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Battle of the Alamo
Major battle of the Texas Revolution

The Battle of the Alamo (Feb–Mar 1836) was a key conflict in the Texas Revolution, where about 200 Texian defenders, including leaders James Bowie and William B. Travis, held out against a 13-day siege by Mexican forces led by General Santa Anna at the Alamo Mission near San Antonio. After their defeat, news spread during the Runaway Scrape, motivating many to join the Texian Army, which later won Texas independence at the Battle of San Jacinto. The Alamo’s legacy endures through numerous works, including the Disney miniseries Davy Crockett and John Wayne’s The Alamo film, cementing its place in American cultural history.

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Background

Further information: Mexican Texas and Texas Revolution

In 1835, there was a drastic shift in the Mexican nation. The triumph of conservative forces in the elections unleashed a series of events that culminated on October 23, 1835, under a new constitution, after the repeal of the federalist Constitution of 1824. Las Siete Leyes (Spanish: [las ˈsjete ˈleʝes]), or Seven Laws, were a series of constitutional changes that fundamentally altered the organizational structure of Mexico, ending the first federal period and creating a unitary republic, officially the Mexican Republic (Spanish: República Mexicana).2 Formalized under President Antonio López de Santa Anna on 15 December 1835, they were enacted in 1836. They were intended to centralize and strengthen the national government. The aim of the previous constitution was to create a political system that would emulate the success of the United States, but after a decade of political turmoil, economic stagnation, and threats and actual foreign invasion, conservatives concluded that a better path for Mexico was centralized power.

The new policies, the bans of slavery3 and immigration chief among them, and the increased enforcement of laws and import tariffs, incited many immigrants to revolt.4 The border region of Mexican Texas was largely populated by immigrants from the United States, some legal but most illegal. Some of these immigrants brought large numbers of slaves with them, so that by 1836, there were about 5,000 enslaved persons in a total non-native population estimated at 38,470.5 These people were accustomed to a federalist government which made special exemptions from Mexican law just for them, and to extensive individual rights including the right to own slaves, and they were quite vocal in their displeasure at Mexico's law enforcement and shift towards centralism.6 The centralized government ended local federal exemptions to the ban on slavery, which had been negotiated by Stephen Austin and others. Already suspicious after previous United States attempts to purchase Mexican Texas,7 Mexican authorities blamed much of the Texian unrest on United States immigrants, most of whom had entered illegally and made little effort to adapt to the Mexican culture and who continued to hold people in slavery when slavery had been abolished in Mexico.8

In October, Texians engaged Mexican troops in the first official battle of the Texas Revolution.9 Determined to quell the rebellion of immigrants, Santa Anna began assembling a large force, the Army of Operations in Texas, to restore order.10 Most of his soldiers were raw recruits,11 many conscripted.12

The Texians systematically defeated the Mexican troops already stationed in Texas. The last group of Mexican soldiers in the region—commanded by Santa Anna's brother-in-law, General Martín Perfecto de Cos—surrendered on December 9 following the siege of Béxar.13 By this point, the Texian Army was dominated by very recent arrivals to the region, primarily illegal immigrants from the United States. Many Texas settlers, unprepared for a long campaign, had returned home.14 Angered by what he perceived to be United States interference in Mexican affairs, Santa Anna spearheaded a resolution classifying foreign immigrants found fighting in Texas as pirates. The resolution effectively banned the taking of prisoners of war: in this period of time, captured pirates were executed immediately.1516 Santa Anna reiterated this message in a strongly worded letter to United States President Andrew Jackson. This letter was not widely distributed, and it is unlikely that most of the United States recruits serving in the Texian Army were aware that there would be no prisoners of war.17

When Mexican troops departed San Antonio de Béxar (now San Antonio, Texas, USA), Texian soldiers captured the Mexican garrison at the Alamo Mission, a former Spanish religious outpost which had been converted to a makeshift fort by the recently expelled Mexican Army.18 Described by Santa Anna as an "irregular fortification hardly worthy of the name",19 the Alamo had been designed to withstand an assault by Indigenous attackers, not an artillery-equipped army.20 The complex sprawled across 3 acres (1.2 ha), providing almost 1,320 feet (400 m) of perimeter to defend.21 An interior plaza was bordered on the east by the chapel and to the south by a one-story building known as the Low Barracks.22 A wooden palisade stretched between these two buildings.23 The two-story Long Barracks extended north from the chapel.24 At the northern corner of the east wall stood a cattle pen and horse corral.25 The walls surrounding the complex were at least 2.75 feet (0.84 m) thick and ranged from 9–12 ft (2.7–3.7 m) high.2627

To compensate for the lack of firing ports, Texian engineer Green B. Jameson constructed catwalks to allow defenders to fire over the walls; this method, however, left the rifleman's upper body exposed.28 Mexican forces had left behind 19 cannons, which Jameson installed along the walls. A large 18-pounder had arrived in Texas with the New Orleans Greys. Jameson positioned this cannon in the southwest corner of the compound. He boasted to Texian Army commander Sam Houston that the Texians could "whip 10 to 1 with our artillery".29

Prelude to battle

The Texian garrison was woefully undermanned and underprovisioned, with fewer than 100 soldiers remaining by January 6, 1836.30 Colonel James C. Neill, the acting Alamo commander, wrote to the provisional government: "If there has ever been a dollar here I have no knowledge of it".31 Neill requested additional troops and supplies, stressing that the garrison was likely to be unable to withstand a siege lasting longer than four days.3233 The Texian government was in turmoil and unable to provide much assistance.3435 Four different men claimed to have been given command over the entire army.36 On January 14, Neill approached one of them, Sam Houston, for assistance in gathering supplies, clothing, and ammunition.37

Houston could not spare the number of men necessary to mount a successful defense.38 Instead, he sent Colonel James Bowie with 30 men to remove the artillery from the Alamo and destroy the complex.3940 Bowie was unable to transport the artillery since the Alamo garrison lacked the necessary draft animals. Neill soon persuaded Bowie that the location held strategic importance.41 In a letter to Governor Henry Smith, Bowie argued that "the salvation of Texas depends in great measure on keeping Béxar out of the hands of the enemy. It serves as the frontier picquet guard, and if it were in the possession of Santa Anna, there is no stronghold from which to repel him in his march towards the Sabine."4243 The letter to Smith ended, "Colonel Neill and myself have come to the solemn resolution that we will rather die in these ditches than give it up to the enemy."44 Bowie also wrote to the provisional government, asking for "men, money, rifles, and cannon powder".45 Few reinforcements were authorized; cavalry officer William B. Travis arrived in Béxar with 30 men on February 3. Five days later, a small group of volunteers arrived, including the famous frontiersman and former U.S. Congressman David Crockett of Tennessee.46

On February 11, Neill left the Alamo, determined to recruit additional reinforcements and gather supplies.4748 He transferred command to Travis, the highest-ranking regular army officer in the garrison.49 Volunteers comprised much of the garrison, and they were unwilling to accept Travis as their leader.50 The men instead elected Bowie, who had a reputation as a fierce fighter, as their commander. Bowie celebrated by getting very intoxicated and creating havoc in Béxar. To mitigate the resulting ill feelings, Bowie agreed to share command with Travis.515253

As the Texians struggled to find men and supplies, Santa Anna continued to gather men at San Luis Potosí; by the end of 1835, his army numbered 6,019 soldiers.54 Rather than advance along the coast, where supplies and reinforcements could be easily delivered by sea, Santa Anna ordered his army inland to Béxar, the political center of Texas and the site of Cos's defeat.55 The army began its march north in late December.56 Officers used the long journey to train the men. Many of the new recruits did not know how to aim their muskets, and many refused to fire from the shoulder because of the strong recoil.57

Progress was slow. There were not enough mules to transport all of the supplies, and many of the teamsters, all civilians, quit when their pay was delayed. The many soldaderas – women and children who followed the army – consumed much of the already scarce supplies. The soldiers were soon reduced to partial rations.58 On February 12 they crossed the Rio Grande.5960 Temperatures in Texas reached record lows, and by February 13 an estimated 15–16 inches (38–41 cm) of snow had fallen. Hypothermia, dysentery, and Comanche raiding parties took a heavy toll on the Mexican soldiers.61

On February 21, Santa Anna and his vanguard reached the banks of the Medina River, 25 miles (40 km) from Béxar.6263 Unaware of the Mexican Army's proximity, the majority of the Alamo garrison joined Béxar residents at a fiesta.6465 After learning of the planned celebration, Santa Anna ordered General Joaquín Ramírez y Sesma to immediately seize the unprotected Alamo, but sudden rains halted that raid.66

Siege

Main articles: Siege of the Alamo and List of Alamo defenders

Investment

In the early hours of February 23, residents began fleeing Béxar, fearing the Mexican army's imminent arrival. Although unconvinced by the reports, Travis stationed a soldier in the San Fernando church bell tower, the highest location in town, to watch for signs of an approaching force. Several hours later, Texian scouts reported seeing Mexican troops 1.5 miles (2.4 km) outside the town.67 Few arrangements had been made for a potential siege. One group of Texians scrambled to herd cattle into the Alamo, while others scrounged for food in the recently abandoned houses.68 Several members of the garrison who had been living in town brought their families with them when they reported to the Alamo. Among these were Almaron Dickinson, who brought his wife Susanna and their infant daughter Angelina; Bowie, who was accompanied by his deceased wife's cousins, Gertrudis Navarro and Juana Navarro Alsbury, and Alsbury's young son;69 and Gregorio Esparza, whose family climbed through the window of the Alamo chapel after the Mexican army arrived.70 Other members of the garrison failed to report for duty; most of the men working outside Béxar did not try to sneak past Mexican lines.71

By late afternoon Béxar was occupied by about 1,500 Mexican soldiers.72 When the Mexican troops raised a blood-red flag signifying no quarter, Travis responded with a blast from the Alamo's largest cannon.73 Believing that Travis had acted hastily, Bowie sent Jameson to meet with Santa Anna.74 Travis was angered that Bowie had acted unilaterally and sent his own representative, Captain Albert Martin.75 Both emissaries met with Colonel Juan Almonte and José Bartres. According to Almonte, the Texians asked for an honorable surrender but were informed that any surrender must be unconditional.76 On learning this, Bowie and Travis mutually agreed to fire the cannon again.7778

Skirmishes

The first night of the siege was relatively quiet.79 Over the next few days, Mexican soldiers established artillery batteries, initially about 1,000 feet (300 m) from the south and east walls of the Alamo.80 A third battery was positioned southeast of the fort. Each night the batteries inched closer to the Alamo walls.81 During the first week of the siege more than 200 cannonballs landed in the Alamo plaza. At first, the Texians matched Mexican artillery fire, often reusing the Mexican cannonballs.8283 On February 26 Travis ordered the artillery to conserve powder and shot.84

Two notable events occurred on Wednesday, February 24. At some point that day, Bowie collapsed from illness,85 leaving Travis in sole command of the garrison.86 Late that afternoon, two Mexican scouts became the first fatalities of the siege.8788 The following morning, 200–300 Mexican soldiers crossed the San Antonio River and took cover in abandoned shacks near the Alamo walls.899091 Several Texians ventured out to burn the huts92 while Texians within the Alamo provided cover fire.9394 After a two-hour skirmish, the Mexican troops retreated to Béxar.9596 Six Mexican soldiers were killed and four others were wounded.97 No Texians were injured.98

A blue norther blew in on February 25, dropping the temperature to 39 °F (4 °C).99 Neither army was prepared for the cold temperatures.100 Texian attempts to gather firewood were thwarted by Mexican troops.101 On the evening of February 26 Colonel Juan Bringas engaged several Texians who were burning more huts.102 According to historian J.R. Edmondson, one Texian was killed.103 Four days later, Texians shot and killed Private First-Class Secundino Alvarez, a soldier from one of two battalions that Santa Anna had stationed on two sides of the Alamo. By March 1, the number of Mexican casualties was nine dead and four wounded, while the Texian garrison had lost only one man.

Reinforcements

Santa Anna posted one company east of the Alamo, on the road to Gonzales.104105 Almonte and 800 dragoons were stationed along the road to Goliad.106 Throughout the siege these towns had received multiple couriers, dispatched by Travis to plead for reinforcements and supplies.107108 The most famous of his missives, written February 24, was addressed To the People of Texas & All Americans in the World. According to historian Mary Deborah Petite, the letter is "considered by many as one of the masterpieces of American patriotism."109 Copies of the letter were distributed across Texas,110 and eventually reprinted throughout the United States and much of Europe.111 At the end of the first day of the siege, Santa Anna's troops were reinforced by 600 men under General Joaquin Ramirez y Sesma, bringing the Mexican army up to more than 2,000 men.

As news of the siege spread throughout Texas, potential reinforcements gathered in Gonzales. They hoped to rendezvous with Colonel James Fannin, who was expected to arrive from Goliad with his garrison.112 On February 26, after days of indecision, Fannin ordered 320 men, four cannons, and several supply wagons to march towards the Alamo, 90 miles (140 km) away. This group traveled less than 1.0 mile (1.6 km) before turning back.113114 Fannin blamed the retreat on his officers; the officers and enlisted men accused Fannin of aborting the mission.115

Texians gathered in Gonzales were unaware of Fannin's return to Goliad, and most continued to wait. Impatient with the delay, on February 27 Travis ordered Samuel G. Bastian to go to Gonzales "to hurry up reinforcements".116 According to historian Thomas Ricks Lindley, Bastian encountered the Gonzales Ranging Company led by Lieutenant George C. Kimble and Travis' courier to Gonzales, Albert Martin, who had tired of waiting for Fannin. A Mexican patrol attacked, driving off four of the men including Bastian.117118 In the darkness, the Texians fired on the remaining 32 men, whom they assumed were Mexican soldiers. One man was wounded, and his English curses convinced the occupiers to open the gates.119120

On March 3, the Texians watched from the walls as approximately 1,000 Mexicans marched into Béxar. The Mexican army celebrated loudly throughout the afternoon, both in honor of their reinforcements and at the news that troops under General José de Urrea had soundly defeated Texian Colonel Frank W. Johnson at the Battle of San Patricio on February 27.121 Most of the Texians in the Alamo believed that Sesma had been leading the Mexican forces during the siege, and they mistakenly attributed the celebration to the arrival of Santa Anna. The reinforcements brought the number of Mexican soldiers in Béxar to almost 3,100.122

The arrival of the Mexican reinforcements prompted Travis to send three men, including Davy Crockett, to find Fannin's force, which he still believed to be en route.123 The scouts discovered a large group of Texians camped 20 miles (32 km) from the Alamo.124 Lindley's research indicates that up to 50 of these men had come from Goliad after Fannin's aborted rescue mission. The others had left Gonzales several days earlier.125 Just before daylight on March 4, part of the Texian force broke through Mexican lines and entered the Alamo. Mexican soldiers drove a second group across the prairie.126127

Assault preparations

On March 4, the day after his reinforcements arrived, Santa Anna proposed an assault on the Alamo. Many of his senior officers recommended that they wait for two 12-pounder cannons anticipated to arrive on March 7.128 That evening, a local woman, likely Bowie's cousin-in-law Juana Navarro Alsbury, approached Santa Anna to negotiate a surrender for the Alamo occupiers.129 According to many historians, this visit probably increased Santa Anna's impatience; as historian Timothy Todish noted, "there would have been little glory in a bloodless victory".130 The following morning, Santa Anna announced to his staff that the assault would take place early on March 6. Santa Anna arranged for troops from Béxar to be excused from the front lines so that they would not be forced to fight their own families.131

Legend holds that at some point on March 5, Travis gathered his men and explained that an attack was imminent, and that they were greatly outnumbered by the Mexican Army. He supposedly drew a line in the ground and asked those willing to die for the Texian cause to cross and stand alongside him; only one man (Moses Rose) was said to have declined.132 Most scholars disregard this tale as there is no primary source evidence to support it (the story only surfaced decades after the battle in a third-hand account).133 Travis apparently did, at some point prior to the final assault, assemble the men for a conference to inform them of the dire situation and giving them the chance to either escape or stay and die for the cause. Susanna Dickinson recalled Travis announcing that any men who wished to escape should let it be known and step out of ranks.134

The last Texian verified to have left the Alamo was James Allen, a courier who carried personal messages from Travis and several of the other men on March 5.135

Final assault

Exterior fighting

Initial Mexican troop deployment136137
CommanderTroopsEquipment
Cos35010 ladders2 crowbars2 axes
Duque/Castrillón40010 ladders
Romero4006 ladders
Morales1252 ladders
Sesma500 cavalry
Santa Anna400 reserves

At 10 p.m. on March 5, the Mexican artillery ceased their bombardment. As Santa Anna had anticipated, the exhausted Texians soon fell into the first uninterrupted sleep many of them had since the siege began.138 Just after midnight, more than 2,000 Mexican soldiers began preparing for the final assault.139 Fewer than 1,800 were divided into four columns, commanded by Cos, Colonel Francisco Duque, Colonel José María Romero and Colonel Juan Morales.140141 Veterans were positioned on the outside of the columns to better control the new recruits and conscripts in the middle.142 As a precaution, 500 Mexican cavalry were positioned around the Alamo to prevent the escape of either Texian or Mexican soldiers. Santa Anna remained in camp with the 400 reserves.143144 Despite the bitter cold, the soldiers were ordered not to wear overcoats which could impede their movements.145 Clouds concealed the moon and thus the movements of the soldiers.146

At 5:30 a.m. troops silently advanced. Cos and his men approached the northwest corner of the Alamo,147 while Duque led his men from the northwest towards a repaired breach in the Alamo's north wall.148 The column commanded by Romero marched towards the east wall, and Morales's column aimed for the low parapet by the chapel.149

The three Texian sentinels stationed outside the walls were killed in their sleep,150151 allowing Mexican soldiers to approach undetected within musket range of the walls.152 At this point, the silence was broken by shouts of "¡Viva Santa Anna!" and music from the buglers.153 The noise woke the Texians.154 Most of the noncombatants gathered in the church sacristy for safety.155 Travis rushed to his post yelling, "Come on boys, the Mexicans are upon us and we'll give them hell!"156 and, as he passed a group of Tejanos, "¡No rendirse, muchachos!" ("Don't surrender, boys").157

In the initial moments of the assault, Mexican troops were at a disadvantage. Their column formation allowed only the front rows of soldiers to fire safely.158 Unaware of the dangers, the untrained recruits in the ranks "blindly fir[ed] their guns", injuring or killing the troops in front of them.159 The tight concentration of troops also offered an excellent target for the Texian artillery.160 Lacking canister shot, Texians filled their cannon with any metal they could find, including door hinges, nails, and chopped-up horseshoes, essentially turning the cannon into giant shotguns.161 According to the diary of José Enrique de la Peña, "a single cannon volley did away with half the company of chasseurs from Toluca".162 Duque fell from his horse after sustaining a wound in his thigh and was almost trampled by his own men. General Manuel Castrillón quickly assumed command of Duque's column.163

Although some in the front of the Mexican ranks wavered, soldiers in the rear pushed them on.164 As the troops massed against the walls, Texians were forced to lean over the walls to shoot, leaving them exposed to Mexican fire. Travis became one of the first occupiers to die, shot while firing his shotgun into the soldiers below him, though one source says that he drew his sword and stabbed a Mexican officer who had stormed the wall before succumbing to his injury.165 Few of the Mexican ladders reached the walls.166 The few soldiers who were able to climb the ladders were quickly killed or beaten back. As the Texians discharged their previously loaded rifles, they found it increasingly difficult to reload while attempting to keep Mexican soldiers from scaling the walls.167

Mexican soldiers withdrew and regrouped, but their second attack was repulsed. Fifteen minutes into the battle, they attacked a third time.168169 During the third strike, Romero's column, aiming for the east wall, was exposed to cannon fire and shifted to the north, mingling with the second column.170 Cos' column, under fire from Texians on the west wall, also veered north.171 When Santa Anna saw that the bulk of his army was massed against the north wall, he feared a rout; "panicked", he sent the reserves into the same area.172 The Mexican soldiers closest to the north wall realized that the makeshift wall contained many gaps and toeholds. One of the first to scale the 12-foot (3.7 m) wall was General Juan Amador; at his challenge, his men began swarming up the wall. Amador opened the postern in the north wall, allowing Mexican soldiers to pour into the complex.173 Others climbed through gun ports in the west wall, which had few occupiers.174 As the Texian occupiers abandoned the north wall and the northern end of the west wall,175176 Texian gunners at the south end of the mission turned their cannon towards the north and fired into the advancing Mexican soldiers. This left the south end of the mission unprotected; within minutes Mexican soldiers had climbed the walls and killed the gunners, gaining control of the Alamo's 18-pounder cannon.177 By this time Romero's men had taken the east wall of the compound and were pouring in through the cattle pen.178

Interior fighting

As previously planned, most of the Texians fell back to the barracks and the chapel. Holes had been carved in the walls to allow the Texians to fire.179 Unable to reach the barracks, Texians stationed along the west wall headed west for the San Antonio River. When the cavalry charged, the Texians took cover and began firing from a ditch. Sesma was forced to send reinforcements, and the Texians were eventually killed. Sesma reported that this skirmish involved 50 Texians, but Edmondson believes that number was inflated.180

The occupiers in the cattle pen retreated into the horse corral. After discharging their weapons, the small band of Texians scrambled over the low wall, circled behind the church and raced on foot for the east prairie, which appeared empty.181182183 As the Mexican cavalry advanced on the group, Almaron Dickinson and his artillery crew turned a cannon around and fired into the cavalry, probably inflicting casualties. Nevertheless, all of the escaping Texians were killed.184

The last Texian group to remain in the open were Crockett and his men, defending the low wall in front of the church. Unable to reload, they used their rifles as clubs and fought with knives. After a volley of fire and a wave of Mexican bayonets, the few remaining Texians in this group fell back towards the church.185 The Mexican army now controlled all of the outer walls and the interior of the Alamo compound except for the church and rooms along the east and west walls.186 Mexican soldiers turned their attention to a Texian flag waving from the roof of one building. Four Mexicans were killed before the flag of Mexico was raised in that location.187188

For the next hour, the Mexican army worked to secure complete control of the Alamo.189 Many of the remaining occupiers were ensconced in the fortified barracks rooms.190 In the confusion, the Texians had neglected to spike their cannon before retreating. Mexican soldiers turned the cannon towards the barracks.191 As each door was blown off, Mexican soldiers would fire a volley of muskets into the dark room, then charge in for hand-to-hand combat.192

Too sick to participate in the battle, Bowie likely died in bed. Eyewitnesses to the battle gave conflicting accounts of his death. Some witnesses maintained that they saw several Mexican soldiers enter Bowie's room, bayonet him, and carry him alive from the room.193 Others claimed that Bowie shot himself or was killed by soldiers while too weak to lift his head.194 According to historian Wallace Chariton, the "most popular, and probably the most accurate"195 version is that Bowie died on his cot, "back braced against the wall, and using his pistols and his famous knife."196

The last of the Texians to die were the 11 men manning the two 12-pounder cannons in the chapel.197198 A shot from the 18-pounder cannon destroyed the barricades at the front of the church, and Mexican soldiers entered the building after firing an initial musket volley. Dickinson's crew fired their cannon from the apse into the Mexican soldiers at the door. With no time to reload, the Texians, including Dickinson, Gregorio Esparza and James Bonham, grabbed rifles and fired before being bayoneted to death.199 Texian Robert Evans, the master of ordnance, had been tasked with keeping the gunpowder from falling into Mexican hands. Wounded, he crawled towards the powder magazine but was killed by a musket ball with his torch only inches from the powder.200 Had he succeeded, the blast would have destroyed the church and killed the women and children hiding in the sacristy.201

As soldiers approached the sacristy, one of the young sons of occupier Anthony Wolf stood to pull a blanket over his shoulders.202 In the dark, Mexican soldiers mistook him for an adult and killed him.203204 Possibly the last Texian to die in battle was Jacob Walker,205 who, wounded, ran to a corner and was bayoneted in front of Susanna Dickinson.206 Another Texian, Brigido Guerrero, also sought refuge in the sacristy.207 Guerrero, who had deserted from the Mexican Army in December 1835, was spared after convincing the soldiers he was a Texian prisoner.208209

By 6:30 a.m. the battle for the Alamo was over.210 Mexican soldiers inspected each corpse, bayoneting any body that moved.211 Even with all of the Texians dead, Mexican soldiers continued to shoot, some killing each other in the confusion. Mexican generals were unable to stop the bloodlust and appealed to Santa Anna for help. Although the general showed himself, the violence continued and the buglers were finally ordered to sound a retreat. For 15 minutes after that, soldiers continued to fire into dead bodies.212

Aftermath

Casualties

According to many accounts of the battle, between five and seven Texians surrendered.213214215 Incensed that his orders had been ignored, Santa Anna demanded the immediate execution of the survivors.216 Weeks after the battle, stories circulated that Crockett was among those who surrendered.217 Ben, a former United States slave who cooked for one of Santa Anna's officers, maintained that Crockett's body was found surrounded by "no less than sixteen Mexican corpses".218 Historians disagree on which version of Crockett's death is accurate.219220

Santa Anna reportedly told Captain Fernando Urizza that the battle "was but a small affair".221 Another officer then remarked that "with another such victory as this, we'll go to the devil".222223 In his initial report Santa Anna claimed that 600 Texians had been killed, with only 70 Mexican soldiers killed and 300 wounded.224 His secretary, Ramón Martínez Caro, reported 400 killed.225 Other estimates of the number of Mexican soldiers killed ranged from 60 to 200, with an additional 250–300 wounded.226 Some people, historians, and survivors such as Susanna Dickinson have estimated that over 1,000-1,600 Mexican soldiers were killed and wounded, but it is most likely that total casualties were less than 600. Texian Dr. J. H. Barnard who tended the Mexican soldiers reported 300-400 dead and 200-300 wounded.227 Most Alamo historians place the number of Mexican casualties at 400–600.228229230 This would represent about one quarter of the over 2,000 Mexican soldiers involved in the final assault, which Todish remarks is "a tremendous casualty rate by any standards".231 Most eyewitnesses counted between 182 and 257 Texians killed.232 Some historians believe that at least one Texian, Henry Warnell, successfully escaped from the battle. Warnell died several months later of wounds incurred either during the final battle or during his escape as a courier.233234

Mexican soldiers were buried in the local cemetery, Campo Santo.235236 Shortly after the battle, Colonel José Juan Sanchez Navarro proposed that a monument should be erected to the fallen Mexican soldiers. Cos rejected the idea.237

The Texian bodies were stacked and burned.238239 The only exception was the body of Gregorio Esparza. His brother Francisco, an officer in Santa Anna's army, received permission to give Gregorio a proper burial.240 The ashes were left where they fell until February 1837, when Juan Seguín returned to Béxar to examine the remains. A simple coffin inscribed with the names Travis, Crockett, and Bowie was filled with ashes from the funeral pyres.241 According to a March 28, 1837, article in the Telegraph and Texas Register,242 Seguín buried the coffin under a peach tree grove. The spot was not marked and cannot now be identified.243 Seguín later claimed that he had placed the coffin in front of the altar at the San Fernando Cathedral. In July 1936 a coffin was discovered buried in that location, but according to historian Wallace Chariton, it is unlikely to actually contain the remains of the Alamo defenders. Fragments of uniforms were found in the coffin and the Texian soldiers who fought at the Alamo were known not to wear uniforms.244

Texian survivors

Main article: List of Texian survivors of the Battle of the Alamo

In an attempt to convince other slaves in Texas to support the Mexican government over the Texian rebellion, Santa Anna spared Travis' slave, Joe.245 The day after the battle, he interviewed each noncombatant individually. Impressed with Susanna Dickinson, Santa Anna offered to adopt her infant daughter Angelina and have the child educated in Mexico City. Dickinson refused the offer, which was not extended to Juana Navarro Alsbury although her son was of similar age.246 Each woman was given a blanket and two silver pesos.247 Alsbury and the other Tejano women were allowed to return to their homes in Béxar; Dickinson, her daughter and Joe were sent to Gonzales, escorted by Ben. They were encouraged to relate the events of the battle, and to inform the remainder of the Texian forces that Santa Anna's army was unbeatable.248

Impact on revolution

During the siege, newly elected delegates from across Texas met at the Convention of 1836. On March 2, the delegates declared independence, forming the Republic of Texas. Four days later, the delegates at the convention received a dispatch Travis had written March 3 warning of his dire situation. Unaware that the Alamo had fallen, Robert Potter called for the convention to adjourn and march immediately to relieve the Alamo. Sam Houston convinced the delegates to remain in Washington-on-the-Brazos to develop a constitution. After being appointed sole commander of all Texian troops, Houston journeyed to Gonzales to take command of the 400 volunteers who were still waiting for Fannin to lead them to the Alamo.249

Within hours of Houston's arrival on March 11, Andres Barcenas and Anselmo Bergaras arrived with news that the Alamo had fallen and all Texians were slain.250 Hoping to halt a panic, Houston arrested the men as enemy spies. They were released hours later when Susanna Dickinson and Joe reached Gonzales and confirmed the report.251 Realizing that the Mexican army would soon advance towards the Texian settlements, Houston advised all civilians in the area to evacuate and ordered his new army to retreat.252 This sparked a mass exodus, known as the Runaway Scrape, and most Texians, including members of the new government, fled east.253

Despite their losses at the Alamo, the Mexican army in Texas still outnumbered the Texian army by almost six to one.254 Santa Anna assumed that knowledge of the disparity in troop numbers and the fate of the Texian soldiers at the Alamo would quell the resistance,255 and that Texian soldiers would quickly leave the territory.256 News of the Alamo's fall had the opposite effect, and men flocked to join Houston's army.257 The New York Post editorialized that "had [Santa Anna] treated the vanquished with moderation and generosity, it would have been difficult if not impossible to awaken that general sympathy for the people of Texas which now impels so many adventurous and ardent spirits to throng to the aid of their brethren".258

On the afternoon of April 21 the Texian army attacked Santa Anna's camp near Lynchburg Ferry. The Mexican army was taken by surprise, and the Battle of San Jacinto was essentially over after 18 minutes. During the fighting, many of the Texian soldiers repeatedly cried "Remember the Alamo!" as they slaughtered fleeing Mexican troops.259 Santa Anna was captured the following day, and reportedly told Houston: "That man may consider himself born to no common destiny who has conquered the Napoleon of the West. And now it remains for him to be generous to the vanquished." Houston replied, "You should have remembered that at the Alamo". Santa Anna's life was spared, and he was forced to order his troops out of Texas, ending Mexican control of the province and bestowing some legitimacy on the new republic.260

Legacy

Main article: Legacy of the Battle of the Alamo

Following the battle, Santa Anna was alternately viewed as a national hero or a pariah. Mexican perceptions of the battle often mirrored the prevailing viewpoint.261 Santa Anna had been disgraced following his capture at the Battle of San Jacinto, and many Mexican accounts of the battle were written by men who had been, or had become, his outspoken critics. Petite and many other historians believe that some of the stories, such as the execution of Crockett, may have been invented to further discredit Santa Anna.262 In Mexican history, the Texas campaign, including the Battle of the Alamo, was soon overshadowed by the Mexican–American War of 1846–1848.263

In San Antonio de Béxar, the largely Tejano population viewed the Alamo complex as more than just a battle site; it represented decades of assistance—as a mission, a hospital, or a military post.264 As the English-speaking population increased, the complex became best known for the battle. Focus has centered primarily on the Texian occupiers, with little emphasis given to the role of the Tejano soldiers who served in the Texian army or the actions of the Mexican army.265 In the early 20th century the Texas Legislature purchased the property and appointed the Daughters of the Republic of Texas as permanent caretakers266 of what is now an official state shrine.267 In front of the church, in the center of Alamo Plaza, stands a cenotaph, designed by Pompeo Coppini, which commemorates the Texians and Tejanos who died during the battle.268 According to Bill Groneman's Battlefields of Texas, the Alamo has become "the most popular tourist site in Texas".269

The first English-language histories of the battle were written and published by Texas Ranger and amateur historian John Henry Brown.270 The next major treatment of the battle was Reuben Potter's The Fall of the Alamo, published in The Magazine of American History in 1878. Potter based his work on interviews with many of the Mexican survivors of the battle.271272 The first full-length, non-fiction book covering the battle, John Myers Myers' The Alamo, was published in 1948.273 In the decades since, the battle has featured prominently in many non-fiction works.

According to Todish et al., "there can be little doubt that most Americans have probably formed many of their opinions on what occurred at the Alamo not from books, but from the various movies made about the battle."274 The first film version of the battle appeared in 1911, when Gaston Méliès directed The Immortal Alamo.275 The battle became more widely known after it was featured in the 1950s Disney miniseries Davy Crockett, which was largely based on myth.276 Within several years, John Wayne directed and starred in one of the best-known, but questionably accurate, film versions, 1960's The Alamo.277278 Another film also called The Alamo was released in 2004. CNN described it as possibly "the most character-driven of all the movies made on the subject". It is also considered more faithful to the actual events than other movies.279

Several songwriters have been inspired by the Battle of the Alamo. Tennessee Ernie Ford's "The Ballad of Davy Crockett" spent 16 weeks on the country music charts, peaking at No. 4 in 1955.280 Marty Robbins recorded a version of the song "The Ballad of the Alamo" in 1960 which spent 13 weeks on the pop charts, peaking at No. 34.281 Jane Bowers' song "Remember the Alamo" has been recorded by artists including Johnny Cash,282 Willie Nelson,283 and Donovan.284 British hard rock band Babe Ruth's 1972 song "The Mexican" pictures the conflict through the eyes of a Mexican soldier. Singer-songwriter Phil Collins collected hundreds of items related to the battle, narrated a light and sound show about the Alamo, and has spoken at related events.285 In 2014 Collins donated his entire collection to the Alamo via the State of Texas.286287

The U.S. Postal Service issued two postage stamps in commemoration of Texas Statehood288 and the Battle of Alamo.289 The "Remember the Alamo" battle cry, as well as the Alamo Mission itself appear on the current version of the reverse side of the seal of Texas.

The battle also featured in episode 13 of The Time Tunnel, "The Alamo", first aired in 1966, and episode 5 of season one of the TV series Timeless, aired 2016.

As of 2023, the Alamo Trust (which operates the site) seeks to expand the property to build an Alamo museum.290 To do so, it would have to use eminent domain to seize a property containing an Alamo-themed bar called Moses Rose's Hideout (named after an Alamo deserter) that has operated for 12 years (circ. 2023).291 The Alamo Trust claims that if the bar owner continues to refuse to sell his property, it will put the $400 million property at stake.292 Conversely, the bar owner says that he wishes to participate in the economic success of adding an Alamo museum and that there is a certain unjust irony of seizing his property to expand the Alamo.293

See also

Explanatory notes

Citations

General and cited references

  • Barr, Alwyn (1990). Texans in Revolt: the Battle for San Antonio, 1835. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-77042-3. OCLC 20354408.
  • Barr, Alwyn (1996). Black Texans: A history of African Americans in Texas, 1528–1995 (2nd ed.). Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-2878-8.
  • Chariton, Wallace O. (1990). Exploring the Alamo Legends. Dallas, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-255-9.
  • Chemerka, William H.; Wiener, Allen J. (2009). Music of the Alamo. Bright Sky Press. ISBN 978-1-933979-31-1.
  • Cobler, Nicole (March 11, 2015). "Phil Collins' star rises over the Alamo". San Antonio Express-News. Retrieved March 26, 2018.
  • Cox, Mike (March 6, 1998). "Last of the Alamo big books rests with 'A Time to Stand'". The Austin-American Statesman.
  • Culpepper, Andy (April 8, 2004). "A different take on 'The Alamo'". CNN. Retrieved May 22, 2008.
  • Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6.
  • Edwards, Leigh H. (2009). Johnny Cash and the paradox of American identity. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-35292-7.
  • Groneman, Bill (1990). Alamo Defenders, A Genealogy: The People and Their Words. Austin, TX: Eakin Press. ISBN 978-0-89015-757-2.
  • Groneman, Bill (1996). Eyewitness to the Alamo. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-502-4.
  • Groneman, Bill (1998). Battlefields of Texas. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-571-0.
  • Hardin, Stephen L. (1994). Texian Iliad. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73086-1.
  • Hardin, Stephen L. (June 9, 2010). "Battle of The Alamo". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved December 11, 2014.
  • Henson, Margaret Swett (1982). Juan Davis Bradburn: A Reappraisal of the Mexican Commander of Anahuac. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 978-0-89096-135-3.
  • Hopewell, Clifford (1994). James Bowie Texas Fighting Man: A Biography. Austin, TX: Eakin Press. ISBN 978-0-89015-881-4.
  • Lindley, Thomas Ricks (2003). Alamo Traces: New Evidence and New Conclusions. Lanham, MD: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-983-1.
  • Lord, Walter (1961). A Time to Stand. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-7902-5. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  • Michels, Patrick (May 11, 2010). "Remembering the Alamo with Phil Collins". Dallas Observer. Archived from the original on April 29, 2015. Retrieved December 22, 2017.
  • Myers, John Myers (1948). The Alamo. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-5779-5. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  • Nofi, Albert A. (1992). The Alamo and the Texas War of Independence, September 30, 1835 to April 21, 1836: Heroes, Myths, and History. Conshohocken, PA: Combined Books, Inc. ISBN 978-0-938289-10-4.
  • Petite, Mary Deborah (1999). 1836 Facts about the Alamo and the Texas War for Independence. Mason City, IA: Savas Publishing Company. ISBN 978-1-882810-35-2.
  • Schoelwer, Susan Prendergast; Gläser, Tom W. (1985). Alamo Images: Changing Perceptions of a Texas Experience. Dallas, TX: The DeGlolyer Library and Southern Methodist University Press. ISBN 978-0-87074-213-2.
  • Scott, Robert (2000). After the Alamo. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-691-5.
  • Tinkle, Lon (1985) [1958]. 13 Days to Glory: The Siege of the Alamo (Reprint: McGraw-Hill ed.). College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 978-0-89096-238-1.
  • Thompson, Frank (2001). The Alamo: A Cultural History. Dallas, TX: Taylor Trade. ISBN 9781461734352.
  • Todish, Timothy J.; Todish, Terry; Spring, Ted (1998). Alamo Sourcebook, 1836: A Comprehensive Guide to the Battle of the Alamo and the Texas Revolution. Austin, TX: Eakin Press. ISBN 978-1-57168-152-2.
  • N/A (July 21, 2014). "Phil Collins Press Conference". The Official Alamo Website. Archived from the original on September 28, 2014. Retrieved September 22, 2014.

Further reading

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Battle of the Alamo.

References

  1. Nofi (1992), p. 213. ↩

  2. Felipe Tena Ramírez, Leyes fundamentales de México, 1808–1971. pp. 202–248. ↩

  3. McCullar, Emily (October 29, 2020). "How Leaders of the Texas Revolution Fought to Preserve Slavery". texasmonthly.com. Retrieved October 22, 2022. https://www.texasmonthly.com/being-texan/how-leaders-texas-revolution-fought-preserve-slavery/ ↩

  4. Todish et al. (1998), p. 6. ↩

  5. "The Transformation of the Texas Economy". University of Texas at Austin. January 11, 2016. https://texaspolitics.utexas.edu/educational-resources/transformation-texas-economy ↩

  6. Henson (1982), p. 96. ↩

  7. Edmondson (2000), p. 78. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  8. Barr (1990), p. 4. ↩

  9. Barr (1990), p. 56. ↩

  10. Hardin (1994), p. 98. - Hardin, Stephen L. (1994). Texian Iliad. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73086-1. ↩

  11. Hardin (1994), p. 99. - Hardin, Stephen L. (1994). Texian Iliad. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73086-1. ↩

  12. Todish et al. (1998), p. 20. ↩

  13. Barr (1990), p. 56. ↩

  14. Barr (1990), p. 63. ↩

  15. Barr (1990), p. 63. ↩

  16. Scott (2000), p. 71. ↩

  17. Scott (2000), pp. 74–75. ↩

  18. Edmondson (2000), p. 129. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  19. Edmondson (2000), p. 129. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  20. Edmondson (2000), p. 128. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  21. Edmondson (2000), p. 131. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  22. Myers (1948), p. 181. ↩

  23. Todish et al. (1998), p. 10. ↩

  24. Myers (1948), p. 181. ↩

  25. Edmondson (2000), p. 364. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  26. Myers (1948), p. 180. ↩

  27. The plaza covered an area 75 feet (23 m) long and 62 feet (19 m) wide. The Low Barracks was 114 feet (35 m) long, and the Long Barracks was 186 feet (57 m) long and 18 feet (5.5 m) wide. (Myers (1948), pp. 180–181.) ↩

  28. Edmondson (2000), p. 131. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  29. Hardin (1994), p. 111. - Hardin, Stephen L. (1994). Texian Iliad. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73086-1. ↩

  30. Todish et al. (1998), p. 29. ↩

  31. Todish et al. (1998), p. 29. ↩

  32. Todish et al. (1998), p. 29. ↩

  33. Todish et al. (1998), p. 30. ↩

  34. Todish et al. (1998), p. 31. ↩

  35. A week after Neill sent his letter, the Texian provisional legislature impeached the governor, who in turn disbanded the legislature. The interim constitution had given neither party the authority to take these actions, and no one in Texas was entirely sure who was in charge. (Todish et al. (1998), pp. 30–31.) /wiki/Henry_Smith_(Texas_Governor) ↩

  36. Sam Houston, James Fannin, Frank W. Johnson, and Dr. James Grant. (Todish et al. (1998), p. 30.) /wiki/Sam_Houston ↩

  37. Todish et al. (1998), p. 31. ↩

  38. Edmondson (2000), p. 252. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  39. Todish et al. (1998), p. 31. ↩

  40. Houston's orders to Bowie were vague, and historians disagree on their intent. One interpretation is that Bowie's orders were to destroy only the barricades that the Mexican Army had erected around San Antonio de Béxar, and that he should then wait in the Alamo until Governor Henry Smith decided whether the mission should be demolished and the artillery removed. Smith never gave orders on this issue. (Edmondson (2000), p. 252.) ↩

  41. Hopewell (1994), p. 114. ↩

  42. Hopewell (1994), p. 115. ↩

  43. The Sabine River marked the eastern border of Mexican Texas. /wiki/Sabine_River_(Texas-Louisiana) ↩

  44. Hopewell (1994), p. 115. ↩

  45. Hopewell (1994), p. 115. ↩

  46. Hardin (1994), p. 117. - Hardin, Stephen L. (1994). Texian Iliad. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73086-1. ↩

  47. Chariton (1992), p. 98. ↩

  48. Todish et al. (1998), p. 32. ↩

  49. Hopewell (1994), p. 115. ↩

  50. Volunteers in the Texian Army asserted the right to choose their own leaders, and most of them were unwilling to serve under officers of the regular army. ↩

  51. Todish et al. (1998), p. 32. ↩

  52. Hopewell (1994), p. 116. ↩

  53. Hardin (1994), p. 120. - Hardin, Stephen L. (1994). Texian Iliad. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73086-1. ↩

  54. Hardin (1994), p. 102. - Hardin, Stephen L. (1994). Texian Iliad. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73086-1. ↩

  55. Hardin (1994), p. 102. - Hardin, Stephen L. (1994). Texian Iliad. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73086-1. ↩

  56. Hardin (1994), p. 102. - Hardin, Stephen L. (1994). Texian Iliad. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73086-1. ↩

  57. Lord (1961), p. 67. ↩

  58. Hardin (1994), p. 103. - Hardin, Stephen L. (1994). Texian Iliad. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73086-1. ↩

  59. Lord (1961), p. 73. ↩

  60. Although the Rio Grande now marks the border between Texas and Mexico, in this era the Nueces River, several hundred miles north, was considered the southern boundary of Mexican Texas. /wiki/Nueces_River ↩

  61. Hardin (1994), p. 105. - Hardin, Stephen L. (1994). Texian Iliad. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73086-1. ↩

  62. Lord (1961), p. 89. ↩

  63. Todish et al. (1998), p. 36. ↩

  64. Nofi (1992), p. 76. ↩

  65. The fiesta was in celebration of the birthday of George Washington, the first president of the United States. /wiki/George_Washington ↩

  66. Todish et al. (1998), p. 36. ↩

  67. Nofi (1992), p. 76. ↩

  68. Edmondson (2000), pp. 299–301. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  69. Lord (1961), p. 95. ↩

  70. Lord (1961), p. 105. ↩

  71. Lindley (2003), p. 89. ↩

  72. Todish et al. (1998), p. 40. ↩

  73. Nofi (1992), p. 78. ↩

  74. Todish et al. (1998), pp. 40–41. ↩

  75. Edmondson (2000), p. 308. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  76. Todish et al. (1998), pp. 40–41. ↩

  77. Edmondson (2000), p. 308. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  78. Although Santa Anna later reported that Texian cannon fire on February 23 killed two Mexican soldiers and wounded eight others, no other Mexican officer reported fatalities from that day. (Todish et al. (1998), p. 40., Edmondson (2000), p. 304.) ↩

  79. Edmondson (2000), p. 310. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  80. Nofi (1992), p. 81. ↩

  81. Todish et al. (1998), p. 43. ↩

  82. Hardin (1994), p. 132. - Hardin, Stephen L. (1994). Texian Iliad. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73086-1. ↩

  83. Petite (1999), p. 34. ↩

  84. Hardin (1994), p. 132. - Hardin, Stephen L. (1994). Texian Iliad. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73086-1. ↩

  85. Nofi (1992), p. 80. ↩

  86. Nofi (1992), p. 80. ↩

  87. Todish et al. (1998), p. 42. ↩

  88. Although Santa Anna later reported that Texian cannon fire on February 23 killed two Mexican soldiers and wounded eight others, no other Mexican officer reported fatalities from that day. (Todish et al. (1998), p. 40., Edmondson (2000), p. 304.) ↩

  89. Todish et al. (1998), p. 43. ↩

  90. Todish et al. (1998), p. 42. ↩

  91. Tinkle (1985), p. 118. ↩

  92. Tinkle (1985), p. 118. ↩

  93. Lord (1961), p. 109. ↩

  94. Tinkle (1985), p. 119. ↩

  95. Todish et al. (1998), p. 43. ↩

  96. Tinkle (1985), p. 119. ↩

  97. Todish et al. (1998), p. 43. ↩

  98. Tinkle (1985), p. 120. ↩

  99. Hardin (1994), p. 132. - Hardin, Stephen L. (1994). Texian Iliad. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73086-1. ↩

  100. Nofi (1992), p. 83. ↩

  101. Hardin (1994), p. 132. - Hardin, Stephen L. (1994). Texian Iliad. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73086-1. ↩

  102. Todish et al. (1998), p. 44. ↩

  103. Edmondson (2000), p. 325. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  104. Todish et al. (1998), p. 43. ↩

  105. Lord (1961), p. 107. ↩

  106. Scott (2000), p. 102. ↩

  107. Nofi (1992), p. 78. ↩

  108. Myers (1948), p. 200. ↩

  109. Petite (1999), p. 88. ↩

  110. Petite (1999), p. 90. ↩

  111. Todish et al. (1998), p. 42. ↩

  112. Tinkle (1985), p. 162. ↩

  113. Edmondson (2000), p. 324. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  114. Nofi (1992), p. 95. ↩

  115. Scott (2000), pp. 100–101. ↩

  116. Lindley (2003), p. 130. ↩

  117. Colonel Juan Almonte's journal did not mention any skirmishes that evening. In 1837, Santa Anna's secretary Roman Martinez Caro did report "two small reinforcements from Gonzales that succeeded in breaking through our lines and entering the fort. The first consisted of four men who gained the fort one night, and the second was a party of twenty-five." (Lindley (2003), p. 131.) ↩

  118. Lindley (2003), p. 131. ↩

  119. These Texian reinforcements were later dubbed the Immortal 32. ↩

  120. Edmondson (2000), p. 340. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  121. Todish et al. (1998), p. 47. ↩

  122. Edmondson (2000), p. 349. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  123. Lindley (2003), p. 140. ↩

  124. Lindley (2003), p. 142. ↩

  125. Lindley (2003), pp. 137–38. ↩

  126. Lindley (2003), p. 142. ↩

  127. Almonte's journal reported that there was an engagement that night, but that the Mexican troops had repulsed the assault. (Lindley (2003), p. 143.) ↩

  128. Todish et al. (1998), p. 48. ↩

  129. Edmondson (2000), p. 355. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  130. Todish et al. (1998), p. 49. ↩

  131. Todish et al. (1998), p. 49. ↩

  132. Hopewell (1994), p. 126. ↩

  133. Chariton (1992), p. 195. ↩

  134. Hardin (1994), p. 124. - Hardin, Stephen L. (1994). Texian Iliad. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73086-1. ↩

  135. Edmondson (2000), p. 360. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  136. Edmondson (2000), p. 356. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  137. Edmondson (2000), p. 357. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  138. Todish et al. (1998), p. 51. ↩

  139. Edmondson (2000), p. 362. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  140. Edmondson (2000), p. 356. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  141. Edmondson (2000), p. 357. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  142. Hardin (1994), p. 138. - Hardin, Stephen L. (1994). Texian Iliad. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73086-1. ↩

  143. Edmondson (2000), p. 357. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  144. Todish et al. (1998), p. 50. ↩

  145. Edmondson (2000), p. 357. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  146. Lord (1961), p. 160. ↩

  147. Hardin (1994), p. 138. - Hardin, Stephen L. (1994). Texian Iliad. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73086-1. ↩

  148. Hardin (1994), pp. 138–139. - Hardin, Stephen L. (1994). Texian Iliad. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73086-1. ↩

  149. Hardin (1994), pp. 138–139. - Hardin, Stephen L. (1994). Texian Iliad. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73086-1. ↩

  150. Hardin (1994), p. 139. - Hardin, Stephen L. (1994). Texian Iliad. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73086-1. ↩

  151. Tinkle (1985), p. 196. ↩

  152. Hardin (1994), p. 139. - Hardin, Stephen L. (1994). Texian Iliad. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73086-1. ↩

  153. Edmondson (2000), p. 362. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  154. Tinkle (1985), p. 196. ↩

  155. Edmondson (2000), p. 363. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  156. Hardin (1994), p. 139. - Hardin, Stephen L. (1994). Texian Iliad. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73086-1. ↩

  157. Todish et al. (1998), p. 51. ↩

  158. Todish et al. (1998), p. 52. ↩

  159. Petite (1999), p. 113. ↩

  160. Todish et al. (1998), p. 52. ↩

  161. Hardin (1994), p. 139. - Hardin, Stephen L. (1994). Texian Iliad. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73086-1. ↩

  162. Hardin (1994), p. 146. - Hardin, Stephen L. (1994). Texian Iliad. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73086-1. ↩

  163. Edmondson (2000), p. 364. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  164. Todish et al. (1998), p. 52. ↩

  165. Todish et al. (1998), p. 52. ↩

  166. Hardin (1994), p. 147. - Hardin, Stephen L. (1994). Texian Iliad. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73086-1. ↩

  167. Edmondson (2000), p. 364. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  168. Edmondson (2000), p. 364. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  169. Todish et al. (1998), p. 52. ↩

  170. Edmondson (2000), p. 364. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  171. Todish et al. (1998), p. 53. ↩

  172. Petite (1999), p. 112. ↩

  173. Hardin (1994), p. 147. - Hardin, Stephen L. (1994). Texian Iliad. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73086-1. ↩

  174. Edmondson (2000), p. 366. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  175. Hardin (1994), p. 147. - Hardin, Stephen L. (1994). Texian Iliad. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73086-1. ↩

  176. Edmondson (2000), p. 366. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  177. Lord (1961), p. 160. ↩

  178. Edmondson (2000), p. 366. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  179. Todish et al. (1998), p. 53. ↩

  180. Edmondson (2000), p. 368. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  181. Todish et al. (1998), p. 53. ↩

  182. Edmondson (2000), p. 366. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  183. Edmondson (2000), p. 367. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  184. Edmondson (2000), p. 367. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  185. Edmondson (2000), p. 368. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  186. Edmondson (2000), p. 369. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  187. Lieutenant José Maria Torres is credited with successfully raising the Mexican flag; he was mortally wounded in the process. (Todish et al. (1998), p. 54.) ↩

  188. Todish et al. (1998), p. 54. ↩

  189. Petite (1999), p. 114. ↩

  190. Edmondson (2000), p. 370. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  191. Hardin (1994), p. 147. - Hardin, Stephen L. (1994). Texian Iliad. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73086-1. ↩

  192. Edmondson (2000), p. 370. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  193. Groneman (1996), p. 214. - Groneman, Bill (1996). Eyewitness to the Alamo. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-502-4. ↩

  194. Hopewell (1994), p. 127. ↩

  195. Chariton (1992), p. 74. ↩

  196. Hopewell (1994), p. 127. ↩

  197. Todish et al. (1998), p. 54. ↩

  198. Petite (1999), p. 115. ↩

  199. Edmondson (2000), p. 371. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  200. Edmondson (2000), p. 371. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  201. Tinkle (1985), p. 216. ↩

  202. Edmondson (2000), p. 371. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  203. According to Edmondson, Wolf then ran into the room, grabbed his remaining son, and leaped with the child from the cannon ramp at the rear of the church; both were killed by musket shots before hitting the ground. (Edmondson (2000), p. 372.) ↩

  204. Edmondson (2000), p. 372. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  205. Tinkle (1985), p. 218. ↩

  206. Lord (1961), p. 166. ↩

  207. Edmondson (2000), p. 371. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  208. Edmondson (2000), p. 372. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  209. Groneman (1990), pp. 55–56. - Groneman, Bill (1990). Alamo Defenders, A Genealogy: The People and Their Words. Austin, TX: Eakin Press. ISBN 978-0-89015-757-2. ↩

  210. Lord (1961), p. 166. ↩

  211. Edmondson (2000), p. 372. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  212. Tinkle (1985), p. 220. ↩

  213. Edmondson speculates that these men might have been sick or wounded and were therefore unable to fight. (Edmondson (2000), p. 373) ↩

  214. Edmondson (2000), p. 373. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  215. Petite (1999), p. 123. ↩

  216. Hardin (1994), p. 148. - Hardin, Stephen L. (1994). Texian Iliad. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73086-1. ↩

  217. Petite (1999), p. 123. ↩

  218. Tinkle (1985), p. 214. ↩

  219. According to Petite, "Every account of the Crockett surrender-execution story comes from an avowed antagonist (either on political or military grounds) of Santa Anna's. It is believed that many stories, such as the surrender and execution of Crockett, were created and spread in order to discredit Santa Anna and add to his role as villain." (Petite (1999), p. 124.) ↩

  220. Petite (1999), p. 124. ↩

  221. Lord (1961), p. 167. ↩

  222. The identity of this officer is disputed. Edmondson claims that this remark was made by Colonel Juan Almonte and overheard by Almonte's cook, Ben. (Edmondson (2000), p. 374.) Todish attributes the remark to Lieutenant Colonel José Juan Sanchez-Navarro. (Todish et al. (1998), p. 55.) ↩

  223. Todish et al. (1998), p. 55. ↩

  224. Edmondson (2000), p. 374. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  225. Hardin (1994), p. 156. - Hardin, Stephen L. (1994). Texian Iliad. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73086-1. ↩

  226. Todish et al. (1998), p. 55. ↩

  227. Chariton, Wallace (May 1, 1992). Exploring Alamo Legends. Taylor Trade Publishing. p. 224. ISBN 978-1-4617-0881-0. 978-1-4617-0881-0 ↩

  228. Todish et al. (1998), p. 55. ↩

  229. Hardin (1994), p. 155. - Hardin, Stephen L. (1994). Texian Iliad. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73086-1. ↩

  230. Nofi (1992), p. 136. ↩

  231. Todish et al. (1998), p. 55. ↩

  232. Nofi (1992), p. 133. ↩

  233. Edmondson (2000), p. 407. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  234. Groneman (1990), p. 119. - Groneman, Bill (1990). Alamo Defenders, A Genealogy: The People and Their Words. Austin, TX: Eakin Press. ISBN 978-0-89015-757-2. ↩

  235. According to Francisco Ruiz, possibly the alcalde of Béxar, the graveyard was near full and that he instead threw some of the corpses in the river. (Edmondson (2000), p. 374.) Sam Houston reported on March 13 that all Mexicans were buried. (Lindley (2003), p. 277.) /wiki/Alcalde ↩

  236. Edmondson (2000), p. 374. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  237. Petite (1999), p. 134. ↩

  238. Cremating bodies was anathema at the time, as most Christians believed that a body could not be resurrected unless it were whole. (Petite (1999), p. 139.) ↩

  239. Edmondson (2000), p. 374. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  240. Edmondson (2000), p. 374. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  241. Petite (1999), p. 131. ↩

  242. Chariton (1990), p. 78. ↩

  243. Petite (1999), p. 132. ↩

  244. Chariton (1990), p. 78. ↩

  245. Petite (1999), p. 128. ↩

  246. Todish et al. (1998), p. 55. ↩

  247. Petite (1999), p. 127. ↩

  248. Todish et al. (1998), p. 55. ↩

  249. Edmondson (2000), p. 375. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  250. Nofi (1992), p. 138. ↩

  251. Edmondson (2000), p. 376. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  252. Todish et al. (1998), p. 67. ↩

  253. Todish et al. (1998), p. 68. ↩

  254. Lord (1961), p. 190. ↩

  255. Edmondson (2000), p. 378. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  256. Hardin (1994), p. 158. - Hardin, Stephen L. (1994). Texian Iliad. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 978-0-292-73086-1. ↩

  257. Edmondson (2000), p. 378. - Edmondson, J.R. (2000). The Alamo Story-From History to Current Conflicts. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-678-6. ↩

  258. Lord (1961), p. 169. ↩

  259. Todish et al. (1998), p. 69. ↩

  260. Todish et al. (1998), p. 70. ↩

  261. Schoelwer & Gläser (1985), p. 98. - Schoelwer, Susan Prendergast; Gläser, Tom W. (1985). Alamo Images: Changing Perceptions of a Texas Experience. Dallas, TX: The DeGlolyer Library and Southern Methodist University Press. ISBN 978-0-87074-213-2. https://archive.org/details/alamoimageschang00scho ↩

  262. Petite (1999), p. 124. ↩

  263. Schoelwer & Gläser (1985), p. 98. - Schoelwer, Susan Prendergast; Gläser, Tom W. (1985). Alamo Images: Changing Perceptions of a Texas Experience. Dallas, TX: The DeGlolyer Library and Southern Methodist University Press. ISBN 978-0-87074-213-2. https://archive.org/details/alamoimageschang00scho ↩

  264. Schoelwer & Gläser (1985), p. 18. - Schoelwer, Susan Prendergast; Gläser, Tom W. (1985). Alamo Images: Changing Perceptions of a Texas Experience. Dallas, TX: The DeGlolyer Library and Southern Methodist University Press. ISBN 978-0-87074-213-2. https://archive.org/details/alamoimageschang00scho ↩

  265. Schoelwer & Gläser (1985), pp. 52, 56. - Schoelwer, Susan Prendergast; Gläser, Tom W. (1985). Alamo Images: Changing Perceptions of a Texas Experience. Dallas, TX: The DeGlolyer Library and Southern Methodist University Press. ISBN 978-0-87074-213-2. https://archive.org/details/alamoimageschang00scho ↩

  266. Todish et al. (1998), p. 199. ↩

  267. Groneman (1998), p. 52. - Groneman, Bill (1998). Battlefields of Texas. Plano, TX: Republic of Texas Press. ISBN 978-1-55622-571-0. ↩

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  271. Lindley (2003), p. 106. ↩

  272. Nofi (1992), p. 211. ↩

  273. Cox (1998). - Cox, Mike (March 6, 1998). "Last of the Alamo big books rests with 'A Time to Stand'". The Austin-American Statesman. ↩

  274. Todish et al. (1998), p. 187. ↩

  275. Nofi (1992), p. 213. ↩

  276. Nofi (1992), p. 213. ↩

  277. Todish et al. (1998), p. 188. ↩

  278. Historians J. Frank Dobie and Lon Tinkle requested that they not be listed as historical advisers in the credits of The Alamo because of its disjunction from recognized history. (Todish et al. (1998), p. 188.) /wiki/James_Frank_Dobie ↩

  279. Culpepper (2004). - Culpepper, Andy (April 8, 2004). "A different take on 'The Alamo'". CNN. Retrieved May 22, 2008. http://www.cnn.com/2004/SHOWBIZ/Movies/04/08/the.alamo/ ↩

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  281. Todish et al. (1998), p. 196. ↩

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  283. Thompson (2001), p. 246. - Thompson, Frank (2001). The Alamo: A Cultural History. Dallas, TX: Taylor Trade. ISBN 9781461734352. ↩

  284. Chemerka & Wiener (2009), p. 157. - Chemerka, William H.; Wiener, Allen J. (2009). Music of the Alamo. Bright Sky Press. ISBN 978-1-933979-31-1. ↩

  285. Michels (2010). - Michels, Patrick (May 11, 2010). "Remembering the Alamo with Phil Collins". Dallas Observer. Archived from the original on April 29, 2015. Retrieved December 22, 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20150429075300/http://blogs.dallasobserver.com/unfairpark/2010/05/phil_collins_at_dallas_histori.php ↩

  286. Cobler (2015). - Cobler, Nicole (March 11, 2015). "Phil Collins' star rises over the Alamo". San Antonio Express-News. Retrieved March 26, 2018. https://www.expressnews.com/news/politics/texas_legislature/article/Phil-Collins-star-rises-over-the-Alamo-6128672.php#photo-7640440 ↩

  287. N/A (2014). - N/A (July 21, 2014). "Phil Collins Press Conference". The Official Alamo Website. Archived from the original on September 28, 2014. Retrieved September 22, 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140928074613/http://www.thealamo.org/webcast.html ↩

  288. "Texas Centennial Issue". Smithsonian National Postal Museum. http://arago.si.edu/category_2033169.html ↩

  289. "9-cent The Alamo". Smithsonian National Postal Museum. https://arago.si.edu/category_2028971.html ↩

  290. "The Alamo Is Trying To Eminent Domain This Man's Bar to Make Way for Museum Honoring Alamo Defenders". January 25, 2023. https://reason.com/2023/01/25/the-alamo-is-trying-to-eminent-domain-this-mans-bar-to-make-way-for-museum-honoring-alamo-defenders/ ↩

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  292. "Fights over the Alamo persist as George P. Bush seeks higher office". November 2, 2021. https://www.texastribune.org/2021/11/02/alamo-george-p-bush/ ↩

  293. "The Alamo Is Trying To Eminent Domain This Man's Bar to Make Way for Museum Honoring Alamo Defenders". January 25, 2023. https://reason.com/2023/01/25/the-alamo-is-trying-to-eminent-domain-this-mans-bar-to-make-way-for-museum-honoring-alamo-defenders/ ↩