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Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor
American stealth air superiority fighter

The Lockheed Martin/Boeing F-22 Raptor is a twin-engine, jet-powered, stealth supersonic fighter aircraft developed for the United States Air Force's Advanced Tactical Fighter program to achieve air superiority. Designed with capabilities in ground attack, electronic warfare, and signals intelligence, it replaced the F-15 Eagle in USAF squadrons after entering service in 2005. Built primarily by Lockheed Martin with key components from Boeing, the F-22 has served as a critical air superiority fighter. Despite initial challenges and a reduced production run, it has seen combat roles, including missions in the Middle East against Islamic State and Assad-aligned forces, and is expected to serve until replaced by the Boeing F-47.

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Development

Origins

Main articles: Advanced Tactical Fighter and Lockheed YF-22

The F-22 originated from the Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) program that the U.S. Air Force (USAF) initiated in 1981 to replace the F-15 Eagle and F-16 Fighting Falcon. Intelligence reports indicated that their effectiveness would be eroded by emerging worldwide threats emanating from the Soviet Union, including new developments in surface-to-air missile systems for integrated air defense networks, the introduction of the Beriev A-50 "Mainstay" airborne warning and control system (AWACS), and the proliferation of the Sukhoi Su-27 "Flanker" and Mikoyan MiG-29 "Fulcrum" class of fighter aircraft.4 Code-named "Senior Sky", the ATF would become an air superiority fighter program influenced by these threats; in the potential scenario of a Soviet and Warsaw Pact invasion in Central Europe, the ATF was envisaged to support the air-land battle by spearheading offensive and defensive counter-air operations (OCA/DCA) in this highly contested environment that would then enable following echelons of NATO strike and attack aircraft to perform air interdiction against ground formations; to do so, the ATF would make an ambitious leap in capability and survivability by taking advantage of the new technologies in fighter design on the horizon, including composite materials, lightweight alloys, advanced flight control systems and avionics, more powerful propulsion systems for supersonic cruise (or supercruise) around Mach 1.5, and stealth technology for low observability.567

The USAF published an ATF request for information (RFI) to the aerospace industry in May 1981, and following a period of concept and specification development, the ATF System Program Office (SPO) issued the demonstration and validation (Dem/Val) request for proposals (RFP) in September 1985, with requirements placing strong emphasis on stealth, supersonic cruise and maneuver. The RFP saw some alterations after its initial release, including more stringent signature reduction requirements in December 1985 and the addition of the requirement for flying technology demonstrator prototypes in May 1986.89 Owing to the immense investments required to develop the advanced technologies, teaming among companies was encouraged. Of the seven bidding companies,10 Lockheed and Northrop were selected on 31 October 1986.11 Lockheed, through its Skunk Works division at Burbank, California, teamed with Boeing and General Dynamics while Northrop teamed with McDonnell Douglas. These two contractor teams undertook a 50-month Dem/Val phase, culminating in the flight test of two technology demonstrator prototypes, the Lockheed YF-22 and Northrop YF-23; while they represented competing designs, the prototypes were meant for demonstrating concept viability and risk mitigation rather than a competitive flyoff.12 Concurrently, Pratt & Whitney and General Electric competed for the ATF engines.1314

Dem/Val was focused on system engineering, technology development plans, and risk reduction over point aircraft designs; in fact, after down-select, the Lockheed team completely redesigned the airframe configuration in summer 1987 due to weight analysis, with notable changes including the wing planform from swept trapezoidal to diamond-like delta and a reduction in forebody planform area.1516 The team extensively used analytical and empirical methods including computational fluid dynamics and computer-aided design, wind tunnel testing (18,000 hours for Dem/Val), and radar cross-section (RCS) calculations and pole testing. Avionics were tested in ground prototypes and flying laboratories.17 During Dem/Val, the SPO used trade studies from both teams to review the ATF system specifications and adjust or delete requirements that were significant weight and cost drivers while having marginal value. The short takeoff and landing (STOL) requirement was relaxed to delete thrust-reversers, saving substantial weight. Side looking radars and the dedicated infrared search and track (IRST) system were eventually removed as well, although space and cooling provisions were retained to allow for their later addition. The ejection seat was downgraded from a fresh design to the existing ACES II. Despite efforts by both teams to rein in weight, the takeoff gross weight estimates grew from 50,000 to 60,000 lb (22,700 to 27,200 kg), resulting in engine thrust requirement increasing from 30,000 to 35,000 lbf (133 to 156 kN) class.18

Each team built two prototype air vehicles for Dem/Val, one for each engine option. The YF-22 had its maiden flight on 29 September 1990 and, in testing, successfully demonstrated supercruise, high angle-of-attack maneuvers, and the firing of air-to-air missiles from internal weapons bays. After the flight test of the demonstrator prototypes at Edwards Air Force Base, the teams submitted the results and their full-scale development design proposals – or Preferred System Concept – in December 1990; on 23 April 1991, the Secretary of the USAF, Donald Rice, announced the Lockheed team and Pratt & Whitney as the winners of the ATF and engine competitions.19 Both designs met or exceeded all performance requirements; the YF-23 was considered stealthier and faster, but the YF-22, with its thrust vectoring nozzles, was more maneuverable as well as less expensive and risky, having flown considerably more test sorties and hours than its counterpart.2021 The press also speculated that the Lockheed team's design was more adaptable to the Navy Advanced Tactical Fighter (NATF) for replacing the F-14 Tomcat, but by fiscal year (FY) 1992, the U.S. Navy had abandoned NATF due to cost.22

Full-scale development

The program formally moved to full-scale development, or Engineering & Manufacturing Development (EMD), in August 1991. The production F-22 design (internally designated Configuration 645) had also evolved to have notable differences from the YF-22, which was immature due to being frozen relatively soon after the complete redesign in the summer of 1987.23 While the overall layout was similar, the external geometry saw significant alterations; the wing's leading edge sweep angle was decreased from 48° to 42°, while the vertical stabilizers were shifted rearward and decreased in area by 20%.24 The radome shape was changed for better radar performance, the wingtips were clipped for antennas, and the dedicated airbrake was eliminated. To improve pilot visibility and aerodynamics, the canopy was moved forward 7 inches (18 cm) and the engine inlets moved rearward 14 inches (36 cm). The shapes of the fuselage, wing, and stabilator trailing edges were refined to improve aerodynamics, strength, and stealth characteristics. The internal structural design was refined and reinforced, with the production airframe designed for a service life of 8,000 hours.2526 The revised shaping was validated with over 17,000 additional hours of wind tunnel testing and further RCS testing at Helendale, California and the USAF RATSCAT range before the first flight. Increasing weight during EMD due to demanding ballistic survivability requirements and added capabilities caused slight reductions in projected range and maneuver performance.27

Aside from advances in air vehicle and propulsion technology, the F-22's avionics were unprecedented in complexity and scale for a combat aircraft, with the integration of multiple sensors systems and antennas, including electronic warfare, communication/navigation/identification (CNI), and software of 1.7 million lines of code written in Ada. Avionics often became the pacing factor of the whole program. In light of rapidly advancing computing and semiconductor technology, the avionics was to employ the Department of Defense's (DoD) PAVE PILLAR systems architecture and Very High Speed Integrated Circuit (VHSIC) program technology; the computing and processing requirements were equivalent to multiple contemporary Cray supercomputers to achieve sensor fusion.2829 To enable early looks and troubleshooting for mission software development, the software was ground-tested in Boeing's Avionics Integration Laboratory (AIL) and flight-tested on a Boeing 757 modified with F-22 avionics and sensors, called Flying Test Bed (FTB).3031 Because much of the F-22's avionics design occurred in the 1990s as the electronics industry was shifting from military to commercial applications as the predominant market, avionics upgrade efforts was initially difficult and protracted due to changing industry standards; for instance, C/C++ rather than Ada became predominant programming languages.32

The roughly equal division of work amongst the team largely carried through from Dem/Val to EMD, with prime contractor Lockheed responsible for the forward fuselage and control surfaces, General Dynamics for the center fuselage, and Boeing for aft fuselage and wings. Lockheed acquired General Dynamics' fighter portfolio at Fort Worth, Texas in 1993 and thus had the majority of the airframe manufacturing, and merged with Martin Marietta in 1995 to form Lockheed Martin. While Lockheed primarily performed Dem/Val work at its Skunk Works sites in Burbank and Palmdale, California, it shifted its program office and EMD work from Burbank to Marietta, Georgia, where it performed final assembly; Boeing manufactured airframe components, performed avionics integration and developed the training systems in Seattle, Washington. The EMD contract originally ordered seven single-seat F-22As and two twin-seat F-22Bs, although the latter was canceled in 1996 to reduce development costs and the orders were converted to single seaters.33 The first F-22A, an EMD aircraft with tail number 91-4001, was unveiled at Air Force Plant 6 in Dobbins Air Reserve Base in Marietta on 9 April 1997 where it was officially named "Raptor".34 The aircraft first flew on 7 September 1997, piloted by chief test pilot Alfred "Paul" Metz.353637 The Raptor's designation was briefly changed to F/A-22 starting in September 2002, mimicking the Navy's F/A-18 Hornet and intended to highlight a planned ground-attack capability amid debate over the aircraft's role and relevance. The F-22 designation was reinstated in December 2005, when the aircraft entered service.3839

The F-22 flight test program consisted of flight sciences, developmental test (DT), and initial operational test and evaluation (IOT&E) by the 411th Flight Test Squadron (FLTS) at Edwards AFB, California, as well as follow-on OT&E and development of tactics and operational employment by the 422nd Test and Evaluation Squadron (TES) at Nellis AFB, Nevada. Nine EMD jets assigned to the 411th FLTS would participate in the test program under the Combined Test Force (CTF) at Edwards. The first two aircraft conducted envelope expansion testing, such as flying qualities, air vehicle performance, propulsion, and stores separation. The third aircraft, the first to have production-level internal structure, tested flight loads, flutter, and stores separation, while two non-flying F-22s were built for testing static loads and fatigue. Subsequent EMD aircraft and the Boeing 757 FTB tested avionics, environmental qualifications, and observables, with the first combat-capable Block 3.0 software flying in 2001.40 Air vehicle testing resulted in several structural design modifications and retrofits for earlier lots, including tail fin strengthening to resolve buffeting in certain conditions.41 Raptor 4001 was retired from flight testing in 2000 and subsequently sent to Wright-Patterson AFB for survivability testing, including live fire testing and battle damage repair training.42 Other retired EMD F-22s have been used as maintenance trainers.43

Because the F-22 had been designed to defeat contemporary and projected Soviet fighters, the end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 had major impacts on program funding; the DoD reduced its urgency for new weapon systems and the following years would see successive reductions in its budget. This resulted in the F-22's EMD being rescheduled and lengthened multiple times. Furthermore, the aircraft's sophistication and numerous technological innovations required extensive testing, which exacerbated the cost overruns and delays, especially from mission avionics. Some capabilities were also deferred to post-service upgrades, reducing the upfront cost but increasing total program cost.4445 The program transitioned to full-rate production in March 2005 and completed EMD that December, after which the test force had flown 3,496 sorties for over 7,600 flight hours.46 As the F-22 was designed for upgrades throughout its lifecycle, the 411th FLTS and 422nd TES continued the DT/OT&E and tactics development of these upgrades.47 Derivatives such as the X-44 thrust vectoring research aircraft and the FB-22 medium-range regional bomber were proposed in the late 1990s and early 2000s, although these were eventually abandoned. In 2006, the F-22 development team won the Collier Trophy, American aviation's most prestigious award.48 Due to the aircraft's sophisticated capabilities, contractors have been targeted by cyberattacks and technology theft.49

Production and procurement

The USAF originally envisioned ordering 750 ATFs at a total program cost of $44.3 billion and procurement cost of $26.2 billion in FY 1985 dollars, with production beginning in 1994 and service entry in the mid-to-late 1990s. The 1990 Major Aircraft Review (MAR) led by Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney reduced this to 648 aircraft beginning in 1996 and service entry in the early-to-mid 2000s. After the end of the Cold War, this was further curtailed to 442 in the 1993 Bottom-Up Review while the USAF eventually set its requirement to 381 to support its Air Expeditionary Force structure with the last deliveries in 2013. Throughout development and production, the program was continually scrutinized for its costs and less expensive alternatives such as modernized F-15 or F-16 variants were being proposed, even though the USAF considered the F-22 to provide the greatest capability increase against peer adversaries for the investment.50 However, funding instability had reduced the total to 339 by 1997 and production was nearly halted by Congress in 1999.51 Although funds were eventually restored, the planned number continued to decline due to delays and cost overruns during EMD, slipping to 277 by 2003.5253 In 2004, with its focus on asymmetric counterinsurgency warfare in Iraq and Afghanistan, the DoD under Secretary Donald Rumsfeld further cut procurement to 183 production aircraft, despite the USAF's requirement for 381;5455 funding for this number was reached by a multi-year procurement contract awarded in 2006, with aircraft distributed to seven combat squadrons; total program cost was projected to be $62 billion (equivalent to approximately $90.2 billion in 2023).56 In 2008, the Congressional defense spending bill raised the number to 187.5758

F-22 production would support over 1,000 subcontractors and suppliers from 46 states and up to 95,000 jobs, and spanned 15 years at a peak rate of roughly two airplanes per month, about half of the initially planned rate from the 1990 MAR; after EMD aircraft contracts, the first production lot was awarded in September 2000.596061 As production wound down in 2011, the total program cost was estimated to be about $67.3 billion (about $360 million for each production aircraft delivered), with $32.4 billion spent on Research, Development, Test, and Evaluation (RDT&E) and $34.9 billion on procurement and military construction in then year dollars. The incremental cost for an additional F-22 was estimated at $138 million (equivalent to approximately $191 million in 2023) in 2009.6263

In total, 195 F-22s were built. The first two were EMD aircraft in the Block 1.064 configuration for initial flight testing and envelope expansion, while the third was a Block 2.0 aircraft built to represent the internal structure of production airframes and enabled it to test full flight loads. Six more EMD aircraft were built in the Block 10 configuration for development and upgrade testing, with the last two considered essentially production-quality jets. Production for operational squadrons consisted of 74 Block 10/20 training aircraft and 112 Block 30/35 combat aircraft for a total of 186 (or 187 when accounting for Production Representative Test Vehicles and certain EMD jets);65 one of the Block 30 aircraft is dedicated to flight sciences at Edwards AFB.6667 By 2020, Block 20 aircraft from Lot 3 onward were upgraded to Block 30 standards under the Common Configuration Plan, increasing the Block 30/35 fleet to 149 aircraft while 37 remained in the Block 20 configuration for training.686970

Ban on exports

In order to prevent the inadvertent disclosure of the aircraft's stealth technology and classified capabilities to U.S. adversaries,7172 annual DoD appropriations acts since FY1998 have included a provision prohibiting the use of funds made available in each act to approve or license the sale of the F-22 to any foreign government.73 Customers for U.S. fighters are acquiring earlier designs such as the F-15 Eagle and F-16 Fighting Falcon or the newer F-35 Lightning II, which contains technology from the F-22 but was designed to be cheaper, more flexible, and available for export.74 In September 2006, Congress upheld the ban on foreign F-22 sales.75 Despite the ban, the 2010 defense authorization bill included provisions requiring the DoD to report on the costs and feasibility for an F-22 export variant, and another report on the effect of export sales on the U.S. aerospace industry.7677

Some Australian defense officials and politicians have expressed interest in procuring the F-22; in 2008, the Chief of the Defence Force, Air Chief Marshal Angus Houston, stated that the aircraft was being considered by the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) as a potential supplement to the F-35.7879 Some defense commentators have even advocated for the purchase in lieu of the planned F-35s, citing the F-22's known capabilities and F-35's delays and developmental uncertainties.808182 However, considerations for the F-22 were later dropped and the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet would serve as the RAAF's interim aircraft prior to the F-35's service entry.83

The Japanese government also showed interest in the F-22. The Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF) would reportedly require fewer fighters for its mission if it obtained the F-22, thus reducing engineering and staffing costs.8485 With the end of F-22 production, Japan chose the F-35 in December 2011.86 At one point the Israeli Air Force had hoped to purchase up to 50 F-22s. In November 2003, however, Israeli representatives announced that after years of analysis and discussions with Lockheed Martin and the DoD, they had concluded that Israel could not afford the aircraft.87 Israel eventually purchased the F-35.8889

Production termination

Throughout the 2000s when the U.S. was primarily fighting counterinsurgency wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, the USAF's requirement for 381 F-22s was questioned over rising costs, initial reliability and availability problems, limited multirole versatility, and a lack of relevant adversaries for air combat missions.9091 In 2006, Comptroller General of the United States David Walker found that "the DoD has not demonstrated the need" for more investment in the F-22,92 and further opposition was expressed by Bush Administration Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld and his successor Robert Gates, Deputy Secretary of Defense Gordon R. England, and Chairman of U.S. Senate Armed Services Committee (SASC) Senators John Warner and John McCain.9394 Under Rumsfeld, procurement was severely cut to 183 aircraft. The F-22 lost influential supporters in 2008 after the forced resignations of Secretary of the Air Force Michael Wynne and the Chief of Staff of the Air Force General T. Michael Moseley.95 In November 2008, Gates stated that the F-22 lacked relevance in asymmetric post-Cold War conflicts,96 and in April 2009, under the Obama Administration, he called for production to end in FY 2011 after completing 187 F-22s.97

The loss of staunch F-22 advocates in the upper DoD echelons resulted in the erosion of its political support. In July 2008, General James Cartwright, Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, stated to the SASC his reasons for supporting the termination of F-22 production, including shifting resources to the multi-service F-35 and the electric warfare EA-18G Growler.98 Although Russian and Chinese fighter developments fueled concern for the USAF, Gates dismissed this and in 2010, he set the F-22 requirement to 187 aircraft by lowering the number of major regional conflict preparations from two to one, despite an effort by Wynne's and Moseley's successors Michael Donley and General Norton Schwartz to raise the number to 243; according to Schwartz, he and Donley finally relented in order to convince Gates to preserve the Long Range Strike Bomber program.99100 After President Barack Obama threatened to veto further production at Gates' urging, both the Senate and House agreed to abide by the 187 cap in July 2009.101102 Gates highlighted the F-35's role in the decision,103 and believed that the U.S. would maintain its stealth fighter numbers advantage by 2025 even with F-35 delays.104 In December 2011, the 195th and final F-22 was completed out of 8 test and 187 production aircraft built; the jet was delivered on 2 May 2012.105106

After production ended, F-22 tooling and associated documentation were retained and mothballed at the Sierra Army Depot to support repairs and maintenance throughout the fleet life cycle, as well as the possibility of a production restart or a Service Life Extension Program (SLEP).107108109 The Marietta plant space was repurposed to support the C-130J and F-35, while engineering work for sustainment and upgrades continued at Fort Worth, Texas and Palmdale, California.110111 The curtailed production forced the USAF to extend the service of 179 F-15C/Ds until 2026—well beyond its planned retirement—and replace those with new-build F-15EX, which had an active export production line that minimized non-recurring start-up costs, to maintain adequate air superiority fighter numbers.112113

In April 2016, Congress directed the USAF to conduct a cost study and assessment associated with resuming production of the F-22, citing advancing threats from Russia and China.114 On 9 June 2017, the USAF submitted their report stating they had no plans to restart the F-22 production line due to cost-prohibitive economic and logistical challenges; it estimated it would cost approximately $50 billion to procure 194 additional F-22s at a cost of $206–216 million per aircraft, including approximately $9.9 billion for non-recurring start-up costs and $40.4 billion for acquisition with the first delivery in the mid-to-late 2020s. The long gap since the end of production meant hiring new workers, sourcing replacement vendors, and finding new plant space, contributing to the high start-up costs and lead times. The USAF believed that the funding would be better invested in its next-generation Air Superiority 2030 effort, which evolved into the Next Generation Air Dominance (NGAD).115116

Modernization and upgrades

The F-22 and its subsystems were designed to be upgraded over its life cycle via numbered Increments117 and Operational Flight Program (OFP) updates in anticipation for technological advances and evolving threats, although this initially proved difficult and costly due to the highly integrated avionics systems architecture.118 Amid debates over the airplane's relevance in asymmetric counterinsurgency warfare, the first upgrades primarily focused on ground attack, or strike capabilities. Joint Direct Attack Munitions (JDAM) employment was added with Increment 2 in 2005 and Small Diameter Bomb (SDB) was integrated with 3.1 in 2011; the improved AN/APG-77(V)1 radar, which incorporates air-to-ground modes, was certified in March 2007 and fitted on airframes from Lot 5 onward.119120121 To address oxygen deprivation issues, F-22s were fitted with an automatic backup oxygen system (ABOS) and modified life support system starting in 2012.122

In contrast to prior upgrades, Increment 3.2 emphasized air combat capabilities with updates to electronic warfare, CNI (including Link 16 receive), and geolocation as well as AIM-9X and AIM-120D integration.123 Fleet releases of the two-part process began in 2013 and 2019 respectively. Concurrently, OFP updates added Automatic Ground Collision Avoidance System, cryptographic enhancements, and improved avionics stability, among others.124125 A MIDS-JTRS terminal, which includes Mode 5 IFF and Link 16 transmit/receive capability, was installed starting in 2021.126127 To address obsolescence and modernization difficulties, the F-22's mission computers were upgraded in 2021 with military-hardened commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) open mission system (OMS) processor modules with a modular open systems architecture (MOSA). Agile software development process in conjunction with an orchestration system was implemented to enable faster upgrades from additional vendors, and software updates shifted away from Increments developed using the waterfall model to numbered annual releases.128129

Additional upgrades being tested include new sensors and antennas, integration of new weapons including the AIM-260 JATM, and reliability improvements such as more durable stealth coatings; the dedicated infrared search and track (IRST), originally deleted during Dem/Val, is one of the sensors added.130131132 Other developments include all-aspect IRST functionality for the Missile Launch Detector (MLD),133 manned-unmanned teaming (MUM-T) capability with uncrewed collaborative combat aircraft (CCA) or "loyal wingmen", and integration of the Gentex/Raytheon (later Thales USA) Scorpion helmet-mounted display (HMD).134135136 To preserve the aircraft's stealth while enabling additional payload and fuel capacity, stealthy external carriage has been investigated since the early-2000s, with a low drag, low-observable external tank and pylon under development to increase stealthy combat radius.137 The F-22 has also been used a platform to test and apply technologies from the NGAD program.138

Not all proposed upgrades have been implemented. The planned Multifunction Advanced Data Link (MADL) integration was cut due to development delays and lack of proliferation. While Block 20 aircraft from Lot 3 onwards have been upgraded to Block 30/35 under the Common Configuration Plan, Lockheed Martin in 2017 had also proposed upgrading all remaining Block 20 training aircraft to Block 30/35 as well to increase numbers available for combat; this was not pursued due to other budget priorities.139

Aside from modernizations, the F-22's structural design and construction was improved over the course of the production run; for instance, aircraft from Lot 3 onwards had improved stabilators built by Vought.140141 The fleet underwent a $350 million "structures repair/retrofit program" (SRP) to resolve problems identified during testing as well as address improper titanium heat treatment in the parts of early batches.142143 By January 2021, all aircraft had gone through the SRP to ensure full service lives for the entire fleet.144145 The F-22 has also been used to test and qualify alternative fuels, including a synthetic jet fuel consisting of 50/50 mix of JP-8 and a Fischer–Tropsch process-produced, natural gas-based fuel in August 2008, and a 50% mixture of biofuel derived from camelina in March 2011.146147

Design

Overview

The F-22 Raptor is a fifth-generation air superiority fighter that is considered fourth generation in stealth aircraft technology by the USAF.148 It is the first operational aircraft to combine supercruise, supermaneuverability, stealth, and integrated avionics (or sensor fusion) in a single weapons platform to enable it to survive and conduct missions, primarily offensive and defensive counter-air operations, in highly contested environments.149

The F-22's shape combines stealth and aerodynamic performance. Planform and panel edges are aligned at common angular aspects and the surfaces, also aligned accordingly, have continuous curvature to minimize the aircraft's radar cross-section.150 Its clipped diamond-like delta wings have the leading edge swept 42°, trailing edge swept −17°, a slight anhedral and a conical camber to reduce supersonic wave drag. The shoulder-mounted wings are smoothly blended into the fuselage with four empennage surfaces and leading edge root extensions running to the caret inlets' upper edges, where the forebody chines also meet. Flight control surfaces include leading-edge flaps, flaperons, ailerons, rudders on the canted vertical stabilizers, and all-moving horizontal tails (stabilators); for air braking, the ailerons deflect up, flaperons down, and rudders outwards to increase drag.151152 Owing to the focus on supersonic performance, area rule is applied extensively to the airplane's shape and nearly all of the fuselage volume lies ahead of the wing's trailing edge to reduce drag at supersonic speeds, with the stabilators pivoting from tail booms extending aft of the engine nozzles.153 Weapons are carried internally in the fuselage for stealth. The jet has a retractable tricycle landing gear and an emergency tailhook.154 Fire suppression system and fuel tank inerting system are installed for survivability.155156

The aircraft's dual Pratt & Whitney F119 augmented turbofan engines are closely spaced and incorporate rectangular two-dimensional thrust vectoring nozzles with a range of ±20 degrees in the pitch-axis; the nozzles are fully integrated into the F-22's flight controls and vehicle management system. Each engine has dual-redundant Hamilton Standard full-authority digital engine control (FADEC) and maximum thrust in the 35,000 lbf (156 kN) class. The F-22's thrust-to-weight ratio at typical combat weight is nearly at unity in maximum military power and 1.25 in full afterburner. The fixed shoulder-mounted caret inlets are offset from the forward fuselage to divert the turbulent boundary layer and generate oblique shocks with the upper inboard corners to ensure good total pressure recovery and efficient supersonic flow compression.157 Maximum speed without external stores is approximately Mach 1.8 in supercruise at military/intermediate power and greater than Mach 2 with afterburners.158 With 18,000 lb (8,165 kg) of internal fuel and an additional 8,000 lb (3,629 kg) in two 600-gallon external tanks, the jet has a ferry range of over 1,600 nmi (1,840 mi; 2,960 km).159 The aircraft has a refueling boom receptacle centered on its spine and an auxiliary power unit embedded in the left wing root.160

The F-22's high cruise speed and operating altitude over prior fighters improve the effectiveness of its sensors and weapon systems, and increase survivability against ground defenses such as surface-to-air missiles.161162 Its ability to supercruise, or sustain supersonic flight without using afterburners, allows it to intercept targets that afterburner-dependent aircraft would lack the fuel to reach. The use of internal weapons bays permits the aircraft to maintain comparatively higher performance over most other combat-configured fighters due to a lack of parasitic drag from external stores.163 The F-22's thrust and aerodynamics enable regular combat speeds of Mach 1.5 at 50,000 feet (15,000 m), thus providing 50% greater employment range for air-to-air missiles and twice the effective range for JDAMs than with prior platforms.164165166 Its structure contains a significant amount of high-strength materials to withstand stress and heat of sustained supersonic flight. Respectively, titanium alloys and bismaleimide/epoxy composites comprise 42% and 24% of the structural weight; the materials and multiple load path structural design also enable good ballistic survivability.167168169

The airplane's aerodynamics, relaxed stability, and powerful thrust-vectoring engines give it excellent maneuverability and energy potential across its flight envelope, capable of 9-g maneuvers at takeoff gross weight with full internal fuel.170 Its large control surfaces, vortex-generating chines and LERX, and vectoring nozzles provide excellent high alpha (angle of attack) characteristics, and is capable of flying at trimmed alpha of over 60° while maintaining roll control and performing maneuvers such as the Herbst maneuver (J-turn) and Pugachev's Cobra;171 vortex impingement on the vertical tail fins did cause more buffeting than initially anticipated, resulting in the strengthening of the fin structure by changing the rear spar from composite to titanium.172173 The computerized triplex-redundant fly-by-wire control system and FADEC make the aircraft highly departure resistant and controllable, thus giving the pilot carefree handling.174175

Stealth

The F-22 was designed to be highly difficult to detect and track by radar, with radio waves reflected, scattered, or diffracted away from the emitter source towards specific sectors, or absorbed and attenuated. Measures to reduce RCS include airframe shaping such as alignment of edges and continuous curvature of surfaces, internal carriage of weapons, fixed-geometry serpentine inlets and curved vanes that prevent line-of-sight of the engine fan faces and turbines from any exterior view, use of radar-absorbent material (RAM), and attention to detail such as hinges and pilot helmets that could provide a radar return.176 The F-22 was also designed to have decreased radio frequency emissions, infrared signature and acoustic signature as well as reduced visibility to the naked eye.177 The aircraft's rectangular thrust-vectoring nozzles flatten the exhaust plume and facilitate its mixing with ambient air through shed vortices, which reduces infrared emissions to mitigate the threat of infrared homing ("heat seeking") surface-to-air or air-to-air missiles.178179 Additional measures to reduce the infrared signature include special topcoat and active cooling to manage the heat buildup from supersonic flight.180181

Compared to previous stealth designs, the F-22 is less reliant on RAM, which are maintenance-intensive and susceptible to adverse weather conditions, and can undergo repairs on the flight line or in a normal hangar without climate control. The F-22 incorporates a Signature Assessment System which delivers warnings when the radar signature is degraded and necessitates repair.182 While the F-22's exact RCS is classified, in 2009 Lockheed Martin released information indicating that from certain angles the airplane has an RCS of 0.0001 m2 or −40 dBsm – equivalent to the radar reflection of a "steel marble"; the aircraft can mount a Luneburg lens reflector to mask its RCS.183184 For missions where stealth is required, the mission capable rate is 62–70%.185 Beginning in 2021, the F-22 has been seen testing a new chrome-like surface coating, speculated to help reduce the F-22's detectability by infrared tracking systems.186187

The effectiveness of the stealth characteristics is difficult to gauge. The RCS value is a restrictive measurement of the aircraft's frontal or side area from the perspective of a static radar. When an aircraft maneuvers it exposes a completely different set of angles and surface area, potentially increasing radar observability. Furthermore, the F-22's stealth contouring and radar-absorbent materials are chiefly effective against high-frequency radars, usually found on other aircraft. The effects of Rayleigh scattering and resonance mean that low-frequency radars such as weather radars and early-warning radars are more likely to detect the F-22 due to its physical size. These are also conspicuous, susceptible to clutter, and have low precision.188 Additionally, while faint or fleeting radar contacts make defenders aware that a stealth aircraft is present, reliably vectoring interception to attack the aircraft is much more challenging.189190

Avionics

The aircraft has an integrated avionics system where through sensor fusion, data from all onboard sensor systems as well as off-board inputs are filtered and processed into a combined tactical picture, thus enhancing the pilot's situational awareness and reducing workload. Key mission systems include Sanders/General Electric AN/ALR-94 electronic warfare system, Martin Marietta AN/AAR-56 infrared and ultraviolet Missile Launch Detector (MLD), Westinghouse/Texas Instruments AN/APG-77 active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar, TRW Communication/Navigation/Identification (CNI) suite, and Raytheon advanced infrared search and track (IRST) being tested.191192193

The APG-77 radar has a low-observable, active-aperture, electronically scanned antenna with multiple target track-while-scan in all weather conditions; the antenna is tilted back for stealth. Its emissions can be focused to overload enemy sensors as an electronic attack capability. The radar changes frequencies more than 1,000 times per second to lower interception probability and has an estimated range of 125–150 mi (201–241 km) against an 11 sq ft (1 m2) target and 250 mi (400 km) or more in narrow beams. The upgraded APG-77(V)1 provides air-to-ground functionality through synthetic aperture radar (SAR) mapping, ground moving target indication/track (GMTI/GMTT), and strike modes.194195 The ALR-94 electronic warfare system, among the most technically complex equipment on the F-22, integrates more than 30 antennas blended into the wings and fuselage for all-round radar warning receiver (RWR) coverage and threat geolocation. It can be used as a passive detector capable of searching targets at ranges (250+ nmi) exceeding the radar's, and can provide enough information for a target lock and cue radar emissions to a narrow beam (down to 2° by 2° in azimuth and elevation). Depending on the detected threat, the defensive systems can prompt the pilot to release countermeasures such as flares or chaff. The MLD uses six sensors to provide full spherical infrared coverage while the advanced IRST, housed in a stealthy wing pod, is a narrow field-of-view sensor for long-range passive identification and targeting.196 To ensure stealth in the radio frequency spectrum, CNI emissions are strictly controlled and confined to specific sectors, with tactical communication between F-22s performed using the directional Inter/Intra-Flight Data Link (IFDL); the integrated CNI system, which incorporates a MIDS-JTRS terminal, also manages TACAN, IFF (including Mode 5), and communication through various methods such as HAVE QUICK/SATURN and SINCGARS.197198 The aircraft was also upgraded with an automatic ground collision avoidance system (GCAS).199

Information from radar, CNI, and other sensors are processed by two Hughes Common Integrated Processor (CIP) mission computers, each capable of processing up to 10.5 billion instructions per second.200201 The F-22's baseline software has some 1.7 million lines of code, the majority involving the mission systems such as processing radar data.202 The highly integrated nature of the avionics architecture system, as well as the use of the programming language Ada,203 has made the development and testing of upgrades challenging. To enable more rapid upgrades, the CIPs were upgraded with Curtiss-Wright open mission systems (OMS) processor modules as well as a modular open systems architecture called the Open Systems Enclave (OSE) orchestration platform to allow the avionics suite to interface with containerized software from third-party vendors.204205

The F-22's ability to operate close to the battlefield gives the aircraft threat detection and identification capability comparative with the RC-135 Rivet Joint, and the ability to function as a "mini-AWACS", though its radar is less powerful than those of dedicated platforms. This allows the F-22 to rapidly designate targets for allies and coordinate friendly aircraft.206207 Although communication with other aircraft types was initially limited to voice, upgrades have enabled data to be transferred through a Battlefield Airborne Communications Node (BACN) or via JTIDS/Link 16 traffic through MIDS-JTRS.208 The IEEE 1394B bus developed for the F-22 was derived from the commercial IEEE 1394 "FireWire" bus system.209 In 2007, the F-22's radar was tested as a wireless data transceiver, transmitting data at 548 megabits per second and receiving at gigabit speed, far faster than the Link 16 system.210 The radio frequency receivers of the electronic support measures (ESM) system give the aircraft the ability to perform intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) tasks.211212

Cockpit

The F-22 has a glass cockpit with all-digital flight instruments. The monochrome head-up display offers a wide field of view and serves as a primary flight instrument; information is also displayed upon six color liquid-crystal display (LCD) panels.213 The primary flight controls are a force-sensitive side-stick controller and a pair of throttles. The USAF initially wanted to implement direct voice input (DVI) controls, but this was judged to be too technically risky and was abandoned.214 The canopy's dimensions are approximately 140 inches long, 45 inches wide, and 27 inches tall (355 cm × 115 cm × 69 cm) and weighs 360 pounds.215 The canopy was redesigned after the original design lasted an average of 331 hours instead of the required 800 hours. Although the F-22 was originally intended to have a helmet mounted display (HMD), this was deferred during development to save costs; the aircraft is currently integrating the Scorpion HMD.216

The F-22 has integrated radio functionality, the signal processing systems are virtualized rather than as a separate hardware module.217 The integrated control panel (ICP) is a keypad system for entering communications, navigation, and autopilot data. Two 3 in × 4 in (7.6 cm × 10.2 cm) up-front displays located around the ICP are used to display integrated caution advisory/warning (ICAW) data, CNI data and also serve as the stand-by flight instrumentation group and fuel quantity indicator for redundancy.218 The stand-by flight group displays an artificial horizon, for basic instrument meteorological conditions. The 8 in × 8 in (20 cm × 20 cm) primary multi-function display (PMFD) is located under the ICP, and is used for navigation and situation assessment. Three 6.25 in × 6.25 in (15.9 cm × 15.9 cm) secondary multi-function displays are located around the PMFD for tactical information and stores management.219

The ejection seat is a version of the ACES II commonly used in USAF aircraft, with a center-mounted ejection control.220 The F-22 has a complex life support system, which includes the onboard oxygen generation system (OBOGS), protective pilot garments, and a breathing regulator/anti-g (BRAG) valve controlling flow and pressure to the pilot's mask and garments. The pilot garments were developed under the Advanced Technology Anti-G Suit (ATAGS) project and protect against chemical/biological hazards and cold-water immersion, counter g-forces and low pressure at high altitudes, and provide thermal relief.221 Following a series of hypoxia-related issues, the life support system was consequently revised to include an automatic backup oxygen system and a new flight vest valve.222 In combat environments, the ejection seat includes a modified M4 carbine designated the GAU-5/A.223

Armament

The F-22 has three internal weapons bays: a large main bay on the bottom of the fuselage, and two smaller bays on the sides of the fuselage, aft of the engine inlets; a small bay for countermeasures such as flares is located behind each side bay.224 The main bay is split along the centerline and can accommodate six LAU-142/A launchers for beyond-visual-range (BVR) missiles and each side bay has an LAU-141/A launcher for short-range missiles. The primary air-to-air missiles are the AIM-120 AMRAAM and the AIM-9 Sidewinder, with planned integration of the AIM-260 JATM.225 Missile launches require the bay doors to be open for less than a second, during which pneumatic or hydraulic arms push missiles clear of the aircraft; this is to reduce vulnerability to detection and to deploy missiles during high-speed flight.226 An internally mounted M61A2 Vulcan 20 mm rotary cannon is embedded in the airplane's right wing root with the muzzle covered by a retractable door, which remains closed when the cannon is not firing in order to minimize the negative effect the exposed muzzle on the aircraft's radar signature227 The radar projection of the cannon fire's path is displayed on the pilot's head-up display.228

Although designed for air-to-air missiles, the main bay can replace four launchers with two bomb racks that can each carry one 1,000 lb (450 kg) or four 250 lb (110 kg) bombs for a total of 2,000 pounds (910 kg) of air-to-surface ordnance.229230 In 2024, Lockheed Martin disclosed its proposed Mako hypersonic missile, a 1,300 lb (590 kg) weapon that can be carried internally in the F-22.231 While capable of carrying weapons with GPS guidance such as JDAMs and SDBs, the F-22 cannot self-designate laser-guided weapons.232

While the F-22 typically carries weapons internally, the wings include four hardpoints, each rated to handle 5,000 lb (2,300 kg). Each hardpoint can accommodate a pylon that can carry a detachable 600-gallon (2,270 L) external fuel tank or a launcher holding two air-to-air missiles; the two inboard hardpoints are "plumbed" for external fuel tanks. The two outboard hardpoints have since been dedicated to a pair of stealthy pods housing the IRST and mission systems. The aircraft can jettison external tanks and their pylon attachments to restore its low observable characteristics and kinematic performance.233

Maintenance

Each F-22 requires a three-week packaged maintenance plan (PMP) every 300 flight hours.234 Its stealth coatings were designed to be more robust and weather-resistant than those of earlier stealth aircraft,235 yet early coatings failed against rain and moisture when F-22s were initially posted to Guam in 2009.236 Stealth measures account for almost one third of maintenance, with coatings being particularly demanding.237238 F-22 depot maintenance is performed at Ogden Air Logistics Complex at Hill AFB, Utah; considerable care is taken during maintenance due to the small fleet size and limited attrition reserve.239

F-22s were available for missions 63% of the time on average in 2015, up from 40% when it was introduced in 2005. Maintenance hours per flight hour was also improved from 30 early on to 10.5 by 2009, lower than the requirement of 12; man-hours per flight hour was 43 in 2014. When introduced, the F-22 had a Mean Time Between Maintenance (MTBM) of 1.7 hours, short of the required 3.0; this rose to 3.2 hours in 2012.240241 By fiscal year 2015, the cost per flight hour was $59,116, while the user reimbursement rate was approximately US$35,000 (~$41,145 in 2023) per flight hour in 2019.242243

Operational history

Introduction into service

The F-22 underwent extensive testing before its service introduction. While the first production aircraft was delivered to Edwards AFB in October 2002 for IOT&E and the first jet for the 422nd TES at Nellis AFB arrived in January 2003, IOT&E was continually pushed back from its planned start in mid-2003, with mission avionics stability being particularly challenging.244245 Following a preliminary assessment, called OT&E Phase 1, formal IOT&E began in April 2004 and was completed in December of that year. This milestone marked the successful demonstration of the jet's air-to-air mission capability, although the jet was more maintenance intensive than expected.246 A Follow-On OT&E (FOT&E) in 2005 cleared the F-22's air-to-ground mission capability.247

The first combat ready F-22 of the 1st Fighter Wing arrived at Langley AFB, Virginia in January 2005 and that December, the USAF announced that the aircraft had achieved Initial Operational Capability (IOC) with the 94th Fighter Squadron.248 The unit subsequently participated in Exercise Northern Edge 06 in Alaska in June 2006 and Exercise Red Flag 07–2 at Nellis AFB in February 2007, where it demonstrated the F-22's greatly increased air combat capabilities when flying against Red Force Aggressor F-15s and F-16s with a simulated kill ratio of 108–0. These large force exercises also further refined the F-22's operational tactics and employment.249250

The F-22 achieved Full Operational Capability (FOC) in December 2007, when General John Corley of Air Combat Command (ACC) officially declared the F-22s of the integrated active duty 1st Fighter Wing and Virginia Air National Guard 192nd Fighter Wing fully operational.251 This was followed by an Operational Readiness Inspection (ORI) of the integrated wing in April 2008, in which it was rated "excellent" in all categories, with a simulated kill-ratio of 221–0.252 The fielding of the F-22 with its precision strike capability also contributed to the retirement of the F-117 from operational service in 2008, with the 49th Fighter Wing operating the F-22 for a brief period prior to a series of fleet consolidations to reduce long term operational costs;253 further consolidations to improve availability and pilot training were recommended by the Government Accountability Office in 2018.254

Training

The 43rd Fighter Squadron was reactivated in 2002 as the F-22 Formal Training Unit (FTU) for the type's basic course at Tyndall AFB and the first aircraft for pilot training was delivered in September 2003. Following severe damage to the installation in the wake of Hurricane Michael in 2018, the squadron and its aircraft were relocated to nearby Eglin AFB; although it was initially feared that several jets were lost due to storm damage, all were later repaired and flown out.255 The FTU and its aircraft were reassigned to the 71st Fighter Squadron at Langley AFB in 2023.256

As of 2014, B-Course students require 38 sorties to graduate (previously 43 sorties). Track 1 course pilots, pilots retraining from other aircraft, also saw a reduction in the number of sorties needed to graduate, from 19 to 12 sorties.257 F-22 students are first trained on the T-38 Talon trainer aircraft. Additional pilot training takes place on the F-16 because the aging T-38 is not rated to sustain higher G-forces and lacks modern avionics.258 Due to a lack of a modern trainer stand-in that can accurately emulate the F-22, the Air Force often uses F-22s to supplement training, which is costly as the F-22 costs almost 10 times more than the T-38 per flight hour.259 The upcoming T-7 Red Hawk features modern avionics that better approximate those of the F-22 and F-35.260 This is scheduled to enter initial operating capability in 2027, several years behind schedule.261 In 2014 the Air Force stood up the 2nd Fighter Training Squadron at Tyndall AFB which was equipped with T-38s to serve as adversary aircraft to reduce adversary training flights on the F-22s.262 To reduce operating costs and prolong the F-22's service life, some pilot training sorties are performed using flight simulators.263 The advanced F-22 weapons instructor course at USAF Weapons School is conducted by the 433rd Weapons Squadron at Nellis AFB.264

Initial operational problems

During the initial years of service, F-22 pilots experienced symptoms as a result of oxygen system issues that include loss of consciousness, memory loss, emotional lability and neurological changes as well as lingering respiratory problems and a chronic cough; the issues resulted in a fatal mishap in 2010 and four-month grounding in 2011 and subsequent altitude and distance flight restrictions.265266 In August 2012, the DoD found that the BRAG valve, which inflated the pilot's vest during high-g maneuvers, was defective and restricted breathing and the OBOGS (onboard oxygen generation system) unexpectedly fluctuated oxygen levels at high g.267268 A Raptor Aeromedical Working Group had recommended changes in 2005 regarding oxygen supply that were unfunded but received further consideration in 2012.269270 The F-22 CTF and 412th Aerospace Medicine Squadron eventually determined breathing restrictions as the root cause; coughing symptoms were attributed to acceleration atelectasis271 from high g exposure and OBOGS delivering excessive oxygen concentration. The presence of toxins and particles in some ground crew was deemed unrelated.272 Modifications to the life support and oxygen systems, including the installation of an automatic backup, allowed altitude and distance restrictions to be lifted in April 2013.273

Operational service

Following IOC and large-scale exercises, the F-22 flew its first homeland defense mission in January 2007 under Operation Noble Eagle. In November 2007, F-22s of 90th Fighter Squadron at Elmendorf AFB, Alaska, performed their first North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) interception of two Russian Tu-95MS bombers.274 Since then, F-22s have also escorted probing Tu-160 bombers.275

The F-22 was first deployed overseas in February 2007 with the 27th Fighter Squadron to Kadena Air Base in Okinawa, Japan.276 This first overseas deployment was initially marred by problems when six F-22s flying from Hickam AFB, Hawaii, experienced multiple software-related system failures while crossing the International Date Line (180th meridian of longitude). The aircraft returned to Hawaii by following tanker aircraft. Within 48 hours, the error was resolved and the journey resumed.277278 Kadena would be a frequent rotation for F-22 units; they have also been involved in training exercises in South Korea, Malaysia, and the Philippines.279280281

Defense Secretary Gates initially refused to deploy F-22s to the Middle East in 2007;282 the type made its first deployment in the region at Al Dhafra Air Base in the UAE in 2009. In April 2012, F-22s have been rotating into Al Dhafra, less than 200 miles from Iran.283284 In March 2013, the USAF announced that an F-22 had intercepted an Iranian F-4 Phantom II that approached within 16 miles of an MQ-1 Predator flying off the Iranian coastline.285

On 22 September 2014, F-22s performed the type's first combat sorties by conducting some of the opening strikes of Operation Inherent Resolve, the American-led intervention in Syria; aircraft dropped 1,000-pound GPS-guided bombs on Islamic State targets near Tishrin Dam.286287 Between September 2014 and July 2015, F-22s flew 204 sorties over Syria, dropping 270 bombs at some 60 locations.288 Throughout their deployment, F-22s conducted close air support (CAS) and also deterred Syrian, Iranian, and Russian aircraft from attacking U.S.-backed Kurdish forces and disrupting U.S. operations in the region.289290291 F-22s also participated in the U.S. strikes that defeated pro-Assad and Russian Wagner Group paramilitary forces near Khasham in eastern Syria on 7 February 2018.292293294 These strikes notwithstanding, the F-22's main role in the operation was conducting intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance.295 The aircraft also performed missions in other regions of the Middle East; in November 2017, F-22s operating alongside B-52s bombed opium production and storage facilities in Taliban-controlled regions of Afghanistan.296297

To increase deployment responsiveness and reduce logistical footprint in a peer or near-peer conflict, the USAF developed a deployment concept called Rapid Raptor which involves two to four F-22s and one C-17 for logistical support, first proposed in 2008 by two F-22 pilots. The goal was for the type to be able to set up and engage in combat within 24 hours in smaller and more austere environments that would enable more dispersed and survivable disposition of forces. This concept was tested at Wake Island in 2013 and Guam in late 2014.298299300 Four F-22s were deployed to Spangdahlem Air Base in Germany, Łask Air Base in Poland, and Ämari Air Base in Estonia in August and September 2015 to further test the concept and train with NATO allies in response to the Russian annexation of Crimea in 2014.301 The USAF would build on the principles of Rapid Raptor and eventually integrate it into its new operational concept called Agile Combat Employment, which shifts towards distributed operations during peer conflicts; for instance, detachments of F-22s have operated from austere airfields on Tinian and Iwo Jima during exercises.302303

On 4 February 2023, an F-22 of the 1st Fighter Wing shot down a suspected Chinese spy balloon within visual range off the coast of South Carolina at an altitude of 60,000 to 65,000 feet (20,000 m),304 marking the F-22's first air-to-air kill.305 The wreckage landed approximately 6 miles offshore and was subsequently secured by ships of the U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard.306 F-22s shot down additional high-altitude objects near the coast of Alaska on 10 February and over Yukon on 11 February.307

The USAF expects to begin retiring the F-22 in the 2030s as it gets replaced by the Next Generation Air Dominance (NGAD) sixth-generation crewed fighter, the Boeing F-47.308309310311 In May 2021, Air Force Chief of Staff Charles Q. Brown Jr. said that he envisioned a reduction in the future number of fighter fleets to "four plus one": the F-22 followed by NGAD, the F-35A, the F-15E followed by F-15EX, the F-16 followed by "MR-X", and the A-10; the A-10 was later dropped from the plans due that aircraft's accelerated retirement.312313 In 2022 the Air Force requested that it be allowed to divest all but three of its Block 20 F-22s at Tyndall AFB.314 Congress denied the request to divest its 33 non-combat-coded Block 20 aircraft and passed language prohibiting the divestment through FY2026.315 While the Block 30/35 F-22 remains one of the USAF's top priorities and will be continually updated, the service believes the Block 20 aircraft is obsolescent and unsuitable even for training F-22 pilots and that upgrading them to Block 30/35 standards would be cost-prohibitive at $3.5 billion.316317

Variants

For the technology demonstrator prototype and proposed naval version, see Lockheed YF-22.

F-22A Single-seat version, was designated F/A-22A in early 2000s before reverting back to F-22A in 2005; 195 built, consisting of 8 test and 187 operational aircraft.318319320 F-22B Planned two-seat version with the same combat capabilities as the single-seat version, cancelled in 1996 to save development costs with test aircraft orders converted to F-22A.321 Naval F-22 variant Never formally designated, planned carrier-borne variant/derivative for the U.S. Navy's Navy Advanced Tactical Fighter (NATF) program. Because the NATF needed lower landing speeds than the F-22 for aircraft carrier operations while still attaining Mach 2-class speeds, the design would have incorporated variable-sweep wings; it would also have had expanded weapons carriage, including the AIM-152 AAAM, AGM-88 HARM, and AGM-84 Harpoon. Program was cancelled in 1991 due to tightening budgets.322323

Proposed derivatives

The X-44 MANTA, or multi-axis, no-tail aircraft, was a planned experimental aircraft based on the F-22 with enhanced thrust vectoring controls and no aerodynamic surface backup.324 The aircraft was to be solely controlled by thrust vectoring, without featuring any rudders, ailerons, or elevators. Funding for this program was halted in 2000.325

The FB-22 was proposed in the early 2000s as a supersonic stealth regional bomber for the USAF.326 The design went through several iterations and the later ones would combine an F-22 fuselage with greatly enlarged delta wings and was projected to carry up to 30 Small Diameter Bombs to over 1,600 nmi (3,000 km), about twice the combat range of the F-22A.327 The FB-22 proposals were cancelled with the 2006 Quadrennial Defense Review and subsequent developments, in lieu of a larger subsonic strategic bomber with a much greater range; this became the Next-Generation Bomber, although it would be rescoped in 2009 as the Long Range Strike Bomber resulting in the B-21 Raider.328329330

In August 2018, Lockheed Martin proposed an F-22 derivative to the Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF) for its 5th/6th generation F-X program. The design, which was later also proposed to the USAF, would combine a modified F-22 airframe with enlarged wings to increase fuel capacity and combat radius to 1,200 nmi (2,200 km) as well as the avionics and improved stealth coatings of the F-35.331332 The proposal was ultimately not considered by the USAF or JASDF due to cost as well as existing export restrictions and industrial workshare concerns.333334

Operators

The United States Air Force is the only operator of the F-22. As of August 2022, it has 178 active aircraft in its inventory.335336

Air Combat Command

Pacific Air Forces

Air National Guard

Air Force Reserve Command

Air Force Materiel Command

Accidents

For accidents relating to the F-22's technology demonstrator, see Lockheed YF-22 § Accidents.

The first F-22 crash occurred during takeoff at Nellis AFB on 20 December 2004, in which the pilot ejected safely before impact.345 The investigation revealed that a brief interruption in power during an engine shutdown prior to flight caused a flight-control system malfunction;346 consequently the aircraft design was corrected to avoid the problem. Following a brief grounding, F-22 operations resumed after a review.347

On 25 March 2009, an EMD F-22 crashed 35 miles (56 km) northeast of Edwards AFB during a test flight, resulting in the death of Lockheed Martin test pilot David P. Cooley. An Air Force Materiel Command investigation found that Cooley momentarily lost consciousness during a high-G maneuver, or g-LOC, then ejected when he found himself too low to recover. Cooley was killed during ejection by blunt-force trauma from windblast due to the aircraft's speed. The investigation found no design issues.348349

On 16 November 2010, an F-22 from Elmendorf AFB crashed, killing the pilot, Captain Jeffrey Haney. F-22s were restricted to flying below 25,000 feet, then grounded during the investigation.350 The crash was attributed to a bleed air system malfunction after an engine overheat condition was detected, shutting down the Environmental Control System (ECS) and OBOGS. The accident review board ruled Haney was to blame, as he did not react properly to engage the emergency oxygen system.351 Haney's widow sued Lockheed Martin, claiming equipment defects, and later reached a settlement.352353 After the ruling, the emergency oxygen system engagement handle was redesigned and the entire system was eventually replaced by an automatic backup.354355 On 11 February 2013, the DoD's Inspector General released a report stating that the USAF had erred in blaming Haney, and that facts did not sufficiently support conclusions; the USAF stated that it stood by the ruling.356

On 15 November 2012, an F-22 crashed to the east of Tyndall AFB during a training mission. The pilot ejected safely and no injuries were reported on the ground.357 The investigation determined that a "chafed" electrical wire ignited the fluid in a hydraulic line, causing a fire that damaged the flight controls.358

On 15 May 2020, an F-22 from Eglin Air Force Base crashed during a routine training mission shortly after takeoff; the pilot ejected safely. The cause of the crash was attributed to a maintenance error after an aircraft wash resulting in faulty air data sensor readings.359

Aircraft on display

Specifications (F-22A)

Data from USAF,362 manufacturers' data,363364365 Aerofax,366 Aviation Week,367368 Air Forces Monthly,369 and Journal of Electronic Defense370

General characteristics

  • Crew: 1
  • Length: 62 ft 1 in (18.92 m)
  • Wingspan: 44 ft 6 in (13.56 m)
  • Height: 16 ft 8 in (5.08 m)
  • Wing area: 840 sq ft (78.04 m2)
  • Aspect ratio: 2.36
  • Airfoil: NACA 6 series airfoil
  • Empty weight: 43,340 lb (19,700 kg)
  • Gross weight: 64,840 lb (29,410 kg)
  • Max takeoff weight: 83,500 lb (38,000 kg)
  • Fuel capacity: 18,000 lb (8,200 kg) internally, or 26,000 lb (12,000 kg) with 2× 600 U.S. gal tanks
  • Powerplant: 2 × Pratt & Whitney F119-PW-100 augmented turbofans, 26,000 lbf (120 kN) thrust each dry, 35,000 lbf (160 kN) with afterburner371

Performance

  • Maximum speed: Mach 2.25, 1,500 mph (1,303 kn; 2,414 km/h) at altitude372
    • Mach 1.21, 800 knots (921 mph; 1,482 km/h) at sea level
  • Supercruise: Mach 1.76, 1,162 mph (1,010 kn; 1,870 km/h) at altitude
  • Range: 1,600 nmi (1,800 mi, 3,000 km) or more with 2 external fuel tanks
  • Combat range: 460 nmi (530 mi, 850 km) clean with 100 nmi (115 mi; 185 km) in supercruise
    • 595 nmi (685 mi; 1,102 km) clean subsonic
    • 750 nmi (863 mi; 1,389 km) with 100 nmi in supercruise with 2× 600 U.S. gal tanks373
  • Ferry range: 1,740 nmi (2,000 mi, 3,220 km)
  • Service ceiling: 65,000 ft (20,000 m)
  • g limits: +9.0/−3.0
  • Wing loading: 77.2 lb/sq ft (377 kg/m2)
  • Thrust/weight: 1.08 (1.25 with loaded weight and 50% internal fuel)

Armament

  • Guns: 1× 20 mm M61A2 Vulcan rotary cannon, 480 rounds
  • Internal weapons bays:
    • Air-to-air mission loadout:
    • Air-to-ground mission loadout:
      • 2× 1,000 lb (450 kg) JDAM and 2× AIM-120 or
      • 8× 250 lb (110 kg) GBU-39 SDB and 2× AIM-120 or
      • 4× 250 lb GBU-39 and 4× AIM-120
      • 2× AIM-9
  • Hardpoint (external):
    • 4× under-wing pylon stations can be fitted to carry weapons, each with a capacity of 5,000 lb (2,270 kg) or 600 U.S. gallon (2,270 L) drop tanks374
    • 4x AIM-120 AMRAAM (external)

Avionics

See also

  • Aviation portal
  • United States portal

Related development

Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era

Related lists

Notes

Citations

Bibliography

  • Aronstein, David C.; Hirschberg., Michael J.; Piccirillo, Albert C. (1998). Advanced Tactical Fighter to F-22 Raptor: Origins of the 21st Century Air Dominance Fighter. Arlington, Virginia: American Institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics. ISBN 978-1-56347-282-4.
  • Bolkcom, Christopher (12 June 2007). CRS Reports for Congress F-22A Raptor (PDF). Congressional Research Service (Report). Retrieved 26 February 2024. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  • Gertler, Jeremiah (11 July 2013). "Air Force F-22 Fighter Program" (PDF). Congressional Research Service.
  • Goodall, James C (1992). "The Lockheed YF-22 and Northrop YF-23 Advanced Tactical Fighters". America's Stealth Fighters and Bombers: B-2, F-117, YF-22 and YF-23. St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbooks International. ISBN 0-87938-609-6.
  • Jenkins, Dennis R.; Landis, Tony R. (2008). Experimental & Prototype U.S. Air Force Jet Fighters. North Branch, Minnesota: Specialty Press. ISBN 978-1-58007-111-6.
  • Miller, Jay (2005). Lockheed Martin F/A-22 Raptor, Stealth Fighter. Hinckley, UK: Midland Publishing. ISBN 1-85780-158-X.
  • Miller, Jay (1995). Lockheed Martin's Skunk Works: The Official History... Leicester, UK: Midland Publishing. ISBN 1-85780-037-0.
  • Mullin, Sherman N. (June 2012). "Winning the ATF" (PDF). Mitchell Institute for Airpower Studies.
  • Mullin, Sherman N. (24 January 2019). "Oral history interview with Sherman Mullin. Second Interview". Aerospace Oral History Project (Interview). Interviewed by Westwick, Peter; Deverell, William. San Marino, California: The Huntington Library, Art Museum, and Botanical Gardens. Archived from the original on 8 August 2024.
  • Pace, Steve (1999). F-22 Raptor: America's Next Lethal War Machine. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-134271-0.
  • Polmar, Norman (2005). The Naval Institute Guide to the Ships and Aircraft of the U.S. Fleet. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-59114-685-8.
  • Sweetman, Bill (July 2000). "Fighter EW: The Next Generation". Journal of Electronic Defense. 23 (7).
  • ------- (1998). F-22 Raptor. St. Paul, Minnesota, USA: Motorbooks International Publishing. ISBN 0-7603-0484-X.
  • Williams, Mel, ed. (2002). "Lockheed Martin F-22A Raptor". Superfighters: The Next Generation of Combat Aircraft. London: AIRtime Publishing. ISBN 1-880588-53-6.

Further reading

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor (category)

References

  1. Referring to statements made by the Secretary of Defense Robert Gates: "The secretary once again highlighted his ambitious next-year request for the more-versatile F-35s."[2] ↩

  2. Trimble, Steve (21 March 2025). "Boeing Wins U.S. Air Force's NGAD F-47 Fighter Contract". Aviation Week & Space Technology. Retrieved 21 March 2025. https://aviationweek.com/defense/aircraft-propulsion/boeing-wins-us-air-forces-ngad-f-47-fighter-contract ↩

  3. Epstein, Jake (21 March 2025). "First US sixth-gen fighter jet will be the F-47, Trump says, and Boeing, not Lockheed, is going to build it". Business Insider. Retrieved 21 March 2025. https://www.businessinsider.com/boeing-wins-air-force-next-generation-air-dominance-fighter-contract-2025-3 ↩

  4. Jenkins, Dennis R. Lockheed Secret Projects: Inside the Skunk Works. St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing Company, 2001. ISBN 0-7603-0914-0. pp. 70. /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  5. "Lockheed Martin F-22A Raptor". National Museum of the U.S. Air Force. https://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/Visit/Museum-Exhibits/Fact-Sheets/Display/Article/196040/lockheed-martin-f-22a-raptor/ ↩

  6. Pace 1999, pp. 3–4. ↩

  7. Aronstein and Hirschberg 1998, pp. 51-54, 72. ↩

  8. The greatly increased stealth requirements arose from the SPO's discussions with Lockheed and Northrop, the two companies with prior stealth experience from the "Senior Trend"/F-117 and "Senior Ice"/B-2 respectively.[9] /wiki/Lockheed_F-117_Nighthawk ↩

  9. Aronstein and Hirschberg 1998, pp. 82–89. ↩

  10. The seven bidding companies for Dem/Val were Lockheed, Northrop, General Dynamics, Boeing, McDonnell Douglas, Grumman, and North American Rockwell.[11] /wiki/Grumman ↩

  11. Lockheed's design had considerable variations throughout concept exploration, ranging from SR-71/YF-12-like, to faceted designs similar to the F-117, to a curved surface design with an arrowhead-like planform as the company became able to design stealthy shapes with curved surfaces.[12] /wiki/Lockheed_SR-71_Blackbird ↩

  12. The contractor teams were to give the SPO "sealed envelope" flight performance predictions against which their prototypes would be evaluated, rather than against each other.[13] ↩

  13. Jenkins and Landis 2008, pp. 233–234. ↩

  14. Williams 2002, pp. 5–6. ↩

  15. Aronstein and Hirschberg 1998, p. 119. ↩

  16. Mullin 2019. ↩

  17. Aronstein and Hirschberg 1998, pp. 104–125. ↩

  18. Aronstein and Hirschberg 1998, pp. 105–108. ↩

  19. Jenkins and Landis 2008, p. 234. ↩

  20. Goodall 1992, p. 110. ↩

  21. Aronstein and Hirschberg 1998, pp. 159–160. ↩

  22. Miller 2005, p. 76. ↩

  23. The YF-22 outer lines were frozen to allow construction to begin in 1988, resulting in the shaping being rather unrefined, especially compared to the YF-23.[24] ↩

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  28. Aronstein and Hirschberg 1998, p. 170. ↩

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  33. Aronstein and Hirschberg 1998, p. 118. ↩

  34. The YF-22 was originally given the unofficial name "Lightning II", from the World War II Lockheed P-38 Lightning fighter which persisted until the mid-1990s, when the USAF officially named the F-22 "Raptor". The aircraft was also briefly dubbed "SuperStar" and "Rapier".[34] /wiki/Lockheed_P-38_Lightning ↩

  35. Metz was previously the chief test pilot for the YF-23. ↩

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  51. Another reason other than funding issues, the F-22’s superior combat capability, has been attributed to cuts to F-22 purchases. In 1997, Defense Secretary William Cohen, for example, cited this as a reason for that year's Quadrennial Defense Review’s (QDR) proposed reduction to 341 aircraft.[48] /wiki/William_Cohen ↩

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  373. 860 nmi subsonic with 2× 600 U.S. gal tanks. All figures include −6% routing factor, combat and 2× GBU-32 + 2× AIM-9 + 2× AIM-120. ↩

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