakil Mirza Shah Husayn in 152392 and took control of the state after Ismail's death.93

Royal ideology

From an early age, Ismail was acquainted with the Iranian cultural legacy. When he reached Lahijan in 1494, he gifted Mirza Ali Karkiya a copy of the medieval Persian epic Shahnameh (Book of Kings) with over 300 illustrations.94 Owing to his fondness of Iranian national legends, Ismail named three of his four sons after mythological shahs and heroes of the Shahnameh; his oldest son was named Tahmasp, after the last shah of the Pishdadian dynasty; his third son Sam after the champion of the Pishdadian shah Manuchehr and ancestor of the celebrated warrior-hero Rostam; his youngest son Bahram after the Sasanian shah Bahram V (r. 420–438), famous for his romantic life and hunting feats. Ismail's expertise in Persian poetic tales such as the Shahnameh, helped him to represent himself as the heir to the Iranian model of kingship.95 According to the modern historian Abbas Amanat, Ismail was motivated to visualize himself as a shah of the Shahnameh, possibly Kaykhosrow, the archetype of a great Iranian king, and the person who overcame the Turanian king Afrasiyab, the nemesis of Iran. From an Iranian perspective, Afrasiyab's kingdom of Turan was commonly identified with the land of the Turks, in particular with the Uzbek Khanate of Bukhara in Central Asia. After Ismail defeated the Uzbeks, his victory was portrayed in Safavid records as a victory over the mythological Turanians.96 However, this fondness of Iranian legends was not only restricted to that of Ismail and Safavid Iran; Both Muhammad Shaybani, Selim I, and later Babur and his Mughal progeny, all associated themselves with these legends. Regardless of its increasing differences, Western, Central, and South Asia all followed a common Persianate model of culture and kingship.97

In the second part of the fifteenth century, Safavid propaganda adopted many beliefs held of ghulat groups. Ismail's father and grandfather were reportedly considered divine by their disciples, and Ismail taught his followers that he was a divine incarnation, as is demonstrated by his poetry.98 For example, in some of his poems he wrote "I am the absolute Truth" and "I am God’s eye (or God himself)".99 This made his followers intensely loyal to him.100 Through their supposed descent from Imam Musa al-Kazim, Ismail and his successors claimed the role of deputy (na'ib) of the Hidden Imam (the Mahdi) and also the infallibility or sinlessness (isma) ascribed to the Mahdi; this brought them into conflict with the mujtahids (high-ranking Shi'ite jurisprudents) who traditionally claimed the authority of deputyship.101 At least until his defeat at Chaldiran in 1514, Ismail identified himself as the reincarnation of Alid figures such as Ali, Husayn, and the Mahdi.102 Historian Cornell Fleischer argues that Ismail took part in a broader trend of messianic and millenarian claims, which were also being expressed in the Ottoman Empire. He writes, "Shah Ismāʿīl was the most spectacular and successful— but by no means singular—instance of the convergence between mysticism, messianism, and politics at the beginning of the sixteenth century."103

Besides his self-identification with Muslim figures, Ismail also presented himself as the personification of the divine light of investiture (farr) that had radiated in the ancient Iranian shahs Darius, Khosrow I Anushirvan (r. 531–579), Shapur I (r. 240–270), since the era of the Achaemenids and Sasanians. This was a typical Safavid combination of Islamic and pre-Islamic Iranian motifs.104 The Safavids also included and promoted Turkic and Mongol aspects from the Central Asian steppe, such as giving high-ranking positions to Turkic leaders, and utilizing Turkic tribal clans for their aspirations in war. They likewise included Turco-Mongolian titles such as khan and bahadur to their growing collection of titles. The cultural aspects of the Safavids soon became even more numerous, as Ismail and his successors included and promoted Kurds, Arabs, Georgians, Circassians, and Armenians into their imperial program.105 Moreover, the conquests of Genghis Khan and Timur had merged Mongolian and Chagatai aspects into the Persian bureaucratic culture, terminology, seals, and symbols.106

Art of the book

Soon after he conquered the Aq Qoyunlu capital of Tabriz in 1501-1502, Shah Ismail started to commission illustrated manuscripts such as the Dastan-i Jamal u Jalal, Tabriz (1502-1505).107 Such early works followed the Turkman style of miniatures, with highly decorative elements, and exuberant representations of nature.108

Another early commission was the contribution of additional miniatures in 1505 to an Aq Qoyunlu manuscript, the Khamsa of Nizami (Tabriz, 1481).109 Shah Isma'il entrusted the creation of eleven miniatures to the young painter Sultan Mohammed, who later became a key artist of the Safavid school.110 Some of the paintings created by Sultan Mohammed for this manuscript are considered as highly original, such as The Mir'aj of Prophet Muhammad (now in the Keir Collection in London), in which the Prophet can be seen rising over the Great Mosque in Mecca, the Ka'ba and his tomb, riding into a billowing mass of heavenly clouds with a multitude of angels. The sky is pieced with an oculus, an artistic device of probable European origin. A small inscription in gold letters on the portal of a small building on a terrace gives the date of creation as 1505.111

One of the main criteria used to differentiate the Safavid miniatures from the Aq Qoyunlu ones is for a great part iconographic, as the protagonists in Shah Isma'il's paintings generally wear his signature turban, the Taj-i Haydari, which he introduced when he occupied Tabriz in 1501-1502.112

Towards the end of his reign, circa 1520-21, Shāh Ismaʿīl also commissioned panegyric histories of his accomplishments, where he can be seen in various court and battle scenes. These works, such as the Shāhnāmah Shāh Ismaʿīl (Tabriz, 1541), were generally completed only after he died.113114 These manuscripts offer some very interesting illustrations in lively style, which, stylistically, are witnesses to the persistence of the Turkoman element in the creations of Tabriz around 1541.115116 Some, such as Shāhnāmah Shāh Ismaʿīl(Bodleian Library, MS. Elliot 328) are more provincial in style but also show undisguised and rather gruesome scenes of conquest, such as the time when a defender of Firuzkuh was roasted on a spit at the hands of the Safavids.117118

Probably about 1522, Shah Isma'il started a sumptuous illuminated manuscript of the Shahnameh for his son Shah Tahmasp I. But Shah Ismail I died in 1524, shortly after the work had begun.119 Work continued into the 1530s, ultimately including 258 original miniatures. It is now dispersed, and known under the name of Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp.120

Ismail's poetry

Ismail is also known for his poetry using the pen name Khaṭāʾī (Arabic: خطائي, lit. 'the wrongful').121 or 'Sinner,122 the mistaken one').123 Khatai was a popular pen name among Iranian poets, but none are as famous as Ismail.124 He wrote in Turkish and Persian, although his extant verses in the former vastly outnumber those in the latter.125 The Turkish spoken in Iran, which was commonly known as Turki,126 was not the Turkish of Istanbul,127 but a precursor of modern-day Azerbaijani or Azeri Turkic (see also: Ajem-Turkic).128 His devotional poetry was meant for the mainly Turkish-speaking Qizilbash who followed him, hence his decision to write in that language.129 Ismail used some words and forms not found in modern Turkish speech. Chaghatai words are also found in his poetry.130 Vladimir Minorsky writes that Ismail's Turkish "already shows traces of decomposition due to the influence of the Iranian milieu".131

Khata'i's divan (collection of poems) was compiled during the reign of Ismail's successor, Tahmasp I, so all of the poems in it may not actually belong to Ismail's pen.132 The oldest surviving copy of the divan (dated 1535) comprises 262 qasidas and ghazals, and ten ruba'is. The second oldest copy has 254 qasidas and ghazals, three mathnawis, one murabba' and one musaddas. T. Gandjei argues that the syllabic poems attributed to Khata'i (as opposed to the usual aruz ones, based on syllable length) are really the works of Bektashi-Alevi poets in Anatolia.133 Kioumars Ghereghlou states that the author of the divan is "still unknown", citing the fact that Ismail's son Sam Mirza never referred to his father as the author of the divan in his Tuhfa-yi Sami, a collection of biographies of contemporary Persian poets134 (he does, however, state that his father wrote poetry in Persian and Turkish).135

Ismail is considered an important figure in the literary history of Azerbaijani language.136 According to Roger Savory and Ahmet Karamustafa, "Ismail was a skillful poet who used prevalent themes and images in lyric and didactic-religious poetry with ease and some degree of originality".137 He was also deeply influenced by the Persian literary tradition of Iran, particularly by the Shahnameh of Ferdowsi, which probably explains the fact that he named all of his sons after characters from the Shahnameh. Dickson and Welch suggest that Ismail's "Shahnamaye Shahi" was intended as a present to his young son Tahmasp.138 After defeating Muhammad Shaybani's Uzbeks, Ismail asked Hatefi, a famous poet from Jam (Khorasan), to write a Shahnameh-like epic about his victories and his newly established dynasty. Although the epic was left unfinished, it was an example of mathnawis in the heroic style of the Shahnameh written later on for the Safavid kings.139

Most of the poems are concerned with love—particularly the mystical Sufi kind—though there are also poems propagating Shi'i doctrine and Safavi politics. His other serious works include the Nasihatnāme, a book of advice sometimes included in his divan, and the unfinished Dahnāme, a book which extols the virtues of love—both written in proto-Azeri Turkic.140141

Along with the poet Imadaddin Nasimi, Khata'i is considered to be among the first proponents of using a simpler Azerbaijani language in verse that would appeal to a broader audience. His work is most popular in Azerbaijan, as well as among the Bektashis of Turkey. There is a large body of Alevi and Bektashi poetry that has been attributed to him. The major impact of his religious writings, in the long run, was the conversion of Persia from Sunni to Shia Islam.142

Examples of his poems are:143144

Poetry example 1

Today I have come to the world as a Master. Know truly that I am Haydar's son. I am Fereydun, Khosrow, Jamshid, and Zahak. I am Zal's son (Rostam) and Alexander. The mystery of I am the truth is hidden in this my heart. I am the Absolute Truth and what I say is Truth. I belong to the religion of the "Adherent of the Ali" and on the Shah's path I am a guide to every one who says: "I am a Muslim." My sign is the "Crown of Happiness". I am the signet-ring on Sulayman's finger. Muhammad is made of light, Ali of Mystery. I am a pearl in the sea of Absolute Reality. I am Khatai, the Shah's slave full of shortcomings. At thy gate I am the smallest and the last [servant].

Poetry example 2

My name is Shāh Ismā'īl. I am God's mystery. I am the leader of all these ghāzīs. My mother is Fātima, my father is 'Ali; and eke I am the Pīr of the Twelve Imāms. I have recovered my father's blood from Yazīd. Be sure that I am of Haydarian essence. I am the living Khidr and Jesus, son of Mary. I am the Alexander of (my) contemporaries. Look you, Yazīd, polytheist and the adept of the Accursed one, I am free from the Ka'ba of hypocrites. In me is Prophethood (and) the mystery of Holiness. I follow the path of Muhammad Mustafā. I have conquered the world at the point of (my) sword. I am the Qanbar of Murtaza 'Ali. My sire is Safī, my father Haydar. Truly I am the Ja'far of the audacious. I am a Husaynid and have curses for Yazīd. I am Khatā'ī, a servant of the Shāh's.

Appearance and skills

Ismail was described by contemporaries as having a regal appearance, gentlemanly in quality and youthfulness. He also had a fair complexion and red hair.145

An Italian traveller describes Ismail as follows:

This Sophi is fair, handsome, and very pleasing; not very tall, but of a light and well-framed figure; rather stout than slight, with broad shoulders. His hair is reddish; he only wears moustachios, and uses his left hand instead of his right. He is as brave as a game cock, and stronger than any of his lords; in the archery contests, out of the ten apples that are knocked down, he knocks down seven.146

European portraiture

Europeans made several attempts at a portraiture of Sultan Ismail. Paolo Giovio, in his Elogia virorum bellica virtute illustrium (1554),147 created a gallery of portraits for all the great men of his time, some possibly based on notes from travelers, including a portrait of Sultan Ismail, whom he named "Hysmael Sophus" ("Ismail the Sage").148149150

This portrait engraving was then used as a reference by the Italian painter Cristofano dell'Altissimo between 1552 and 1568 for his famous portrait of Shah Ismail in the Florencian style. It is thought that this portrait was affected by idealized notions of Shah Ismail as a savior of Christians and Europeans against the Ottomans, complete with rumors of a conversion of Christianity.151 It may be for this reason that Shah Ismail's face is idealized in this portrait as "spiritual, nice and bright".152

Legacy

Ismail's greatest legacy was establishing an empire which lasted over 200 years. As Brad Brown states, "The Safavid dynasty would rule for two more centuries [after Ismail's death] and establish the basis for the modern nation-state of Iran."153 Even after the fall of the Safavids in 1736, their cultural and political influence endured through the succeeding dynasties of the Afsharid, Zand, Qajar, and Pahlavi states and into the contemporary Islamic Republic of Iran as well as the neighboring Republic of Azerbaijan, where Shia Islam is still the dominant religion as it was during the Safavid era.

Literature

In the Safavid period, the famous Azeri folk romance Shah Ismail emerged.154 According to Azerbaijani literary critic Hamid Arasly, this story is related to Ismail I. But it is also possible that it is dedicated to Ismail II.

Places and structures

Statues

Music

Shah Ismayil is the name of an Azerbaijani mugham opera in 6 acts and 7 scenes composed by Muslim Magomayev,157 in 1915–19.158

Other

Shah Ismail Order (the highest Azerbaijani military award presented by the Commander-in-chief and President of Azerbaijan)

Issue

Sons

Daughters

Ancestry

Ancestors of Ismail I
16. Khvajeh Ali Safavi
8. Sheikh Ibrahim Safavi
4. Sheikh Junāyd Safavi
2. Sheikh Heydar Safavi
20. Qara Yuluk Osman, Ruler of the Aq Qoyunlu (= 24)
10. Ali Beyg, Ruler of the Aq Qoyunlu (= 12)
21. Daughter of Alexios III of Trebizond (= 25)
5. Khadijeh Khatun
22. Pir Ali Bayandur (= 26)
11. Sara Khatun (= 13)
1. Ismail I
24. Qara Yuluk Osman, Ruler of the Aq Qoyunlu (= 20)
12. Ali Beyg, Ruler of the Aq Qoyunlu (= 10)
25. Daughter of Alexios III of Trebizond (= 21)
6. Uzun Hassan, Ruler of the Aq Qoyunlu
26. Pir Ali Bayandur (= 22)
13. Sara Khatun (= 11)
3. Alemshah Halime Begum
28. Alexios IV of Trebizond
14. John IV of Trebizond
29. Theodora Kantakouzene
7. Theodora of Trebizond
30. Alexander I of Georgia
15. Bagrationi
31. Dulandukht Orbeliani

See also

Notes

Bibliography

  • Media related to Ismail I at Wikimedia Commons

References

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  2. Matthee 2008. - Matthee, Rudi (2008). "Safavid Dynasty". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica (Online ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation. Archived from the original on 25 May 2022. Retrieved 23 June 2022. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids ↩

  3. Savory & Karamustafa 1998, pp. 628–636. - Savory, Roger; Karamustafa, Ahmet T. (1998). "Esmāʿīl I Ṣafawī". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica. Vol. VIII/6: Eršād al-zerāʿa–Eʿteżād-al-Salṭana (Online ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/esmail-i-safawi#i ↩

  4. Masters 2009, p. 71. - Masters, Bruce (2009). "Baghdad". In Ágoston, Gábor; Masters, Bruce (eds.). Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. New York: Facts on File. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-8160-6259-1. LCCN 2008020716. Archived from the original on 16 May 2016. Retrieved 21 June 2022. https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA71 ↩

  5. Savory 2012. - Savory, Roger (2012) [1995]. "Ṣafawids". In Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E. J.; Heinrichs, W. P.; Lewis, B.; Pellat, Ch.; Schacht, J. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Vol. 8. Leiden: Brill Publishers. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0964. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4. https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_COM_0964 ↩

  6. Matthee 2008. - Matthee, Rudi (2008). "Safavid Dynasty". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica (Online ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation. Archived from the original on 25 May 2022. Retrieved 23 June 2022. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids ↩

  7. Masters 2009, p. 71. - Masters, Bruce (2009). "Baghdad". In Ágoston, Gábor; Masters, Bruce (eds.). Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. New York: Facts on File. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-8160-6259-1. LCCN 2008020716. Archived from the original on 16 May 2016. Retrieved 21 June 2022. https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA71 ↩

  8. Metz 1989, p. 313. - Metz, Helen Chapin (1989). Iran: A Country Study. Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. ↩

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  10. Shaw 1976, p. 77. - Shaw, Stanford Jay (1976). History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-21280-4. ↩

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  12. Matthee 2008. - Matthee, Rudi (2008). "Safavid Dynasty". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica (Online ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation. Archived from the original on 25 May 2022. Retrieved 23 June 2022. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids ↩

  13. Savory 2007, p. 3: "Why is there such confusion about the origins of this important dynasty, which reasserted Iranian identity and established an independent Iranian state after eight and a half centuries of rule by foreign dynasties?" - Savory, Roger (2007) [Originally published 1980]. Iran under the Safavids. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521042512. ↩

  14. Matthee 2008. - Matthee, Rudi (2008). "Safavid Dynasty". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica (Online ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation. Archived from the original on 25 May 2022. Retrieved 23 June 2022. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids ↩

  15. Doerfer 1988, pp. 245–248. - Doerfer, G. (1988). "Azerbaijani viii. Azeri Turkish". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica. Vol. III/3: Azerbaijan IV–Bačča(-ye) Saqqā (Online ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation. pp. 245–248. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/azerbaijan-viii ↩

  16. Savory & Karamustafa 1998. - Savory, Roger; Karamustafa, Ahmet T. (1998). "Esmāʿīl I Ṣafawī". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica. Vol. VIII/6: Eršād al-zerāʿa–Eʿteżād-al-Salṭana (Online ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/esmail-i-safawi#i ↩

  17. Tapper 1997, p. 39: "The Safavid Shahs who ruled Iran between 1501 and 1722 descended from Sheikh Safi ad-Din of Ardabil (1252–1334). Sheikh Safi and his immediate successors were renowned as holy ascetics Sufis. Their own origins were obscure; probably of Kurdish or Iranian extraction ..." - Tapper, Richard (1997). Frontier Nomads of Iran: A Political and Social History of the Shahsevan. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521583367. https://books.google.com/books?id=uAzGTtWlp7gC ↩

  18. Savory 1997, p. 8. - Savory, Roger (1997). "Ebn Bazzāz". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica. Vol. VIII/1: Ebn ʿAyyāš–Economy V (Online ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ebn-bazzaz ↩

  19. Kamal 2006, p. 24: "The Safawid was originally a Sufi order whose founder, Shaykh Safi al-Din, a Sunni Sufi master descended from a Kurdish family ..." - Kamal, Muhammad (2006). Mulla Sadra's Transcendent Philosophy. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0754652717. https://books.google.com/books?id=EwB7Zo7lVp0C ↩

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  21. Bryer 1975, p. 136. - Bryer, Anthony (1975). "Greeks and Türkmens: The Pontic Exception". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 29: 136. doi:10.2307/1291371. ISSN 0070-7546. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1291371 ↩

  22. Savory 1999, p. 259: "From the evidence available at the present time, it is certain that the Safavid family was of indigenous Iranian stock, and not of Turkish ancestry as is sometimes claimed. It is probable that the family originated in Persian Kurdistan, and later moved to Azerbaijan, where they adopted the Azari form of Turkish spoken there, and eventually settled in the small town of Ardabīl sometime during the eleventh century." - Savory, Roger M. (1999). "Safavids". In Burke, Peter; Inalcik, Halil (eds.). History of Humanity: Scientific and Cultural Development, Volume V: From the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century. Routledge. ↩

  23. Dale 2020, pp. 73–74. - Dale, Stephen Frederic (2020). "Turks, Turks and türk Turks: Anatolia, Iran and India in Comparative Perspective". In Peacock, A.C.S.; McClary, Richard Piran (eds.). Turkish History and Culture in India: Identity, Art and Transregional Connections. Brill. pp. 56–87. doi:10.1163/9789004437364_004. https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004437364_004 ↩

  24. Kia 2014, pp. 110–111 (note 81): "Shah Esmaʿil wrote poetry in Turkish, because this devotional poetry was aimed at his Qizilbash followers, who were mostly Turkish speakers." - Kia, Mana (2014). "Imagining Iran before Nationalism: Geocultural Meanings of Land in Azar's Atashkadeh". In Aghaie, Kamran Scot; Marashi, Afshin (eds.). Rethinking Iranian Nationalism and Modernity. University of Texas Press. pp. 89–112. ↩

  25. Roemer 1986, pp. 214, 229; Blow 2009, p. 3; Savory & Karamustafa 1998; Ghereghlou 2016. - Roemer, H.R. (1986). "The Safavid Period". In Jackson, Peter; Lockhart, Laurence (eds.). The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol. 6. Cambridge University Press. pp. 189–350. ISBN 9780521200943. ↩

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  27. Savory 1999, p. 259 - Savory, Roger M. (1999). "Safavids". In Burke, Peter; Inalcik, Halil (eds.). History of Humanity: Scientific and Cultural Development, Volume V: From the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century. Routledge. ↩

  28. Metz 1989, p. 313. - Metz, Helen Chapin (1989). Iran: A Country Study. Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. ↩

  29. Bogle 1998, p. 145. - Bogle, Emory C. (1998). Islam: Origin and Belief. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 9780292708617. ↩

  30. Shaw 1976, p. 77. - Shaw, Stanford Jay (1976). History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-21280-4. ↩

  31. Newman 2008. - Newman, Andrew J. (2008). Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 9780857716613. https://books.google.com/books?id=KPgBAwAAQBAJ&q=false ↩

  32. Shahbazi 2005, p. 108: "Similarly the collapse of Sassanian Eranshahr in AD 650 did not end Iranians' national idea. The name 'Iran' disappeared from official records of the Saffarids, Samanids, Buyids, Saljuqs and their successor. But one unofficially used the name Iran, Eranshahr, and similar national designations, particularly Mamalek-e Iran or 'Iranian lands', which exactly translated the old Avestan term Ariyanam Daihunam. On the other hand, when the Safavids (not Reza Shah, as is popularly assumed) revived a national state officially known as Iran, bureaucratic usage in the Ottoman Empire and even Iran itself could still refer to it by other descriptive and traditional appellations". - Shahbazi, Alireza Shapur (2005). "The History of the Idea of Iran". In Curtis, Vesta (ed.). Birth of the Persian Empire. London: I.B. Tauris. ↩

  33. Blake 2013, p. 27. - Blake, Stephen P (2013). Time in Early Modern Islam: Calendar, Ceremony, and Chronology in the Safavid, Mughal and Ottoman Empires. Cambridge University Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-1-107-03023-7. https://www.google.com/books/edition/Time_in_Early_Modern_Islam/ZUB-FEpPHsoC ↩

  34. Roemer 1986; Savory & Karamustafa 1998; Ghereghlou 2016; Matthee 2008. - Roemer, H.R. (1986). "The Safavid Period". In Jackson, Peter; Lockhart, Laurence (eds.). The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol. 6. Cambridge University Press. pp. 189–350. ISBN 9780521200943. ↩

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  86. Literally, 'representative of the exquisite royal person' ↩

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  88. Savory 2007, p. 34. - Savory, Roger (2007) [Originally published 1980]. Iran under the Safavids. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521042512. ↩

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  91. The office of vakil decreased in importance after the Battle of Chaldiran, becoming a purely bureaucratic position and eventually falling into obsolescence.[65] ↩

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