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Waymo
Autonomous car technology company

Waymo LLC, formerly the Google Self-Driving Car Project, is an American autonomous driving technology company based in Mountain View, California, and a subsidiary of Alphabet Inc. Originating from the Stanford Racing Team's participation in the DARPA Grand Challenges, Google began developing self-driving technology in 2009 under Sebastian Thrun. Waymo launched the first fully driverless ride on public roads in 2015 and became its own company in 2016. By 2025, Waymo operates commercial robotaxi services in cities like Phoenix and San Francisco, with expansion plans including New York and Tokyo. Co-CEOs Tekedra Mawakana and Dmitri Dolgov lead the company, which partners with automakers like Stellantis and Volvo Cars.

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History

Ground work

Google's development of self-driving technology began on January 17, 2009,32[non-primary source needed] at Google X lab, run by co-founder Sergey Brin.33 The project was launched at Google by Sebastian Thrun, the former director of the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (SAIL) and Anthony Levandowski, founder of 510 Systems and Anthony's Robots.3435

The initial software code and artificial intelligence (AI) design of the effort started before the team worked at Google, when Thrun and 15 engineers, including Dmitri Dolgov, Mike Montemerlo, Hendrik Dahlkamp, Sven Strohband, and David Stavens, built Stanley and Junior, Stanford's entries in the 2005 and 2007 DARPA Challenges. Later, aspects of this technology were used in a digital mapping project for SAIL called VueTool.363738 In 2007, Google acqui-hired the entire VueTool team to help advance Google's Street View technology.39404142

As part of Street View development, 100 Toyota Priuses43 were outfitted with Topcon digital mapping hardware developed by 510 Systems.444546

In 2008, the Street View team launched project Ground Truth,47 to create accurate road maps by extracting data from satellites and street views.48

Pribot

In February 2008, a Discovery Channel producer for the documentary series Prototype This! phoned Levandowski.4950 The producer requested to borrow Levandowski's Ghost Rider, the autonomous two-wheeled motorcycle Levandowski's Berkeley team had built for the 2004 DARPA Grand Challenge51 that Levandowski had later donated to the Smithsonian.52 Since the motorcycle was not available, Levandowski offered to retrofit a Toyota Prius as a self-driving pizza delivery car for the show.53

As a Google employee, Levandowski asked Larry Page and Thrun whether Google was interested in participating in the show. Both declined, citing liability issues.54 However, they authorized Levandowski to move forward with the project, as long as it was not associated with Google.5556 Within weeks Levandowski founded Anthony's Robots to do so.57 He retrofitted the car with light detection and ranging technology (lidar), sensors, and cameras. The Stanford team (Stanley (vehicle)) provided its code base to the project.58 The ensuing episode depicting Pribot delivering pizza across the San Francisco Bay Bridge under police escort aired in December 2008.59606162

The project success led Google to greenlight Google's self-driving car program in January 2009.63 In 2011, Google acquired 510 Systems (co-founded by Levandowski, Pierre-Yves Droz and Andrew Schultz), and Anthony's Robots for an estimated US$20 million.6465666768 Levandowski's vehicle and hardware, and Stanford's AI technology and software, became the nucleus of the project.69

Project Chauffeur

After almost two years of road testing with seven vehicles, the New York Times revealed the existence of Google's project on October 9, 2010.70 Google announced its initiative later the same day.7172

Starting in 2010, lawmakers in various states expressed concerns over how to regulate autonomous vehicles. A related Nevada law went into effect on March 1, 2012.73 Google had been lobbying for such laws.747576 A modified Prius was licensed by the Nevada Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) in May 2012.77 The car was "driven" by Chris Urmson with Levandowski in the passenger seat.78 This was the first US license for a self-driven car.79

In January 201480 Google was granted a patent for a transportation service funded by advertising that included autonomous vehicles as a transport method.81 In late May, Google revealed an autonomous prototype, which had no steering wheel, gas pedal, or brake pedal.8283 In December, Google unveiled a Firefly prototype that was planned to be tested on San Francisco Bay Area roads beginning in early 2015.8485

In 2015, Levandowski left the project. In August 2015, Google hired former Hyundai Motor executive, John Krafcik, as CEO.86 In fall 2015, Google provided "the world's first fully driverless ride on public roads" in Austin, Texas to Steve Mahan, former CEO of the Santa Clara Valley Blind Center, who was a legally blind friend of principal engineer Nathaniel Fairfield.87 It was the first entirely autonomous trip on a public road. It was not accompanied by a test driver or police escort.88 The car had no steering wheel or floor pedals.89 By the end of 2015, Project Chauffeur had covered more than a million miles.90

Google spent $1.1 billion on the project between 2009 and 2015. For comparison, the acquisition of Cruise Automation by General Motors in March 2016 was for $500 million, and Uber's acquisition of Otto in August 2016 was for $680 million.91

Waymo

In May 2016, Google and Stellantis announced an order of 100 Chrysler Pacifica hybrid minivans to test the self-driving technology.92 In December 2016, the project changed its name to Waymo and spun out of Google as part of Alphabet.93 The name was derived from "a new way forward in mobility".94 In May 2016, the company opened a 53,000-square-foot (4,900 m2) technology center in Novi, Michigan.95

In 2017, Waymo sued Uber for allegedly stealing trade secrets.96 Waymo began testing minivans without a safety driver on public roads in Chandler, Arizona, in October 2017.97 In 2017, Waymo unveiled new sensors and chips that are less expensive to manufacture, cameras that improve visibility, and wipers to clear the lidar system.98 At the beginning of the self-driving car program, they used a $75,000 lidar system from Velodyne.99 In 2017, the cost decreased approximately 90 percent, as Waymo converted to in-house built lidar.100 Waymo has applied its technology to various cars including the Prius, Audi TT, Fiat Chrysler Pacifica, and Lexus RX450h.101102 Waymo partners with Lyft on pilot projects and product development.103 Waymo ordered an additional 500 Pacifica hybrids in 2017.

In March 2018, Jaguar Land Rover announced that Waymo had ordered up to 20,000 of its I-Pace electric SUVs at an estimated cost of more than $1 billion.104105 In late May 2018, Alphabet announced plans to add up to 62,000 Pacifica Hybrid minivans to the fleet.106107 Also in May 2018, Waymo established Huimo Business Consulting subsidiary in Shanghai.108

In April 2019, Waymo announced plans for vehicle assembly in Detroit at the former American Axle & Manufacturing plant, bringing between 100 and 400 jobs to the area. Waymo used vehicle assembler Magna to turn Jaguar I-PACE electric SUVs and Chrysler Pacifica Hybrid minivans into Waymo Level 4 autonomous vehicles.109110 Waymo subsequently reverted to retrofitting existing models rather than a custom design.111

In March 2020, Waymo Via was launched after the company's announcement that it had raised $2.25 billion from investors.112 In May 2020, Waymo raised an additional $750 million.113 In July 2020, the company announced an exclusive partnership with auto manufacturer Volvo to integrate Waymo technology.114115

In April 2021, Krafcik was replaced by two co-CEOs: Waymo's COO Tekedra Mawakana and CTO Dmitri Dolgov.116 Waymo raised $2.5 billion in another funding round in June 2021,117118 with total funding of $5.5 billion.119 Waymo launched a consumer testing program in San Francisco in August 2021.120121

In May 2022, Waymo started a pilot program seeking riders in downtown Phoenix, Arizona.122123 In May 2022, Waymo announced that it would expand the program to more areas of Phoenix.124 In 2023, coverage of the Waymo One area was increased by 45 square miles (120 km2), expanding to include downtown Mesa, uptown Phoenix, and South Mountain Village.125126127

In June 2022, Waymo announced a partnership with Uber, under which Waymo will integrate its autonomous technology into Uber's freight truck service.128 Plans to expand the program to Los Angeles were announced in late 2022.129 On December 13, 2022, Waymo applied for the final permit necessary to operate fully autonomous taxis, without a backup driver present, within the state of California.130

In January 2023, The Information reported that Waymo staff were among those affected by Google's layoffs of around 12,000 workers. TechCrunch reported that Waymo was set to kill its trucking program.131

In July 2024, Waymo began testing its sixth-generation robotaxis which are based on electric vehicles by Chinese automobile company Zeekr, developed in a partnership first announced in 2021.132133 They were anticipated to reduce costs, at a time when Waymo was operating at a loss.134

In October 2024, Waymo closed a $5.6 billion funding round led by Alphabet, aimed at expanding its robotaxi services, bringing its total capital to over $11 billion.135 Around that time, the New York Times described Waymo as being "far ahead of the competition", in particular after Cruise had to suspend its operations after an accident in 2023.136

Services

In 2017, Waymo highlighted four specific business uses for its autonomous tech: robotaxis, trucking and logistics, urban public transportation, and passenger cars.137

Robotaxis

Service areas in the United States
Metropolitan areaStatusDateRef
Atlanta, GeorgiaFull commercial service with UberJune 24, 2025138
Austin, TexasFull commercial service with UberMarch 4, 2025139
Los Angeles, CaliforniaFull commercial serviceNovember 12, 2024140
Miami, FloridaAnnounced141
Phoenix, ArizonaFull commercial serviceOctober 8, 2020142
San Francisco, CaliforniaFull commercial serviceJune 25, 2024143
Washington, D.C.Announced144

Waymo has also announced planned service in Japan.145

In May 2025, Waymo received regulatory approval to expand its commercial robotaxi service into more areas of Silicon Valley, following a green light from the California Public Utilities Commission. The company has longer-term ambitions to provide service to San Francisco International Airport (SFO). 146

Trucking and delivery

Waymo Via launched in 2020 to work with OEMs to get its technology into vehicles.147148149 The company is testing Class 8 tractor-trailers150 in Atlanta,151 and southwest shipping routes across Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California.152 The company operates a trucking hub in Dallas, Texas.153 It is partnering with Daimler to integrate autonomous technology into a fleet of Freightliner Cascadia trucks.154

Waymo operates 48 Class 8 autonomous trucks with safety drivers.155 In 2023 Waymo issued a joint application along with Aurora Innovation to the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration for a five-year exemption from rules that require drivers to place reflective triangles or a flare around a stopped tractor-trailer truck, to avoid needing human drivers, in favor of warning beacons mounted on the truck cab.156

Waymo tested its technology in commercial delivery vehicles with United Parcel Service.157158 In July 2020 Waymo and Stellantis expanded their partnership, including the development of Ram ProMaster delivery vehicles.159

Technology

Google has invested heavily in matrix multiplication and video processing hardware such as the Tensor Processing Unit (TPU) to augment Nvidia's graphics processing units (GPUs) and Intel central processing units (CPUs).160 Much of this is kept as trade secrets, but transformer technology is likely involved.161

Waymo manufactures a suite of self-driving hardware developed in-house.162 This includes sensors and hardware-enhanced vision system, radar, and lidar.163164 Sensors give 360-degree views while lidar detects objects up to 300 metres (980 ft) away.165 Short-range lidar images objects near the vehicle, while radar is used to see around other vehicles and track objects in motion.166

Riders push a button to "start ride,” and have optional "help", "lock", and “pull over" buttons, if needed. The ride usually completes without pressing any button after starting the ride. The car’s steering wheel turns as the car makes turns, and a passenger may sit in the right-front passenger seat, if desired. Passengers see on a screen some of what the car’s sensors see, including pedestrians.

Waymo's deep-learning architecture VectorNet predicts vehicle trajectories in complex traffic scenarios. It uses a graph neural network to model the interactions between vehicles and has demonstrated state-of-the-art performance on several benchmark datasets for trajectory prediction.167

Waymo Carcraft is a virtual world in which Waymo simulates driving conditions.168169 The simulator was named after the video game World of Warcraft.170171 With Carcraft, 25,000 virtual self-driving cars navigate through models of Austin, Texas; Mountain View, California; Phoenix, Arizona, and other cities.172

As of 2024, Waymo's fifth-generation robotaxis were based on customized Jaguar I-Pace electric vehicles that according to Dolgov adds up to $100,000 to vehicle costs.173 Other costs include technicians that monitor rides, service personnel, and real estate for storing and charging the vehicles.174

Road testing

Chronology

In 2009, Google began testing its self-driving cars in the San Francisco Bay Area.175

By December 2013, Nevada, Florida, California, and Michigan had passed laws permitting autonomous cars.176 A law proposed in Texas allowed testing.177178

In June 2015, Waymo announced that their vehicles had driven over 1,000,000 mi (1,600,000 km) and that in the process they had encountered 200,000 stop signs, 600,000 traffic lights, and 180 million other vehicles.179 Prototype vehicles were driving in Mountain View.180 Speeds were limited to 25 mph (40 km/h) and had safety drivers aboard.181 Google took its first driverless ride on public roads in October 2015, when Mahan took a 10-minute ride around Austin in a Google "pod car" with no steering wheel or pedals.182 Google expanded its road-testing to Texas, where regulations did not prohibit cars without pedals or a steering wheel.183

In 2016, road testing expanded to Phoenix and Kirkland, Washington, which has a wet climate.184 As of June 2016, Google had test driven its fleet of vehicles in autonomous mode a total of 1,725,911 mi (2,777,585 km).185 In August 2016 alone, their cars traveled a "total of 170,000 miles; of those, 126,000 miles were autonomous (i.e., the car was fully in control)".186

In 2017, Waymo reported a total of 636,868 miles covered by the fleet in autonomous mode, and the associated 124 disengagements, for the period from December 1, 2015, through November 30, 2016.187 In November Waymo altered its Arizona testing by removing safety drivers.188 The cars were geofenced within a 100-square-mile (260 km2) region surrounding Chandler, Arizona.189

In 2017, Waymo began testing its level 4 cars in Arizona to take advantage of good weather, simple roads, and permissive laws with minimal disclosure requirements.190

In 2017, Waymo began testing in Michigan.191 Also, in 2017, Waymo unveiled its Castle test facility in Central Valley, California. Castle, a former airbase, has served as the project's training course since 2012.192

In March 2018, Waymo announced its plans for experiments with the company's self-driving trucks delivering freight to Google data centers in Atlanta, Georgia.193 In October 2018, the California Department of Motor Vehicles issued a permit for Waymo to operate cars without safety drivers. Waymo was the first company to receive a permit for day and night testing on public roads and highways. Waymo announced that its service would include Mountain View, Sunnyvale, Los Altos, and Palo Alto.194195 In July 2019, Waymo received permission to transport passengers.196

In December 2018, Waymo launched Waymo One, transporting passengers. The service used safety drivers to monitor some rides, with others provided in select areas without them. In November 2019, Waymo One became the first autonomous service worldwide to operate without safety drivers.197198199

By January 2020, Waymo had completed twenty million miles (32,000,000 km) of driving on public roads.200201

In August 2021, a commercial Waymo One test service started in San Francisco, beginning with a "trusted tester" rollout.202

In March 2022, Waymo began offering rides for Waymo staff in San Francisco without a driver.203

As of October 2024, Waymo was offering 100,000 paid rides per week across its Phoenix, San Francisco, and Los Angeles markets.204

In December 2024, Waymo announced its first international expansion with testing in Tokyo, Japan in the neighborhoods of Shinjuku, Shibuya, Minato, Chiyoda, Chūō, Shinagawa, and Kōtō in partnership with Nihon Kotsu and Japan's GO taxi app.205

As of March 2025, Waymo was offering 200,000 paid rides per week in its existing markets, including Phoenix, San Francisco and Los Angeles.206

In March 2025, Waymo expanded its commercial robotaxi services to Silicon Valley and Austin, Texas. The Silicon Valley rollout included Mountain View, Palo Alto, Los Altos, and parts of Sunnyvale, marking the company’s first official service in the region.207 Meanwhile, in Austin, Waymo partnered with Uber, allowing riders to hail its self-driving vehicles through the Uber app.208 The expansion is part of Waymo’s broader growth strategy, as the company continues scaling its autonomous ride-hailing operations. On March 25, Waymo announced it will launch a commercial robotaxi service in Washington D.C. in 2026, pending regulatory approval.209

As of April 2025, Waymo’s robotaxi program was operating in Miami’s Downtown, Brickell, Edgewater, Wynwood, Midtown and Design District. Additionally, preparatory testing was taking place in Coral Gables.210. In Tokyo, Waymo is launching its preparatory testing in Minato, Shinjuku, Shibuya, Chiyoda, Chūō, and Kōtō.211 And in Atlanta, Waymo has announced its intent to launch robotaxi services during summer 2025.212

Safety

Waymo regularly publishes safety reports.213 Waymo is required by the California DMV to report the number of incidents where the safety driver took control for safety reasons. Some incidents were not reported when simulations indicated that the car would have stopped safely on its own.214 In 2023, Waymo claimed only 3 crashes with injuries over 7.1 million miles driven, nearly twice as safe as a human driver.215 A 2025 peer-reviewed study by Waymo researchers found that collisions with bicycles and motorcycles were 82% less frequent for Waymo cars than for human drivers, and that collisions with pedestrians were 92% less frequent.216

By July 2015, Google's 23 self-driving cars had been involved in 14 minor collisions on public roads.217 Google maintained that, in all but one case, the vehicle was not at fault because the cars were either driven manually or the driver of another vehicle was at fault.218219220

By July 2021, the NHTSA had found 150 crashes by Waymo. Under NHTSA rules, crashes were reported if the system was in use in the prior 30 seconds, though most crashes did not have injuries.221

A Waymo robotaxi killed a dog in San Francisco while in "autonomous mode" in May 2023.222

In February 2024, a driverless Waymo robotaxi struck a cyclist in San Francisco.223 Later that same month, Waymo issued recalls for 444 of its vehicles after two hit the same truck being towed on a highway.224225226

By the end of 2024, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) had received 835 reports227 documenting 696 incidents involving Waymo vehicles.228

Waymo recalled 1,212 vehicles running on its fifth-generation automated driving software in May 2025, due to a software glitch causing some cars to collide with roadway barriers.229

Limitations

Waymo operates in some of its testing markets, such as Chandler, Arizona, at L4 autonomy with no one sitting behind the steering wheel, sharing roadways with other drivers and pedestrians.230231 Waymo's earlier testing focused on areas without harsh weather, extreme density, or complicated road systems, but it has moved on to test under new conditions.232233 As a result, beginning in 2017, Waymo began testing in areas with harsher conditions, such as its winter testing in Michigan.234

In 2014, a critic wrote in the MIT Technology Review that unmapped stoplights would cause problems with Waymo's technology and the self-driving technology could not detect potholes. Additionally, the lidar technology cannot spot some potholes or discern when a person, such as a police officer, signals the car to stop, the critic wrote.235 Waymo has worked to improve how its technology responds in construction zones.236237

California regulators do not require Waymo to disclose every incident involving erratic behavior in its fleet. In the first five months of 2023, San Francisco officials said they had logged more than 240 incidents in which a Cruise or Waymo vehicle might have created a safety hazard.238

In 2021, it was noted that Waymo cars kept routing through the Richmond District of San Francisco, with up to 50 cars each day driving to a dead end street before turning around.239 In 2023, ABC7 News Bay Area posted a video of a journalist taking a ride in a Waymo vehicle, which stopped at a green light and dropped the journalist at the wrong stop twice, despite support intervention.240

Backlash

In 2023, the San Francisco group Safe Street Rebel used a practice called "coning" to trap Waymo and Cruise cars with traffic cones as a form of protest after claiming that the cars had been involved in hundreds of incidents.241 During the 2024 Lunar New Year in San Francisco Chinatown, a mob of vandals attacked, graffitied, and set fire to a Waymo car. No one was injured.242243 In 2024, passengers during a Waymo ride described an attack by an onlooker who attempted to cover the car's sensors.244

In 2024, the city attorney of San Francisco attempted to sue to prevent expansion of driverless vehicles including Waymo into San Francisco.245 San Mateo County government soon after also sent a letter to regulators opposing expansion to its county.246

In May 2024, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) launched an investigation into potential flaws in Waymo vehicles, focusing on 31 incidents that included Waymo vehicles ramming into a closing gate, driving on the wrong side of the road, and at least 17 crashes or fires.247

In August of 2024, residents of San Francisco's SoMa district began to complain about noise pollution from Waymo vehicles honking at each other in a local parking lot. Residents reported that the car horns could be heard daily, with varying levels of activity, usually peaking at around 4 AM and during evening rush hour. The honking appears to have been triggered by the self-driving cars backing in and out of the lot.248 The story caught attention after a resident began live streaming the cars with lofi hip hop music. Since then, Waymo Director of Product & Ops, Vishay Nihalani has appeared on the live stream to apologize and offer an explanation. Nihalani has assured locals that the honking will be fixed as further software updates are implemented.249

Waymo LLC v. Uber Technologies, Inc. et al.

In February 2017, Waymo sued Uber and its subsidiary self-driving trucking company, Otto, alleging trade secret theft and patent infringement. The company claimed that three ex-Google employees, including Anthony Levandowski, had stolen trade secrets, including thousands of files, from Google before joining Uber.250 The alleged infringement was related to Waymo's proprietary lidar technology,251252 Google accused Uber of colluding with Levandowski.253 Levandowski allegedly downloaded 9 gigabytes of data that included over a hundred trade secrets; eight of which were at stake during the trial.254255

An ensuing settlement gave Waymo 0.34% of Uber stock,256 the equivalent of $245 million. Uber agreed not to infringe Waymo's intellectual property.257 Part of the agreement included a guarantee that "Waymo confidential information is not being incorporated in Uber Advanced Technologies Group hardware and software."258 In statements released after the settlement, Uber maintained that it received no trade secrets.259 In May, according to an Uber spokesman, Uber had fired Levandowski, which resulted in the loss of roughly $250 million of his equity in Uber, which almost exactly equaled the settlement.260 Uber announced that it was halting production of self-driving trucks through Otto in July 2018, and the subsidiary company was shuttered.261

California disclosure dispute

In January 2022, Waymo sued the California Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) to prevent data on driverless crashes from being released to the public. Waymo maintained that such information constituted a trade secret.262 According to The Los Angeles Times, the "topics Waymo wants to keep hidden include how it plans to handle driverless car emergencies, what it would do if a robot taxi started driving itself where it wasn't supposed to go, and what constraints there are on the car's ability to traverse San Francisco's tunnels, tight curves and steep hills."263

In February 2022, Waymo was successful in preventing the release of robotaxi safety records. A Waymo spokesperson affirmed that the company would be transparent about its safety record.264

See also

Further reading

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Waymo.

References

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