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Spread of Gutenberg's press

Germany

Gutenberg's first major print work was the 42-line Bible in Latin, probably printed between 1452 and 1454 in the German city of Mainz. After Gutenberg lost a lawsuit against his investor, Johann Fust, Fust put Gutenberg's employee Peter Schöffer in charge of the print shop. Thereupon Gutenberg established a new one with the financial backing of another money lender. With Gutenberg's monopoly revoked, and the technology no longer secret, printing spread throughout Germany and beyond, diffused first by emigrating German printers, but soon also by foreign apprentices.

Europe

In rapid succession, printing presses were set up in Central and Western Europe. Major towns, in particular, functioned as centers of diffusion (Cologne 1466, Rome 1467, Venice 1469, Paris 1470, Buda 1473, Kraków 1473, London 1477). In 1481, barely 30 years after the publication of the 42-line Bible, the small Netherlands already featured printing shops in 21 cities and towns, while Italy and Germany each had shops in about 40 towns at that time. According to one estimate, "by 1500, 1000 printing presses were in operation throughout Western Europe and had produced 8 million books"³ and during the 1550s there were "three hundred or more" printers and booksellers in Geneva alone.⁴ The output was in the order of twenty million volumes and rose in the sixteenth century tenfold to between 150 and 200 million copies.⁵ Germany and Italy were considered the two main centres of printing in terms of quantity and quality.

Rest of the world

Further information: History of printing in East Asia and Woodblock printing

The near-simultaneous discovery of sea routes to the West (Christopher Columbus, 1492) and East (Vasco da Gama, 1498) and the subsequent establishment of trade links greatly facilitated the global spread of Gutenberg-style printing. Traders, colonists, but perhaps most importantly, missionaries exported printing presses to the new European oversea domains, setting up new print shops and distributing printing material. In the Americas, the first extra-European print shop was founded in Mexico City in 1544 (or 1539), and soon after Jesuits started operating the first printing press in Asia (Goa, 1556).

According to Suraiya Faroqhi, lack of interest and religious reasons were among the reasons for the slow adoption of the printing press outside Europe: Thus, printing in the Arabic script, after encountering strong opposition by Muslim legal scholars and manuscript scribes, remained formally or informally prohibited in the Ottoman Empire between 1483 and 1729, according to some sources even on penalty of death,⁶⁷⁸ while some movable Arabic type printing was done by Pope Julius II (1503−1512) for distribution among Middle Eastern Christians,⁹ and the oldest Quran printed with movable type was produced in Venice in 1537/1538 for the Ottoman market.

Hebrew texts and presses were imported across the Middle East – as early as 1493 – Constantinople, Fez (1516), Cairo (1557) and Safed (1577). Disquiet among Muslims regarding the publication of religious texts in this way may have dampened down their production.¹⁰

In India, reports are that Jesuits "presented a polyglot Bible to the Emperor Akbar in 1580 but did not succeed in arousing much curiosity."¹¹ But also practical reasons seem to have played a role. The English East India Company, for example, brought a printer to Surat in 1675, but was not able to cast type in Indian scripts, so the venture failed.¹²

North America saw the adoption by the Cherokee Indian Elias Boudinot who published the tribe's first newspaper, the Cherokee Phoenix, from 1828, partly in the Cherokee language, using the Cherokee script recently invented by his compatriot Sequoyah.

In the 19th century, the arrival of the Gutenberg-style press to the shores of Tahiti (1818), Hawaii (1821) and other Pacific islands, marked the end of a global diffusion process which had begun almost 400 years earlier. At the same time, the "old style" press (as the Gutenberg model came to be termed in the 19th century), was already in the process of being displaced by industrial machines like the steam powered press (1812) and the rotary press (1833), which radically departed from Gutenberg's design, but were still of the same development line.¹³

Dates by location

The following represents a selection:¹⁴

Germany, Austria and German printers in Central Europe

See also: Books in Germany

Rest of Europe

Italy

See also: Books in Italy

In the 15th century, printing presses were established in 77 Italian cities and towns. At the end of the following century, 151 locations in Italy had seen at one time printing activities, of which 130 (86%) were north of Rome.⁹³ During these two centuries a total of 2894 printers were active in Italy, with only 216 of them located in southern Italy. Around 60% of the Italian printing shops were situated in six cities (Venice, Rome, Milan, Naples, Bologna and Florence), with the concentration of printers in Venice being particularly high (approximately 30%).⁹⁴

Switzerland

France

See also: Books in France

Apart from the cities above, a small number of lesser towns also set up printing presses.

Spain

See also: Books in Spain

Belgium

Netherlands

See also: Books in the Netherlands

In 1481, printing was already being done in 21 towns and cities.

Hungary

In the 16th century, a total of 20 print shops were active in 30 different places in Hungary, as some of them were moving several times due to political instability.¹⁵⁹

Poland

Main article: Early printing in Poland

In the 15th and 16th centuries, printing presses were also established in Poznań, Lwów, Brześć Litewski and Vilnius.¹⁶⁶

Czech Republic

England

Denmark

Sweden

Portugal

Croatia

Serbia and Montenegro

By 1500, the cut-off point for incunabula, 236 towns in Europe had presses, and it is estimated that twenty million books had been printed for a European population of perhaps seventy million.²⁰⁰

Scotland

Romania

Greece

Lithuania and Belarus

Iceland

Norway

Ireland

Russia

Until the reign of Peter the Great printing in Russia remained confined to the print office established by Fedorov in Moscow. In the 18th century, annual printing output gradually rose from 147 titles in 1724 to 435 (1787), but remained constrained by state censorship and widespread illiteracy.²²¹

Latvia

Ukraine

Wales

Estonia

Finland

Georgia

The first books printed in Georgian were Alphabetum Ibericum sive Georgianum cum Oratione and Dittionario giorgiano e italiano published in Rome in 1629.²²⁵

Armenia

Main article: Armenian printing

The first book which had Armenian letters was published in Mainz in 1486. The first Armenian book to be published by the printing press was Urbatagirq—Book of Friday prayers—which was published by Hakob Meghapart in Venice in 1512.²²⁷

Greenland

Latin America

Mexico

Peru

Guatemala

Paraguay

Cuba

Colombia

Ecuador

Chile

Argentina

Puerto Rico

Uruguay

Brazil

Venezuela

Africa

Asia

South Asia

Ottoman Empire

According to some sources, Sultan Bayezid II and successors prohibited printing in Arabic script in the Ottoman empire from 1483 on penalty of death, but printing in other scripts was done by Jews as well as the Greek, Armenian, and other Christian communities (1515 Saloniki, 1554 Bursa (Adrianople), 1552 Belgrade, 1658 Smyrna). Arabic-script printing by non-Muslims in the Ottoman Empire began with the press of Athanasius Dabbas in Aleppo in 1706.²⁸⁰ In 1727, Sultan Achmed III gave his permission for the establishment of the first legal print house for printing secular works by Muslims in Arabic script (Islamic religious publications still remained forbidden),²⁸¹ but printing activities did not really take off until the 19th century.

Southeast Asia

East Asia

Iran

United States and Canada

Australia and Oceania

See also

• Editio princeps

Sources

• Altman, Albert A. (1984), "Korea's First Newspaper: The Japanese Chosen shinpo", The Journal of Asian Studies, 43 (4): 685–696, doi:10.2307/2057150, JSTOR 2057150, S2CID 154966097
• Appel, Klaus (1987), "Die Anfänge des Buchdrucks in Russland in der literaturfähigen Nationalsprache" [Beginnings of printing in Russia], Gutenberg-Jahrbuch (in German), 62: 95–103
• Blake, Normann F. (1978), "Dating the First Books Printed in English", Gutenberg-Jahrbuch: 43–50
• Bolza, Hans (1967), "Friedrich Koenig und die Erfindung der Druckmaschine" [Friedrich Koenig and the invention of the printing press], Technikgeschichte (in German), 34 (1): 79–89
• Borsa, Gedeon (1976), "Druckorte in Italien vor 1601" [Printing locations in Italy before 1601], Gutenberg-Jahrbuch (in German): 311–314
• Borsa, Gedeon (1977), "Drucker in Italien vor 1601" [Printers in Italy before 1601], Gutenberg-Jahrbuch (in German): 166–169
• Borsa, Gedeon (1987), "Die volkssprachigen Drucke im 15. und 16. Jahrhundert in Ungarn" [Vernacular printing in the 15th and 16th centuries in Hungary], Gutenberg-Jahrbuch (in German), 62: 10903–109108
• Clogg, Richard (1979), "An Attempt to Revive Turkish Printing in Istanbul in 1779", International Journal of Middle East Studies, 10 (1): 67–70, doi:10.1017/s0020743800053320, S2CID 159835641
• Dal, Erik (1987), "Bücher in dänischer Sprache vor 1600" [Books in Danish before 1600], Gutenberg-Jahrbuch (in German), 62: 37–46
• Gerhardt, Claus W. (1971), "Warum wurde die Gutenberg-Presse erst nach über 350 Jahren durch ein besseres System abgelöst?" [Why was the Gutenberg press replaced by a better system after more than 350 years?], Gutenberg-Jahrbuch (in German): 43–57
• Gerhardt, Claus W. (1978), "Besitzt Gutenbergs Erfindung heute noch einen Wert?" [Does Gutenberg's invention still have value today?], Gutenberg-Jahrbuch (in German): 212–217
• Horch, Rosemarie Erika (1987), "Zur Frage des ersten in portugiesischer Sprache gedruckten Buches" [On the question of the first book printed in Portuguese], Gutenberg-Jahrbuch (in German), 62: 125–134
• Krek, Miroslav (1979), "The Enigma of the First Arabic Book Printed from Movable Type", Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 38 (3): 203–212, doi:10.1086/372742, S2CID 162374182
• Kvaran, Gudrun (1997), "Die Anfänge der Buchdruckerkunst in Island und die isländische Bibel von 1584", Gutenberg-Jahrbuch (in German), 72: 140–147
• Man, John (2002), The Gutenberg Revolution: The Story of a Genius and an Invention that Changed the World, London: Review, ISBN 978-0-7472-4504-9
• McGovern, Melvin (1967), "Early Western Presses in Korea", Korea Journal: 21–23
• Moritz, Walter (1979), "Die Anfänge des Buchdrucks in Südwestafrika/Namibia", Gutenberg-Jahrbuch (in German): 269–276
• Watson, William J. (1968), "İbrāhīm Müteferriḳa and Turkish Incunabula", Journal of the American Oriental Society, 88 (3): 435–441, doi:10.2307/596868, JSTOR 596868
• Weber, Johannes (2006), "Strassburg, 1605: The Origins of the Newspaper in Europe", German History, 24 (3): 387–412, doi:10.1191/0266355406gh380oa
• Wydra, Wieslaw (1987), "Die ersten in polnischer Sprache gedruckten Texte, 1475–1520" [First texts printed in Polish, 1475–1520], Gutenberg-Jahrbuch (in German), 62: 88–94

Further reading

• Charles Henry Timperley (1839). "Chronological index of the towns and countries in which the art of printing is known to have been exercised". Dictionary of Printer and Printing. London: H. Johnson.
• Henry Cotton (1866). A Typographical Gazetteer (2nd ed.). Clarendon Press – via HathiTrust.
• Hessels, John Henry (1911). "Typography" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 509–548.

On the effects of Gutenberg's printing

• Eisenstein, Elizabeth L., The Printing Press as an Agent of Change, Cambridge University Press, September 1980, Paperback, 832 pages, ISBN 0-521-29955-1
• McLuhan, Marshall, The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man (1962) Univ. of Toronto Press (1st ed.); reissued by Routledge & Kegan Paul, ISBN 0-7100-1818-5
• Febvre, Lucien & Martin, Henri-Jean, The Coming of the Book: the impact of printing 1450–1800, Verso, London & New York, 1990, ISBN 0-86091-797-5

External links

• Meyers Konversationslexikon, 4th edition, 1888–1890. Archived 2006-10-05 at the Wayback Machine.
• The Atlas of Early Printing

References

1. Meggs, Philip B. (1998). A History of Graphic Design. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., pp. 58–69. ISBN 0-471-29198-6 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

2. Weber 2006, p. 387: At the same time, then, as the printing press in the physical, technological sense was invented, 'the press' in the extended sense of the word also entered the historical stage. The phenomenon of publishing was born - Weber, Johannes (2006), "Strassburg, 1605: The Origins of the Newspaper in Europe", German History, 24 (3): 387–412, doi:10.1191/0266355406gh380oa https://doi.org/10.1191%2F0266355406gh380oa ↩

3. Eisenstein, Elizabeth L.: "The Printing Revolution in Early Modern Europe", Cambridge, 1993, pp. 13–17, quoted in: Angus Maddison: "Growth and Interaction in the World Economy: The Roots of Modernity", Washington 2005, pp. 17f. /wiki/Angus_Maddison ↩

4. Eisenstein (1979) — The Printing Press as an Agent of Change, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 410. ↩

5. Febvre, Lucien; Martin, Henri-Jean (1976): "The Coming of the Book: The Impact of Printing 1450–1800", London: New Left Books, quoted in: Anderson, Benedict: "Comunidades Imaginadas. Reflexiones sobre el origen y la difusión del nacionalismo", Fondo de cultura económica, Mexico 1993, ISBN 978-968-16-3867-2, pp. 58f. https://web.archive.org/web/20120711015820/http://www.perio.unlp.edu.ar/catedras/system/files/anderson_benedict-_comunidades_imaginadas.pdf ↩

6. Suraiya Faroqhi, Subjects of the Sultan: culture and daily life in the Ottoman Empire, pp. 134–136, I. B. Tauris, 2005, ISBN 1-85043-760-2, ISBN 978-1-85043-760-4;The Encyclopaedia of Islam: Fascicules 111–112 : Masrah Mawlid, Clifford Edmund Bosworth https://books.google.com/books?id=cQ8ZLZh9WjwC&dq=printing+Qu%27ran&pg=PA95 ↩

7. Watson 1968, p. 435; Clogg 1979, p. 67 - Watson, William J. (1968), "İbrāhīm Müteferriḳa and Turkish Incunabula", Journal of the American Oriental Society, 88 (3): 435–441, doi:10.2307/596868, JSTOR 596868 https://doi.org/10.2307%2F596868 ↩

8. Feodorov, Ioana (2013). "Beginnings of Arabic printing in Ottoman Syria (1706–1711). The Romanians' part in Athanasius Dabbas's achievements". ARAM Periodical. 25:1&2: 231–260. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309549151 ↩

9. Krek 1979, p. 203 - Krek, Miroslav (1979), "The Enigma of the First Arabic Book Printed from Movable Type", Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 38 (3): 203–212, doi:10.1086/372742, S2CID 162374182 https://doi.org/10.1086%2F372742 ↩

10. "The Beginnings of Hebrew Printing in Egypt" (PDF). British Library Journal. Retrieved 12 July 2019. https://www.bl.uk/eblj/1989articles/pdf/article2.pdf ↩

11. Angus Maddison: Growth and Interaction in the World Economy: The Roots of Modernity, Washington 2005, p. 65 ↩

12. Angus Maddison: Growth and Interaction in the World Economy: The Roots of Modernity, Washington 2005, p. 65 ↩

13. Bolza 1967; Gerhardt 1971; Gerhardt 1978, p. 217 - Bolza, Hans (1967), "Friedrich Koenig und die Erfindung der Druckmaschine" [Friedrich Koenig and the invention of the printing press], Technikgeschichte (in German), 34 (1): 79–89 ↩

14. The main source is Meyers Konversations-Lexikon, 4th edition, 1888–1890, entry "Buchdruckerkunst (Ausbreitung der Erfindung)" ↩

15. "(Place:DE)", Incunabula Short Title Catalogue, British Library, retrieved 9 December 2017 http://data.cerl.org/istc/_search?query=place:de ↩

16. "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue". British Library. Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 27 August 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110312185857/http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/istc/index.html ↩

17. "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue". British Library. Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 27 August 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110312185857/http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/istc/index.html ↩

18. Fernand Braudel, "Civilization & Capitalism, 15–18th Centuries, Vol 1: The Structures of Everyday Life", William Collins & Sons, London 1981 /wiki/Fernand_Braudel ↩

19. Rush C. Hawkins (1884). Titles of the first books from the earliest presses established in different cities, towns, and monasteries in Europe, before the end of the fifteenth century, with brief notes upon their printers. New York: J. W. Bouton – via HathiTrust. /wiki/Rush_C._Hawkins ↩

20. "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue". British Library. Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 27 August 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110312185857/http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/istc/index.html ↩

21. Hessels, John Henry (1911). "Typography" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 509–548, see pages 509 to 542. I.—History of Typography https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Typography ↩

22. World Association of Newspapers: "Newspapers: 400 Years Young!" Archived March 10, 2010, at the Wayback Machine http://www.wan-press.org/article6476.html ↩

23. "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue". British Library. Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 27 August 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110312185857/http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/istc/index.html ↩

24. Rush C. Hawkins (1884). Titles of the first books from the earliest presses established in different cities, towns, and monasteries in Europe, before the end of the fifteenth century, with brief notes upon their printers. New York: J. W. Bouton – via HathiTrust. /wiki/Rush_C._Hawkins ↩

25. "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue". British Library. Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 27 August 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110312185857/http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/istc/index.html ↩

26. Hessels, John Henry (1911). "Typography" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 509–548, see pages 509 to 542. I.—History of Typography https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Typography ↩

27. "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue". British Library. Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 27 August 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110312185857/http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/istc/index.html ↩

28. Rush C. Hawkins (1884). Titles of the first books from the earliest presses established in different cities, towns, and monasteries in Europe, before the end of the fifteenth century, with brief notes upon their printers. New York: J. W. Bouton – via HathiTrust. /wiki/Rush_C._Hawkins ↩

29. "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue". British Library. Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 27 August 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110312185857/http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/istc/index.html ↩

30. Rush C. Hawkins (1884). Titles of the first books from the earliest presses established in different cities, towns, and monasteries in Europe, before the end of the fifteenth century, with brief notes upon their printers. New York: J. W. Bouton – via HathiTrust. /wiki/Rush_C._Hawkins ↩

31. "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue". British Library. Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 27 August 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110312185857/http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/istc/index.html ↩

32. Theodore Low De Vinne (1877). "Spread of Printing". The Invention of Printing (2nd ed.). London: Trübner & Co. /wiki/Theodore_Low_De_Vinne ↩

33. "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue". British Library. Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 27 August 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110312185857/http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/istc/index.html ↩

34. "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue". British Library. Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 27 August 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110312185857/http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/istc/index.html ↩

35. Theodore Low De Vinne (1877). "Spread of Printing". The Invention of Printing (2nd ed.). London: Trübner & Co. /wiki/Theodore_Low_De_Vinne ↩

36. "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue". British Library. Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 27 August 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110312185857/http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/istc/index.html ↩

37. Theodore Low De Vinne (1877). "Spread of Printing". The Invention of Printing (2nd ed.). London: Trübner & Co. /wiki/Theodore_Low_De_Vinne ↩

38. "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue". British Library. Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 27 August 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110312185857/http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/istc/index.html ↩

39. "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue". British Library. Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 27 August 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110312185857/http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/istc/index.html ↩

40. Theodore Low De Vinne (1877). "Spread of Printing". The Invention of Printing (2nd ed.). London: Trübner & Co. /wiki/Theodore_Low_De_Vinne ↩

41. Wydra 1987, p. 89 - Wydra, Wieslaw (1987), "Die ersten in polnischer Sprache gedruckten Texte, 1475–1520" [First texts printed in Polish, 1475–1520], Gutenberg-Jahrbuch (in German), 62: 88–94 ↩

42. Joachim Köhler (ed.): Geschichte des christlichen Lebens im schlesischen Raum, LIT Verlag Münster, 2002, ISBN 978-3-8258-5007-4, p.  404 https://books.google.com/books?id=MXoiu9QBj-EC&dq=Kasper+Elyan+breslau&pg=RA1-PA404 ↩

43. Wydra 1987, p. 89 - Wydra, Wieslaw (1987), "Die ersten in polnischer Sprache gedruckten Texte, 1475–1520" [First texts printed in Polish, 1475–1520], Gutenberg-Jahrbuch (in German), 62: 88–94 ↩

44. "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue". British Library. Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 27 August 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110312185857/http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/istc/index.html ↩

45. "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue". British Library. Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 27 August 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110312185857/http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/istc/index.html ↩

46. Theodore Low De Vinne (1877). "Spread of Printing". The Invention of Printing (2nd ed.). London: Trübner & Co. /wiki/Theodore_Low_De_Vinne ↩

47. "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue". British Library. Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 27 August 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110312185857/http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/istc/index.html ↩

48. Theodore Low De Vinne (1877). "Spread of Printing". The Invention of Printing (2nd ed.). London: Trübner & Co. /wiki/Theodore_Low_De_Vinne ↩

49. "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue". British Library. Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 27 August 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110312185857/http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/istc/index.html ↩

50. "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue". British Library. Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 27 August 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110312185857/http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/istc/index.html ↩

51. Allen Kent; et al., eds. (1978). "Printers and Printing, 15th Century". Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science. Vol. 23. Marcel Dekker. pp. 296? – 356?. ISBN 978-0-8247-2023-0. 978-0-8247-2023-0 ↩

52. "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue". British Library. Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 27 August 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110312185857/http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/istc/index.html ↩

53. Theodore Low De Vinne (1877). "Spread of Printing". The Invention of Printing (2nd ed.). London: Trübner & Co. /wiki/Theodore_Low_De_Vinne ↩

54. "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue". British Library. Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 27 August 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110312185857/http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/istc/index.html ↩

55. "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue". British Library. Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 27 August 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110312185857/http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/istc/index.html ↩

56. "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue". British Library. Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 27 August 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110312185857/http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/istc/index.html ↩

57. "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue". British Library. Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 27 August 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110312185857/http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/istc/index.html ↩

58. "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue". British Library. Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 27 August 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110312185857/http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/istc/index.html ↩

59. Theodore Low De Vinne (1877). "Spread of Printing". The Invention of Printing (2nd ed.). London: Trübner & Co. /wiki/Theodore_Low_De_Vinne ↩

60. "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue". British Library. Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 27 August 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110312185857/http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/istc/index.html ↩

61. "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue". British Library. Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 27 August 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110312185857/http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/istc/index.html ↩

62. Theodore Low De Vinne (1877). "Spread of Printing". The Invention of Printing (2nd ed.). London: Trübner & Co. /wiki/Theodore_Low_De_Vinne ↩

63. "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue". British Library. Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 27 August 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110312185857/http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/istc/index.html ↩

64. "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue". British Library. Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 27 August 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110312185857/http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/istc/index.html ↩

65. "Incunabula Short Title Catalogue". British Library. Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 27 August 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110312185857/http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/istc/index.html ↩

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297. Wroth, Lawrence C. (1938), "Diffusion of Printing", The Colonial Printer, Portland, Maine: Southworth-Anthoensen Press, OL 6370726M https://archive.org/stream/colonialprinter00wrot#page/15/mode/1up ↩

298. Wroth, Lawrence C. (1938), "Diffusion of Printing", The Colonial Printer, Portland, Maine: Southworth-Anthoensen Press, OL 6370726M https://archive.org/stream/colonialprinter00wrot#page/15/mode/1up ↩

299. Wroth, Lawrence C. (1938), "Diffusion of Printing", The Colonial Printer, Portland, Maine: Southworth-Anthoensen Press, OL 6370726M https://archive.org/stream/colonialprinter00wrot#page/15/mode/1up ↩

300. Wroth, Lawrence C. (1938), "Diffusion of Printing", The Colonial Printer, Portland, Maine: Southworth-Anthoensen Press, OL 6370726M https://archive.org/stream/colonialprinter00wrot#page/15/mode/1up ↩

301. Wroth, Lawrence C. (1938), "Diffusion of Printing", The Colonial Printer, Portland, Maine: Southworth-Anthoensen Press, OL 6370726M https://archive.org/stream/colonialprinter00wrot#page/15/mode/1up ↩

302. Wroth, Lawrence C. (1938), "Diffusion of Printing", The Colonial Printer, Portland, Maine: Southworth-Anthoensen Press, OL 6370726M https://archive.org/stream/colonialprinter00wrot#page/15/mode/1up ↩

303. Wroth, Lawrence C. (1938), "Diffusion of Printing", The Colonial Printer, Portland, Maine: Southworth-Anthoensen Press, OL 6370726M https://archive.org/stream/colonialprinter00wrot#page/15/mode/1up ↩