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Phonetic ambiguity and transcription usage

Some languages, however, have a palatal approximant that is unspecified for rounding and so cannot be considered the semivocalic equivalent of either [i] or its rounded counterpart, [y], which would normally correspond to [ɥ]. An example is Spanish, which distinguishes two palatal approximants: an approximant semivowel [j], which is always unrounded (and is a phonological vowel - an allophone of /i/), and an approximant consonant unspecified for rounding, [ʝ̞] (which is a phonological consonant). Eugenio Martínez Celdrán describes the difference between them as follows (with audio examples added):¹¹

[j] is shorter and is usually a merely transitory sound. It can only exist together with a full vowel and does not appear in syllable onset. [On the other hand,] [ʝ̞] has a lower amplitude, mainly in F2. It can only appear in syllable onset. It is not noisy either articulatorily or perceptually. [ʝ̞] can vary towards [ʝ] in emphatic pronunciations, having noise (turbulent airstream). (...) There is a further argument through which we can establish a clear difference between [j] and [ʝ̞]: the first sound cannot be rounded, not even through co-articulation, whereas the second one is rounded before back vowels or the back semi-vowel. Thus, in words like viuda [ˈbjuða]ⓘ 'widow', Dios [ˈdjos]ⓘ 'God', vio [ˈbjo]ⓘ 's/he saw', etc., the semi-vowel [j] is unrounded; if it were rounded, a sound that does not exist in Spanish, [ɥ], would appear. On the other hand, [ʝ̞] is unspecified as far as rounding is concerned and it is assimilated to the labial vowel context: rounded with rounded vowels, e.g. ayuda [aˈʝ̞ʷuð̞a]ⓘ 'help', coyote [koˈʝ̞ʷote]ⓘ 'coyote', hoyuelo [oˈʝ̞ʷwelo]ⓘ 'dimple', etc., and unrounded with unrounded vowels: payaso [paˈʝ̞aso]ⓘ 'clown', ayer [aˈʝ̞eɾ]ⓘ 'yesterday'.

He also considers that "the IPA shows a lack of precision in the treatment it gives to approximants, if we take into account our understanding of the phonetics of Spanish. [ʝ̞] and [j] are two different segments, but they have to be labelled as voiced palatal approximant consonants. I think that the former is a real consonant, whereas the latter is a semi-consonant, as it has traditionally been called in Spanish, or a semi-vowel, if preferred. The IPA, though, classifies it as a consonant."¹²

There is a parallel problem with transcribing the voiced velar approximant.

The symbol ⟨ʝ̞⟩ may not display properly in all browsers. In that case, ⟨ʝ˕⟩ should be substituted.

In the writing systems used for most languages in Central, Northern, and Eastern Europe, the letter j denotes the palatal approximant, as in German Jahr 'year', which is followed by IPA. Although it may be seen as counterintuitive for English-speakers, there are a few words with that orthographical spelling in certain loanwords in English like Hebrew "hallelujah" and German "Jägermeister".

In grammars of Ancient Greek, the palatal approximant, which was lost early in the history of Greek, is sometimes written as ⟨ι̯⟩, an iota with the inverted breve below, which is the nonsyllabic diacritic or marker of a semivowel.¹³

There is also the post-palatal approximant¹⁴ in some languages, which is articulated slightly more back than the place of articulation of the prototypical palatal approximant but less far back than the prototypical velar approximant. It can be considered the semivocalic equivalent of the close central unrounded vowel [ɨ]The International Phonetic Alphabet does not have a separate symbol for that sound, but it can be transcribed as ⟨j̠⟩, ⟨j˗⟩ (both symbols denote a retracted ⟨j⟩), ⟨ɰ̟⟩ or ⟨ɰ˖⟩ (both symbols denote an advanced ⟨ɰ⟩). The equivalent X-SAMPA symbols are j_- and M\_+, respectively. Other possible transcriptions include a centralized ⟨j⟩ (⟨j̈⟩ in the IPA, j_" in X-SAMPA), a centralized ⟨ɰ⟩ (⟨ɰ̈⟩ in the IPA, M\_" in X-SAMPA) and a non-syllabic ⟨ɨ⟩ (⟨ɨ̯⟩ in the IPA, 1_^ in X-SAMPA).

For the reasons mentioned above and in the article velar approximant, none of those symbols are appropriate for languages such as Spanish, whose post-palatal approximant consonant (not a semivowel) appears as an allophone of /ɡ/ before front vowels and is best transcribed ⟨ʝ̞˗⟩, ⟨ʝ˕˗⟩ (both symbols denote a lowered and retracted ⟨ʝ⟩), ⟨ɣ̞˖⟩ or ⟨ɣ˕˖⟩ (both symbols denote a lowered and advanced ⟨ɣ⟩). The equivalent X-SAMPA symbols are j\_o_- and G_o_+.

Especially in broad transcription, the post-palatal approximant may be transcribed as a palatalized velar approximant (⟨ɰʲ⟩, ⟨ɣ̞ʲ⟩ or ⟨ɣ˕ʲ⟩ in the IPA, M\', M\_j, G'_o or G_o_j in X-SAMPA).

A voiced alveolar-palatal approximant is attested as phonemic in the Huastec language.

Features

Features of the voiced palatal approximant:

• Its manner of articulation is approximant, which means it is produced by narrowing the vocal tract at the place of articulation, but not enough to produce a turbulent airstream. The most common type of this approximant is glide or semivowel. The term glide emphasizes the characteristic of movement (or 'glide') of [j] from the [i] vowel position to a following vowel position. The term semivowel emphasizes that, although the sound is vocalic in nature, it is not 'syllabic' (it does not form the nucleus of a syllable). For a description of the approximant consonant variant used e.g. in Spanish, see above.
• Its place of articulation is palatal, which means it is articulated with the middle or back part of the tongue raised to the hard palate. The otherwise identical post-palatal variant is articulated slightly behind the hard palate, making it sound slightly closer to the velar [ɰ].
• Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation.
• It is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only.
• It is a central consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream along the center of the tongue, rather than to the sides.
• Its airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles, as in most sounds.

Occurrence

Palatal

Post-palatal

See also

• Palatal lateral approximant
• Nasal palatal approximant
• Index of phonetics articles

Notes

• Ambrazas, Vytautas; Geniušienė, Emma; Girdenis, Aleksas; Sližienė, Nijolė; Valeckienė, Adelė; Valiulytė, Elena; Tekorienė, Dalija; Pažūsis, Lionginas (1997), Ambrazas, Vytautas (ed.), Lithuanian Grammar, Vilnius: Institute of the Lithuanian Language, ISBN 9986-813-22-0
• Augustaitis, Daine (1964), Das litauische Phonationssystem, Munich: Sagner
• Canellada, María Josefa; Madsen, John Kuhlmann (1987), Pronunciación del español: lengua hablada y literaria, Madrid: Castalia, ISBN 978-84-7039-483-6
• Carbonell, Joan F.; Llisterri, Joaquim (1992), "Catalan", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 22 (1–2): 53–56, doi:10.1017/S0025100300004618, S2CID 249411809
• Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (2003) [First published 1981], The Phonetics of English and Dutch (5th ed.), Leiden: Brill Publishers, ISBN 90-04-10340-6
• Dum-Tragut, Jasmine (2009), Armenian: Modern Eastern Armenian, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company
• Hall, Christopher (2003) [First published 1992], Modern German pronunciation: An introduction for speakers of English (2nd ed.), Manchester: Manchester University Press, ISBN 0-7190-6689-1
• Jassem, Wiktor (2003), "Polish", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (1): 103–107, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001191
• Kohler, Klaus J. (1999), "German", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 86–89, ISBN 0-521-65236-7
• Krech, Eva Maria; Stock, Eberhard; Hirschfeld, Ursula; Anders, Lutz-Christian (2009), Deutsches Aussprachewörterbuch, Berlin, New York: Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-018202-6
• Kristoffersen, Gjert (2000), The Phonology of Norwegian, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-823765-5
• Mangold, Max (2005) [First published 1962], Das Aussprachewörterbuch (6th ed.), Mannheim: Dudenverlag, ISBN 978-3-411-04066-7
• Martínez Celdrán, Eugenio (2004), "Problems in the Classification of Approximants", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (2): 201–210, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001732 (inactive 14 April 2025), S2CID 144568679{{citation}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of April 2025 (link)
• Mathiassen, Terje (1996), A Short Grammar of Lithuanian, Slavica Publishers, Inc., ISBN 978-0-89357-267-9
• Merrill, Elizabeth (2008), "Tilquiapan Zapotec" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 38 (1): 107–114, doi:10.1017/S0025100308003344 (inactive 14 April 2025){{citation}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of April 2025 (link)
• Moosmüller, Sylvia; Schmid, Carolin; Brandstätter, Julia (2015), "Standard Austrian German", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 45 (3): 339–348, doi:10.1017/S0025100315000055
• Mott, Brian (2007), "Chistabino (Pyrenean Aragonese)" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 37 (1): 103–114, doi:10.1017/S0025100306002842 (inactive 14 April 2025){{citation}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of April 2025 (link)
• Ó Sé, Diarmuid (2000), Gaeilge Chorca Dhuibhne (in Irish), Dublin: Institiúid Teangeolaíochta Éireann, ISBN 0-946452-97-0
• Pavlík, Radoslav (2004), "Slovenské hlásky a medzinárodná fonetická abeceda" (PDF), Jazykovedný časopis, 55: 87–109
• Rogers, Derek; d'Arcangeli, Luciana (2004), "Italian", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (1): 117–121, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001628
• Sadowsky, Scott; Painequeo, Héctor; Salamanca, Gastón; Avelino, Heriberto (2013), "Mapudungun", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 43 (1): 87–96, doi:10.1017/S0025100312000369
• Silverman, Daniel; Blankenship, Barbara; Kirk, Paul; Ladefoged, Peter (1995), "Phonetic Structures in Jalapa Mazatec", Anthropological Linguistics, 37 (1), The Trustees of Indiana University: 70–88, JSTOR 30028043
• Smyth, Herbert Weir (1920), A Greek Grammar for Colleges, Calvin College Library
• Thelwall, Robin; Sa'Adeddin, M. Akram (1990), "Arabic", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 20 (2): 37–41, doi:10.1017/S0025100300004266, S2CID 243640727
• Vanvik, Arne (1979), Norsk fonetikk, Oslo: Universitetet i Oslo, ISBN 82-990584-0-6
• Yanushevskaya, Irena; Bunčić, Daniel (2015), "Russian", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 45 (2): 221–228, doi:10.1017/S0025100314000395
• Zimmer, Karl; Orgun, Orhan (1999), "Turkish" (PDF), Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 154–158, ISBN 0-521-65236-7
• Landau, Ernestina; Lončarića, Mijo; Horga, Damir; Škarić, Ivo (1999), "Croatian", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 66–69, ISBN 978-0-521-65236-0

External links

• List of languages with [j] on PHOIBLE
• List of languages with [j̟] on PHOIBLE

References

1. Glain, Olivier (2012). "The yod /j/: palatalise it or drop it! How Traditional Yod Forms are disappearing from Contemporary English" (PDF). Cercles. 22. Jean Monnet University: 4–24. Archived from the original on 2016-03-23. Retrieved 2016-03-23. https://web.archive.org/web/20160323161701/http://www.cercles.com/n22/glain.pdf ↩

2. Larsen, R.S.; Pike, E.V. (1949). "Huasteco Intonations and Phonemes". Language. 25 (3): 268–27. doi:10.2307/410088. JSTOR 410088. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

3. Ochoa Peralta, María Angela (1984). El idioma huasteco de Xiloxuchil, Veracruz. México: Instituto Nacional de Antropolog'ia e Historia. pp. 33–34. SEMIVOCAL ALVEOPALATAL SONORA Tiene dos alófonos: [y] semivocal alveopalatal sonora, y [Y] semivocal alveopalatal sorda. ↩

4. "UPSID HUASTECO". web.phonetik.uni-frankfurt.de. Retrieved 2023-12-30. voiced palato-alveolar approximant http://web.phonetik.uni-frankfurt.de/L/L6776.html ↩

5. "Simple UPSID interface". web.phonetik.uni-frankfurt.de. Retrieved 2023-12-30. http://web.phonetik.uni-frankfurt.de/upsid.html ↩

6. Maddieson, Ian. Pattern of Sounds. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. ↩

7. Maddieson, Ian; Precoda, Kristin (1990). Updating UPSID. Vol. 74. Department of Linguistics, UCLA. pp. 104–111. ↩

8. Moran, Steven; McCloy, Daniel, eds. (2019). "Huastec sound inventory (UPSID)". UCLA Phonological Segment Inventory Database. Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. j̟ http://phoible.org/inventories/view/360 ↩

9. "PHOIBLE 2.0 - Consonant j̟". phoible.org. Retrieved 2023-12-30. j̟ https://phoible.org/parameters/A30A66B41A66B60C4183B3C0FD8873A5#6/21.615/261.497 ↩

10. "UPSID HUASTECO". web.phonetik.uni-frankfurt.de. Retrieved 2023-12-30. voiced palato-alveolar approximant http://web.phonetik.uni-frankfurt.de/L/L6776.html ↩

11. Martínez Celdrán (2004), p. 208. - Martínez Celdrán, Eugenio (2004), "Problems in the Classification of Approximants", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (2): 201–210, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001732 (inactive 14 April 2025), S2CID 144568679 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231180567 ↩

12. Martínez Celdrán (2004), p. 206. - Martínez Celdrán, Eugenio (2004), "Problems in the Classification of Approximants", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (2): 201–210, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001732 (inactive 14 April 2025), S2CID 144568679 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231180567 ↩

13. Smyth (1920), p. 11. - Smyth, Herbert Weir (1920), A Greek Grammar for Colleges, Calvin College Library http://www.ccel.org/s/smyth/grammar/html/toc_uni.htm ↩

14. Instead of "post-palatal", it can be called "retracted palatal", "backed palatal", "palato-velar", "pre-velar", "advanced velar", "fronted velar" or "front-velar". For simplicity, this article uses only the term "post-palatal". ↩

15. Mott (2007), pp. 105–106. - Mott, Brian (2007), "Chistabino (Pyrenean Aragonese)" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 37 (1): 103–114, doi:10.1017/S0025100306002842 (inactive 14 April 2025) http://www.uta.edu/faculty/cmfitz/swnal/projects/CoLang/courses/Transcription/Mott_2007.pdf ↩

16. Mott (2007), pp. 105–106. - Mott, Brian (2007), "Chistabino (Pyrenean Aragonese)" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 37 (1): 103–114, doi:10.1017/S0025100306002842 (inactive 14 April 2025) http://www.uta.edu/faculty/cmfitz/swnal/projects/CoLang/courses/Transcription/Mott_2007.pdf ↩

17. Dum-Tragut (2009), p. 13. - Dum-Tragut, Jasmine (2009), Armenian: Modern Eastern Armenian, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company ↩

18. Carbonell & Llisterri (1992), p. 53. - Carbonell, Joan F.; Llisterri, Joaquim (1992), "Catalan", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 22 (1–2): 53–56, doi:10.1017/S0025100300004618, S2CID 249411809 https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100300004618 ↩

19. Collins & Mees (2003), p. 198. - Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (2003) [First published 1981], The Phonetics of English and Dutch (5th ed.), Leiden: Brill Publishers, ISBN 90-04-10340-6 ↩

20. Collins & Mees (2003), p. 198. - Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (2003) [First published 1981], The Phonetics of English and Dutch (5th ed.), Leiden: Brill Publishers, ISBN 90-04-10340-6 ↩

21. Kohler (1999), p. 86. - Kohler, Klaus J. (1999), "German", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 86–89, ISBN 0-521-65236-7 ↩

22. Moosmüller, Schmid & Brandstätter (2015), p. 340. - Moosmüller, Sylvia; Schmid, Carolin; Brandstätter, Julia (2015), "Standard Austrian German", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 45 (3): 339–348, doi:10.1017/S0025100315000055 https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100315000055 ↩

23. Mangold (2005), p. 51. - Mangold, Max (2005) [First published 1962], Das Aussprachewörterbuch (6th ed.), Mannheim: Dudenverlag, ISBN 978-3-411-04066-7 ↩

24. Krech et al. (2009), p. 83. - Krech, Eva Maria; Stock, Eberhard; Hirschfeld, Ursula; Anders, Lutz-Christian (2009), Deutsches Aussprachewörterbuch, Berlin, New York: Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-018202-6 ↩

25. Hall (2003), p. 48. - Hall, Christopher (2003) [First published 1992], Modern German pronunciation: An introduction for speakers of English (2nd ed.), Manchester: Manchester University Press, ISBN 0-7190-6689-1 ↩

26. Ó Sé (2000), p. 17. - Ó Sé, Diarmuid (2000), Gaeilge Chorca Dhuibhne (in Irish), Dublin: Institiúid Teangeolaíochta Éireann, ISBN 0-946452-97-0 ↩

27. Rogers & d'Arcangeli (2004), p. 117. - Rogers, Derek; d'Arcangeli, Luciana (2004), "Italian", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (1): 117–121, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001628 https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100304001628 ↩

28. Silverman et al. (1995), p. 83. - Silverman, Daniel; Blankenship, Barbara; Kirk, Paul; Ladefoged, Peter (1995), "Phonetic Structures in Jalapa Mazatec", Anthropological Linguistics, 37 (1), The Trustees of Indiana University: 70–88, JSTOR 30028043 https://www.jstor.org/stable/30028043 ↩

29. Silverman et al. (1995), p. 83. - Silverman, Daniel; Blankenship, Barbara; Kirk, Paul; Ladefoged, Peter (1995), "Phonetic Structures in Jalapa Mazatec", Anthropological Linguistics, 37 (1), The Trustees of Indiana University: 70–88, JSTOR 30028043 https://www.jstor.org/stable/30028043 ↩

30. Mathiassen (1996), pp. 22–23. - Mathiassen, Terje (1996), A Short Grammar of Lithuanian, Slavica Publishers, Inc., ISBN 978-0-89357-267-9 ↩

31. Augustaitis (1964), p. 23. - Augustaitis, Daine (1964), Das litauische Phonationssystem, Munich: Sagner http://digi20.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/fs2/object/display/bsb00046700_00001.html?sort=sortTitle+asc&subjectRVK={Slawistik}&context=&person_str={Augustaitis%2C+Daine}&LOC_ent={Germany}&mode=simple ↩

32. Ambrazas et al. (1997), pp. 46–47. - Ambrazas, Vytautas; Geniušienė, Emma; Girdenis, Aleksas; Sližienė, Nijolė; Valeckienė, Adelė; Valiulytė, Elena; Tekorienė, Dalija; Pažūsis, Lionginas (1997), Ambrazas, Vytautas (ed.), Lithuanian Grammar, Vilnius: Institute of the Lithuanian Language, ISBN 9986-813-22-0 ↩

33. Sadowsky et al. (2013), p. 91. - Sadowsky, Scott; Painequeo, Héctor; Salamanca, Gastón; Avelino, Heriberto (2013), "Mapudungun", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 43 (1): 87–96, doi:10.1017/S0025100312000369 https://www.academia.edu/3234126 ↩

34. Sadowsky et al. (2013), p. 91. - Sadowsky, Scott; Painequeo, Héctor; Salamanca, Gastón; Avelino, Heriberto (2013), "Mapudungun", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 43 (1): 87–96, doi:10.1017/S0025100312000369 https://www.academia.edu/3234126 ↩

35. Kristoffersen (2000), pp. 22 and 25. - Kristoffersen, Gjert (2000), The Phonology of Norwegian, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-823765-5 ↩

36. Vanvik (1979), p. 41. - Vanvik, Arne (1979), Norsk fonetikk, Oslo: Universitetet i Oslo, ISBN 82-990584-0-6 ↩

37. Vanvik (1979), p. 41. - Vanvik, Arne (1979), Norsk fonetikk, Oslo: Universitetet i Oslo, ISBN 82-990584-0-6 ↩

38. Kristoffersen (2000), p. 74. - Kristoffersen, Gjert (2000), The Phonology of Norwegian, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-823765-5 ↩

39. Jassem (2003), p. 103. - Jassem, Wiktor (2003), "Polish", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (1): 103–107, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001191 https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100303001191 ↩

40. (in Portuguese) Delta: Documentation of studies on theoric and applied Linguistics – Problems in the tense variant of carioca speech. http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0102-44502004000300005 ↩

41. (in Portuguese) The acoustic-articulatory path of the lateral palatal consonant's allophony. Pages 223 and 228. http://www.seer.ufu.br/index.php/dominiosdelinguagem/article/download/12450/8064 ↩

42. Yanushevskaya & Bunčić (2015), p. 223. - Yanushevskaya, Irena; Bunčić, Daniel (2015), "Russian", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 45 (2): 221–228, doi:10.1017/S0025100314000395 https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0025100314000395 ↩

43. Landau et al. (1999), p. 67. - Landau, Ernestina; Lončarića, Mijo; Horga, Damir; Škarić, Ivo (1999), "Croatian", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 66–69, ISBN 978-0-521-65236-0 ↩

44. Pavlík (2004), p. 106. - Pavlík, Radoslav (2004), "Slovenské hlásky a medzinárodná fonetická abeceda" (PDF), Jazykovedný časopis, 55: 87–109 http://www.juls.savba.sk/ediela/jc/2004/2/jc2004_2.pdf ↩

45. Martínez Celdrán (2004), p. 205. - Martínez Celdrán, Eugenio (2004), "Problems in the Classification of Approximants", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (2): 201–210, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001732 (inactive 14 April 2025), S2CID 144568679 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231180567 ↩

46. Martínez Celdrán (2004), p. 205. - Martínez Celdrán, Eugenio (2004), "Problems in the Classification of Approximants", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (2): 201–210, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001732 (inactive 14 April 2025), S2CID 144568679 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231180567 ↩

47. Zimmer & Orgun (1999), p. 154. - Zimmer, Karl; Orgun, Orhan (1999), "Turkish" (PDF), Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 154–158, ISBN 0-521-65236-7 http://www.uta.edu/faculty/cmfitz/swnal/projects/CoLang/courses/Transcription/rosettaproject_tur_phon-2.pdf ↩

48. Merrill (2008), p. 108. - Merrill, Elizabeth (2008), "Tilquiapan Zapotec" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 38 (1): 107–114, doi:10.1017/S0025100308003344 (inactive 14 April 2025) http://www.balsas-nahuatl.org/mixtec/Christian_articles/Otomanguean/Merrill.pdf ↩

49. Canellada & Madsen (1987), p. 21. - Canellada, María Josefa; Madsen, John Kuhlmann (1987), Pronunciación del español: lengua hablada y literaria, Madrid: Castalia, ISBN 978-84-7039-483-6 ↩

50. Canellada & Madsen (1987), p. 21. - Canellada, María Josefa; Madsen, John Kuhlmann (1987), Pronunciación del español: lengua hablada y literaria, Madrid: Castalia, ISBN 978-84-7039-483-6 ↩

51. Zimmer & Orgun (1999), p. 155. - Zimmer, Karl; Orgun, Orhan (1999), "Turkish" (PDF), Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 154–158, ISBN 0-521-65236-7 http://www.uta.edu/faculty/cmfitz/swnal/projects/CoLang/courses/Transcription/rosettaproject_tur_phon-2.pdf ↩

52. Zimmer & Orgun (1999), p. 155. - Zimmer, Karl; Orgun, Orhan (1999), "Turkish" (PDF), Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 154–158, ISBN 0-521-65236-7 http://www.uta.edu/faculty/cmfitz/swnal/projects/CoLang/courses/Transcription/rosettaproject_tur_phon-2.pdf ↩