Menu
Home
People
Places
Arts
History
Plants & Animals
Science
Life & Culture
Technology
Reference.org
Rose
open-in-new
<h2 id="etymology">Etymology</h2> <p>The name <i>rose</i> comes from Latin <i>rosa</i>, which was perhaps borrowed from <a href="/facts/Oscan/DnrwH4an">Oscan</a>, from <a href="/facts/Greek_language/pzDd6eIz">Greek</a> ῥόδον <i>rhódon</i> (<a href="/facts/Aeolic_Greek/DDyQXgk2">Aeolic</a> βρόδον <i>wródon</i>), itself borrowed from <a href="/facts/Old_Persian_language/gxx47Ul7">Old Persian</a> <i>wrd-</i> (<i>wurdi</i>), related to <a href="/facts/Avestan_language/0b7tvGQs">Avestan</a> <i>varəδa</i>, <a href="/facts/Sogdian_language/yMPGFtBu">Sogdian</a> <i>ward</i>, <a href="/facts/Parthian_language/ky9xW3Vk">Parthian</a> <i>wâr</i>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="botany">Botany</h2> <p>The <a href="/facts/Leaves/1m6wCNTg">leaves</a> are borne alternately on the stem. In most species, they are 5 to 15 centimetres (2.0 to 5.9 in) long, <a href="/facts/Pinnate/1tm6hMyo">pinnate</a>, with (3–) 5–9 (−13) leaflets and basal <a href="/facts/Stipule/dpF27NFo">stipules</a>; the leaflets usually have a serrated margin, and often a few small prickles on the underside of the stem. Most roses are <a href="/facts/Deciduous/7jQHVtdd">deciduous</a> but a few (particularly from <a href="/facts/Southeast_Asia/VafwT517">Southeast Asia</a>) are <a href="/facts/Evergreen/bcLptUdV">evergreen</a> or nearly so. </p> <h3>Thorns</h3> <p>The sharp growths along a rose stem, though commonly called "thorns", are technically <a href="/facts/Thorns%2c_spines_and_prickles/gS6HPTqb">prickles</a>, outgrowths of the <a href="/facts/Epidermis_(botany)/ldKXCLRl">epidermis</a> (the outer layer of tissue of the stem), unlike true thorns, which are <a href="/facts/Aerial_stem_modification/kPbAyltK">modified stems</a>. Rose prickles are typically sickle-shaped hooks, which aid the rose in hanging onto other vegetation when growing over it. Some species such as <i><a href="/facts/Rosa_rugosa/HGzWpgbR">Rosa rugosa</a></i> and <i><a href="/facts/Rosa_pimpinellifolia/Bo5zqyJh">R. pimpinellifolia</a></i> have densely packed straight prickles, probably an adaptation to reduce <a href="/facts/Browsing_(herbivory)/CofkS0Nv">browsing</a> by animals, but also possibly an adaptation to trap wind-blown <a href="/facts/Sand/MdTIt0M8">sand</a> and so reduce <a href="/facts/Erosion/gaGJXy0W">erosion</a> and protect their <a href="/facts/Root/x2U60Gdm">roots</a> (both of these species grow naturally on <a href="/facts/Coast/RBD0wxn3">coastal</a> <a href="/facts/Dune/Hq26h9hh">sand dunes</a>). Despite the presence of prickles, roses are frequently browsed by <a href="/facts/Deer/Sl8mHfp2">deer</a>. A few species of roses have only vestigial prickles that have no points. </p><p>Plant geneticist Zachary Lippman of <a href="/facts/Cold_Spring_Harbor_Laboratory/9FYeeoIw">Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory</a> found that prickles are controlled by the LOG gene.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a> Blocking the LOG gene in roses reduced the thorns (large prickles) into tiny buds. </p> <h3>Flower</h3> <p>The <a href="/facts/Flower/7gI5Kefw">flowers</a> of most species have five petals, with the exception of <i><a href="/facts/Rosa_omeiensis/ImMKa8t1">Rosa omeiensis</a></i> and <i><a href="/facts/Rosa_sericea/pwEal4DF">Rosa sericea</a></i>, which usually have only four. Each <a href="/facts/Petal/DQMkpRSm">petal</a> is divided into two distinct lobes and is usually white or pink, though in a few species yellow or red. Beneath the petals are five <a href="/facts/Sepals/rFYnXN4d">sepals</a> (or in the case of some <i>Rosa omeiensis</i> and <i>Rosa sericea</i>, four). These may be long enough to be visible when viewed from above and appear as green points alternating with the rounded petals. The coloured petals are fused on the axis and arranged in five bundles forming a circle, the petal bundles expand further from each other;<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a>: 458–459 the petals form a cup or disc surrounding the <a href="/facts/Gynoecium/P5qFQMk1">gynoecium</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a>: 453 There are multiple <a href="/facts/Ovary_(plants)/Qug4yDY4">superior</a> ovaries that develop into <a href="/facts/Achene/8dm9UxMy">achenes</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a> </p> <h3>Reproduction</h3> <p>Roses are insect-pollinated in nature. A fertilized ovary forms a berry-like <a href="/facts/Aggregate_fruit/0K8eSeeT">aggregate fruit</a> called a "<a href="/facts/Rose_hip/8lkREeKN">hip</a>". The hips of most species are red, but a few (e.g. <i><a href="/facts/Rosa_pimpinellifolia/Bo5zqyJh">Rosa pimpinellifolia</a></i>) have dark purple to black hips. Each hip comprises an outer fleshy layer, the <a href="/facts/Hypanthium/mxS9G82W">hypanthium</a>, which contains 5–160 "seeds" (technically dry single-seeded fruits called <a href="/facts/Achene/8dm9UxMy">achenes</a>) embedded in a matrix of fine, but stiff, hairs. Rose hips of some species, especially the <a href="/facts/Dog_rose/EeP7YxhA">dog rose</a> (<i>Rosa canina</i>) and <a href="/facts/Rugosa_rose/HGzWpgbR">rugosa rose</a> (<i>R. rugosa</i>), are very rich in <a href="/facts/Vitamin_C/IA2f1fTm">vitamin C</a>, among the richest sources of any plant. The hips are eaten by fruit-eating <a href="/facts/Bird/RJF6zwLP">birds</a> such as <a href="/facts/Thrush_(bird)/tg6Dw7Nh">thrushes</a> and <a href="/facts/Waxwing/cSv7zQbN">waxwings</a>, which then disperse the <a href="/facts/Seed/a4xGSLxJ">seeds</a> in their droppings. </p><p>Many of the domestic <a href="/facts/Cultivar/nfaLJJM3">cultivars</a> do not produce hips, as the <a href="/facts/Flower/7gI5Kefw">flowers</a> are too tightly petalled to provide access for <a href="/facts/Pollination/u383g7XJ">pollination</a> and the plants can only propagate through human-made <a href="/facts/Cutting_(plant)/4lTh0bjD">cuttings</a>.[<i>verification needed</i>] </p> <h3>Evolution</h3> <p>The oldest remains of roses are from the Late <a href="/facts/Eocene/EYgI8Uco">Eocene</a> <a href="/facts/Florissant_Formation/90MBB6z1">Florissant Formation</a> of Colorado.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> Roses were present in <a href="/facts/Europe/DTAtrKfh">Europe</a> by the early <a href="/facts/Oligocene/n3gnNogo">Oligocene</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> </p><p>Today's garden roses come from 18th-century China.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> Among the old Chinese garden roses, the Old Blush group is the most primitive, while newer groups are the most diverse.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> </p> <h3>Genome</h3> <p>A study of the patterns of <a href="/facts/Natural_selection/JXTte6en">natural selection</a> in the <a href="/facts/Genome/31Sm08JT">genome</a> of roses indicated that <a href="/facts/Gene/e1swwPY6">genes</a> related to <a href="/facts/DNA_repair/hsURuYYq">DNA damage repair</a> and stress adaptation have been positively selected, likely during their domestication.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> This rapid evolution may reflect an adaptation to genome confliction resulting from frequent intra- and inter-species hybridization and switching environmental conditions of growth.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> </p> <h3>Species</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/List_of_Rosa_species/ch4EycTT">List of Rosa species</a></p> <p>The genus <i>Rosa</i> is composed of 140–180 species and divided into four subgenera:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> </p> <ul><li><i>Hulthemia</i> (formerly <i>Simplicifoliae</i>, meaning "with single leaves") containing two species from <a href="/facts/Southwest_Asia/xXM15vIz">Southwest Asia</a>, <i><a href="/facts/Rosa_persica/SGjM9Im6">Rosa persica</a></i> and <i>Rosa berberifolia</i>, which are the only roses without <a href="/facts/Compound_leaves/1m6wCNTg">compound leaves</a> or <a href="/facts/Stipule/dpF27NFo">stipules</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a></li> <li><i>Hesperrhodos</i> (from the <a href="/facts/Greek_(language)/pzDd6eIz">Greek</a> for "western rose") contains <i><a href="/facts/Rosa_minutifolia/4TBdDDKX">Rosa minutifolia</a></i> and <i><a href="/facts/Rosa_stellata/nBqPPVGK">Rosa stellata</a></i>, from <a href="/facts/North_America/djNjCQIl">North America</a>.</li> <li><i>Platyrhodon</i> (from the <a href="/facts/Greek_(language)/pzDd6eIz">Greek</a> for "flaky rose", referring to flaky bark) with one species from east Asia, <i><a href="/facts/Rosa_roxburghii/3Hqnz8uG">Rosa roxburghii</a></i> (also known as the chestnut rose).</li> <li><i>Rosa</i> (the <a href="/facts/Biological_type/mTM1beKX">type</a> subgenus, sometimes incorrectly called <i>Eurosa</i>) containing all the other roses. This subgenus is subdivided into 11 sections. <ul><li><i>Banksianae</i> – white and yellow flowered roses from China.</li> <li><i>Bracteatae</i> – three species, two from China and one from India.</li> <li><i><a href="/facts/Rosa_sect._Caninae/VVpze4rP">Caninae</a></i> – pink and white flowered species from Asia, Europe and <a href="/facts/North_Africa/ItxQAfs7">North Africa</a>.</li> <li><i>Carolinae</i> – white, pink, and bright pink flowered species all from North America.</li> <li><i>Chinensis</i> – white, pink, yellow, red and mixed-colour roses from China and <a href="/facts/Burma/zcqQH2oE">Burma</a>.</li> <li><i>Gallicanae</i> – pink to crimson and striped flowered roses from western Asia and Europe.</li> <li><i>Gymnocarpae</i> – one species in western North America (<i><a href="/facts/Rosa_gymnocarpa/WGvzxfzC">Rosa gymnocarpa</a></i>), others in east Asia.</li> <li><i>Laevigatae</i> – a single white flowered species from China.</li> <li><i>Pimpinellifoliae</i> – white, pink, bright yellow, mauve and striped roses from Asia and Europe.</li> <li><i>Rosa</i> (syn. sect. <i>Cinnamomeae</i>) – white, pink, lilac, mulberry and red roses from everywhere but North Africa.</li> <li><i>Synstylae</i> – white, pink, and crimson flowered roses from all areas.</li></ul></li></ul> <h2 id="ecology">Ecology</h2> <p>Some birds, particularly <a href="/facts/Finch/FaSIrLTh">finches</a>, eat the seeds. </p> <h3>Pests and diseases</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/List_of_pests_and_diseases_of_roses/FxxeTIQP">List of pests and diseases of roses</a></p> <p>Wild roses are host plants for a number of pests and diseases. Many of these affect other plants, including other genera of the <a href="/facts/Rosaceae/KYrlFdv6">Rosaceae</a>. </p><p>Cultivated roses are often subject to severe damage from <a href="/facts/Insect/IgDNvnUL">insect</a>, <a href="/facts/Arachnid/xPJbsLga">arachnid</a> and <a href="/facts/Fungal/BHo5DP59">fungal</a> pests and diseases. In many cases they cannot be usefully grown without regular treatment to control these problems. </p> <h2 id="uses">Uses</h2> <p>Roses are best known as <a href="/facts/Ornamental_plant/ImyCDwMW">ornamental plants</a> grown for their flowers in the <a href="/facts/Garden/HMvxMDLB">garden</a> and sometimes indoors. They have also been used for commercial perfumery and commercial cut flower crops. Some are used as landscape plants, for hedging and for other utilitarian purposes such as game cover and slope stabilization. </p> <h3>Ornamental plants</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Garden_roses/YlmEotrm">Garden roses</a></p> <p>The majority of ornamental roses are hybrids that were bred for their flowers. A few, mostly species roses are grown for attractive or scented foliage (such as <i><a href="/facts/Rosa_glauca/2p5cL2Cm">Rosa glauca</a></i> and <i><a href="/facts/Rosa_rubiginosa/kDFqd6Yt">R. rubiginosa</a></i>), ornamental thorns (such as <i><a href="/facts/Rosa_sericea/pwEal4DF">R. sericea</a></i>) or for their showy fruit (such as <i><a href="/facts/Rosa_moyesii/nzrnWzjJ">R. moyesii</a></i>). </p><p>Ornamental roses have been cultivated for millennia, with the earliest known cultivation known to date from at least 500 BC in <a href="/facts/Mediterranean/Vr2pzVbM">Mediterranean</a> countries, <a href="/facts/Persia/24yukge8">Persia</a>, and China.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a> It is estimated that 30 to 35 thousand rose <a href="/facts/Hybrid_(biology)/pzVJ54xU">hybrids</a> and <a href="/facts/Cultivar/nfaLJJM3">cultivars</a> have been bred and selected for garden use as flowering plants.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> Most are <a href="/facts/Double-flowered/Ds1s5xlq">double-flowered</a> with many or all of the <a href="/facts/Stamen/MzNPVK3D">stamens</a> having morphed into additional <a href="/facts/Petal/DQMkpRSm">petals</a>. </p><p>In the early 19th century the <a href="/facts/Josephine_Beauharnais/QrkBkYen">Empress Josephine</a> of France patronized the development of rose breeding at her gardens at <a href="/facts/Ch%25C3%25A2teau_de_Malmaison/BNgKvXch">Malmaison</a>. As long ago as 1840 a collection numbering over one thousand different <a href="/facts/Cultivar/nfaLJJM3">cultivars</a>, varieties and species was possible when a rosarium was planted by <a href="/facts/Loddiges/fIx10n4X">Loddiges</a> nursery for <a href="/facts/Abney_Park_Cemetery/3MP4k8Xb">Abney Park Cemetery</a>, an early Victorian garden cemetery and arboretum in England. </p> <h3>Cut flowers</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Cut_flowers/rxXFIn5u">Cut flowers</a></p> <p>Roses are a popular crop for both domestic and commercial <a href="/facts/Cut_flowers/rxXFIn5u">cut flowers</a>. Generally they are harvested and cut when in bud, and held in refrigerated conditions until ready for display at their point of sale. The price of the roses depends partly on the characteristics of the rose itself, such as how long the stem is and how big the bloom is, and partly on factors about how it was grown, such as which country it was grown in.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a> </p><p>In temperate climates, cut roses are often grown in <a href="/facts/Greenhouse/VBHMUgfM">greenhouses</a>, and in warmer countries they may also be grown under cover in order to ensure that the flowers are not damaged by weather and that pest and disease control can be carried out effectively. Significant quantities are grown in some tropical countries, and these are shipped by air to markets across the world.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> </p><p>Some kind of roses are artificially coloured using dyed water, like <a href="/facts/Rainbow_rose/TQIJW4yK">rainbow roses</a>. </p> <h3>Perfume</h3> <p class="note">Further information: <a href="/facts/Rose_oil/cPWMa2Jz">Rose oil</a> and <a href="/facts/Rose_water/kPm7UJyF">Rose water</a></p> <p>Rose perfumes are made from <a href="/facts/Rose_oil/cPWMa2Jz">rose oil</a> (also called attar of roses), which is a mixture of volatile <a href="/facts/Essential_oil/cq8V5ocP">essential oils</a> obtained by steam distilling the crushed petals of roses. An associated product is <a href="/facts/Rose_water/kPm7UJyF">rose water</a> which is used for cooking, cosmetics, medicine and religious practices. The production technique originated in <a href="/facts/Iran/24yukge8">Persia</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> and then spread through <a href="/facts/Arabia/x1fDka2b">Arabia</a> and India, and more recently into <a href="/facts/Eastern_Europe/f5CDGzNA">eastern Europe</a>. In <a href="/facts/Bulgaria/Er5pY3YS">Bulgaria</a>, <a href="/facts/Iran/24yukge8">Iran</a> and <a href="/facts/Germany/paluuWBX">Germany</a>, damask roses (<a href="/facts/Rosa_%25C3%2597_damascena/zM8o1cQh"><i>Rosa</i> × <i>damascena</i></a> 'Trigintipetala') are used. In other parts of the world <a href="/facts/Rosa_%25C3%2597_centifolia/WSH9jmVc"><i>Rosa</i> × <i>centifolia</i></a> is commonly used. The oil is transparent pale yellow or yellow-grey in colour. 'Rose Absolute' is solvent-extracted with hexane and produces a darker oil, dark yellow to orange in colour. The weight of oil extracted is about one three-thousandth to one six-thousandth of the weight of the flowers; for example, about two thousand flowers are required to produce one gram of oil. </p><p>The main constituents of attar of roses are the fragrant <a href="/facts/Alcohol_(chemistry)/Y0SCTDkh">alcohols</a> <a href="/facts/Geraniol/q8rCfvGQ">geraniol</a> and L-<a href="/facts/Citronellol/cggUaGxV">citronellol</a> and rose camphor, an odorless solid composed of <a href="/facts/Alkane/Qam7Hvmf">alkanes</a>, which separates from rose oil.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> β-<a href="/facts/Damascenone/cyexThI8">Damascenone</a> is also a significant contributor to the scent. </p> <h3>Food and drink</h3> <p>Rose hips, usually from <i>R. canina</i>, are high in <a href="/facts/Vitamin_C/IA2f1fTm">vitamin C</a>, and are edible raw after the removal of the irritant hairs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> Hips can be made into <a href="/facts/Jam/rfFlWxMr">jam</a>, <a href="/facts/Jelly_(fruit_preserves)/TSkwzfzF">jelly</a>, <a href="/facts/Marmalade/lLLKvRAa">marmalade</a>, and <a href="/facts/Rose_hip_soup/ReSLCDRu">soup</a>, or brewed for tea. They are also pressed and filtered to make rose hip syrup. Rose hips are also used to produce <a href="/facts/Rose_hip_seed_oil/8sqts6Px">rose hip seed oil</a>, which is used in skin products and some makeup products.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a><a href="/facts/Diarrhodon/2HRRJv8z">Diarrhodon</a> (Gr διάρροδον, "compound of roses", from ῥόδων, "of roses"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a>) is the historic name for various compounds in which red roses are an ingredient. </p> <p><a href="/facts/Rose_water/kPm7UJyF">Rose water</a> has a very distinctive flavour and is used in <a href="/facts/Middle_Eastern_cuisine/E4INx7RA">Middle Eastern</a>, <a href="/facts/Persian_cuisine/SlEpbT4z">Persian</a>, and <a href="/facts/South_Asian_cuisine/H4YwUtdY">South Asian cuisine</a>—especially in sweets such as <a href="/facts/Turkish_delight/fJQBFoIq">Turkish delight</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Barfi/u7lpTDjd">barfi</a>, <a href="/facts/Baklava/J43SzFAC">baklava</a>, <a href="/facts/Halva/oap270jm">halva</a>, <a href="/facts/Gulab_jamun/V687EGom">gulab jamun</a>, <a href="/facts/Kanafeh/ujRBnRY2">knafeh</a>, and <a href="/facts/Nougat/ERHx7vS7">nougat</a>. Rose petals or flower buds are sometimes used to <a href="/facts/Tea_blending_and_additives/vXmep8ur">flavour ordinary tea</a>, or combined with other <a href="/facts/Herb/EKCltNNF">herbs</a> to make <a href="/facts/Herbal_tea/qdGBR9sY">herbal teas</a>. A sweet preserve of rose petals called <a href="/facts/Gulkand/bkkbK4Kf">gulkand</a> is common in the <a href="/facts/Indian_subcontinent/0XUWGXpx">Indian subcontinent</a>. The leaves and washed roots are also sometimes used to make tea.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a> </p><p>In France, there is much use of <a href="/facts/Rose_water/kPm7UJyF">rose syrup</a>, most commonly made from an extract of rose petals. In the <a href="/facts/Indian_subcontinent/0XUWGXpx">Indian subcontinent</a>, <a href="/facts/Rooh_Afza/PhK9guWU">Rooh Afza</a>, a concentrated <a href="/facts/Squash_(drink)/wcq73Tam">squash</a> made with roses, is popular, as are rose-flavoured frozen desserts such as <a href="/facts/Ice_cream/jVhC4nwR">ice cream</a> and <a href="/facts/Kulfi/r4EdAlFT">kulfi</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a> </p><p>The flower stems and young shoots are edible, as are the petals (sans the white or green bases).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a> The latter are usually used as flavouring or to add their scent to food.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> Other minor uses include candied rose petals.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> </p><p>Rose creams (rose-flavoured <a href="/facts/Fondant_icing/RgXzJD6U">fondant</a> covered in <a href="/facts/Chocolate/4drs8ryf">chocolate</a>, often topped with a crystallised rose petal) are a traditional English confectionery widely available from numerous producers in the UK. </p><p>Under the American <a href="/facts/Federal_Food%2c_Drug%2c_and_Cosmetic_Act/2WIHtPjC">Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> there are only certain <i>Rosa</i> species, varieties, and parts are listed as <a href="/facts/Generally_recognized_as_safe/RkJynJyk">generally recognized as safe</a> (GRAS). </p> <ul><li>Rose absolute: <i>Rosa alba</i> L., <i>Rosa centifolia</i> L., <i>Rosa damascena</i> Mill., <i>Rosa gallica</i> L., and vars. of these spp.</li> <li>Rose (otto of roses, attar of roses): Ditto</li> <li>Rose buds</li> <li>Rose flowers</li> <li>Rose fruit (hips)</li> <li>Rose leaves: <i>Rosa</i> <i>spp.</i><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a></li></ul> <h3>Art and symbolism</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Rose_symbolism/MVyVFnMa">Rose symbolism</a></p> <p>The long cultural history of the rose has led to it being used often as a symbol. In <a href="/facts/Ancient_Greece/PTVBrWXq">ancient Greece</a>, the rose was closely associated with the goddess <a href="/facts/Aphrodite/xW0TH9tC">Aphrodite</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> In the <i><a href="/facts/Iliad/HceJKUGB">Iliad</a></i>, Aphrodite protects the body of <a href="/facts/Hector/UpA7u7MP">Hector</a> using the "immortal oil of the rose"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> and the archaic Greek lyric poet <a href="/facts/Ibycus/cATjdPvS">Ibycus</a> praises a beautiful youth saying that Aphrodite nursed him "among rose blossoms".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> The second-century AD Greek travel writer <a href="/facts/Pausanias_(geographer)/3jMP2VVl">Pausanias</a> associates the rose with the story of <a href="/facts/Adonis/JNoCd8CQ">Adonis</a> and states that the rose is red because Aphrodite wounded herself on one of its thorns and stained the flower red with her blood.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> Book Eleven of the ancient Roman novel <i><a href="/facts/The_Golden_Ass/4Iy2AnpS">The Golden Ass</a></i> by <a href="/facts/Apuleius/uVqvP52s">Apuleius</a> contains a scene in which the goddess <a href="/facts/Isis/tHYqUvbM">Isis</a>, who is identified with <a href="/facts/Venus_(mythology)/zUqaRF1N">Venus</a>, instructs the main character, Lucius, who has been transformed into a <a href="/facts/Donkey/xkn4K2IJ">donkey</a>, to eat rose petals from a crown of roses worn by a priest as part of a religious procession in order to regain his humanity.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a> French writer <a href="/facts/Ren%25C3%25A9_Rapin/8sKragVS">René Rapin</a> invented a myth in which a beautiful Corinthian queen named <a href="/facts/Rhodanthe_(mythology)/PwrQjSRq">Rhodanthe</a> ("she with rose flowers") was besieged inside a temple of <a href="/facts/Artemis/bocCzux6">Artemis</a> by three ardent suitors who wished to worship her as a goddess; the god <a href="/facts/Apollo/eBJV1wsJ">Apollo</a> then transformed her into a rosebush.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a> </p><p>Following the <a href="/facts/Christianization_of_the_Roman_empire/QrNwmgPM">Christianization of the Roman Empire</a>, the rose became identified with the <a href="/facts/Mary_(mother_of_Jesus)/cq3fKofl">Virgin Mary</a>. The colour of the rose and the number of roses received has symbolic representation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a> The rose symbol eventually led to the creation of the <a href="/facts/Rosary/R8VJTslG">rosary</a> and other devotional prayers in Christianity.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a> The <a href="/facts/Rose_Cross/V3e7hng1">Rose Cross</a> incorporates the flower directly into the Christian cross, and is the namesake of the esoteric religious order of <a href="/facts/Rosicrucianism/lKFV3KDH">Rosicrucianism</a>. </p> <p>Ever since the 1400s, the <a href="/facts/Franciscans/gwohhd4C">Franciscans</a> have had a Crown Rosary of the <a href="/facts/Seven_Joys_of_the_Virgin/FCrdXPyP">Seven Joys of the Blessed Virgin Mary</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a> In the 1400s and 1500s, the <a href="/facts/Carthusians/U1sgmFIl">Carthusians</a> promoted the idea of sacred mysteries associated with the rose symbol and rose gardens.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a> <a href="/facts/Albrecht_D%25C3%25BCrer/N38jX769">Albrecht Dürer</a>'s painting <i><a href="/facts/Feast_of_the_Rosary/XIn6q9pa">The Feast of the Rosary</a></i> (1506) depicts the Virgin Mary distributing garlands of roses to her devotees.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a> </p><p>Roses symbolised the <a href="/facts/White_Rose_of_York/ACLFtXeh">Houses of York</a> and <a href="/facts/Red_Rose_of_Lancaster/h3HF8B4J">Lancaster</a> in a conflict known as the <a href="/facts/Wars_of_the_Roses/zLnjSuNK">Wars of the Roses</a>. Subsequently roses of the corresponding colours have been used a emblems for the English counties of <a href="/facts/Yorkshire/jE4s4LNG">Yorkshire</a> and <a href="/facts/Lancashire/XmzHoIsl">Lancashire</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/facts/Tudor_rose/lCNtNVs6">Tudor rose</a> combines the colours of the roses of York and Lancaster, and is an emblem of then <a href="/facts/Tudor_dynasty/vGCmXz5v">Tudor dynasty</a> and of <a href="/facts/England/U9mE5bGL">England</a>. </p><p>Roses are a favored subject in art and appear in portraits, illustrations, on stamps, as ornaments or as architectural elements. The Luxembourg-born <a href="/facts/Belgium/YKuMXP5j">Belgian</a> artist and botanist <a href="/facts/Pierre-Joseph_Redout%25C3%25A9/B6tFMHF6">Pierre-Joseph Redouté</a> is known for his detailed watercolours of flowers, particularly roses. </p><p><a href="/facts/Henri_Fantin-Latour/1NCDMfU5">Henri Fantin-Latour</a> was also a prolific painter of still life, particularly flowers including roses. The rose 'Fantin-Latour' was named after the artist. </p><p>Other impressionists including <a href="/facts/Claude_Monet/FV91Y96V">Claude Monet</a>, <a href="/facts/Paul_C%25C3%25A9zanne/6agj3aeq">Paul Cézanne</a> and <a href="/facts/Pierre-Auguste_Renoir/78P8VxXG">Pierre-Auguste Renoir</a> have paintings of roses among their works. In the 19th century, for example, artists associated the city of <a href="/facts/Trieste/I6eRqWpA">Trieste</a> with a certain rare white rose, and this rose developed as the city's symbol. It was not until 2021 that the rose, which was believed to be extinct, was rediscovered there.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a> </p><p>In 1986 President <a href="/facts/Ronald_Reagan/z6AaKAad">Ronald Reagan</a> signed legislation to make the rose<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a> the floral emblem of the United States.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a> </p><p>The rose is often exchanged on <a href="/facts/Valentine%2527s_Day/63j6qsN8">St. Valentines Day</a> and is used often as a symbol of such.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/ADR_rose/aGN3o3PD">ADR rose</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/List_of_Award_of_Garden_Merit_roses/9Et8Fj9V">List of Award of Garden Merit roses</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/List_of_rose_cultivars_named_after_people/GFcavHV8">List of rose cultivars named after people</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Rose_(colour)/ogRMPvnf">Rose (colour)</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Rose_garden/FQYMQYhx">Rose garden</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Rose_Hall_of_Fame/bCguH9Dy">Rose Hall of Fame</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Rose_show/BBQQebRY">Rose show</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Rose_trial_grounds/HdkQaF34">Rose trial grounds</a></li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rosa. <a href="/facts/Wikispecies/b2GhA7Le">Wikispecies</a> has information related to <i>Rosa</i>. Wikiquote has quotations related to <i>Roses</i>. <ul><li><a href="http://www.worldrose.org/">World Federation of Rose Societies</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Hugh_Chisholm/2vWblUBe">Chisholm, Hugh</a>, ed. (1911). <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Rose">"Rose" </a>. <i><a href="/facts/Encyclop%25C3%25A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition/mPElbCRY">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i> (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Gove, Philip B., ed. (1961). Webster's Third New International Dictionary. G. & C. Merriam. <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>Gove, Philip B., ed. (1961). Webster's Third New International Dictionary. G. & C. Merriam. <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>"Roses - Rosa | Plants | Kew". www.kew.org. Retrieved 2024-05-03. <a href="https://www.kew.org/plants/roses" target="_blank">https://www.kew.org/plants/roses</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>"Rose | Description, Species, Images, & Facts". Britannica. Retrieved 2023-02-24. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/rose-plant" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/plant/rose-plant</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>"Rose | Description, Species, Images, & Facts". Britannica. Retrieved 2023-02-24. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/rose-plant" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/plant/rose-plant</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>"Rose | Description, Species, Images, & Facts". Britannica. Retrieved 2023-02-24. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/plant/rose-plant" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/plant/rose-plant</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>The Free Dictionary, "rose". <a href="http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Rose" target="_blank">http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Rose</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>"GOL". Encyclopaedia Iranica. February 9, 2012 [December 15, 2001]. Retrieved 13 March 2013. <a href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/gol" target="_blank">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/gol</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Satterlee, J.W.; Alonso, D.; Gramazio, P. (2024). "Convergent evolution of plant prickles by repeated gene co-option over deep time". Science. 385 (6708): 1663. Bibcode:2024Sci...385o1663S. doi:10.1126/science.ado1663. PMC 11305333. PMID 39088611. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11305333" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11305333</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Zimmer, Carl (August 1, 2024). "How Did Roses Get Their Thorns?". The New York Times. Retrieved 1 September 2024. <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2024/08/01/science/how-did-roses-get-their-thorns.html" target="_blank">https://www.nytimes.com/2024/08/01/science/how-did-roses-get-their-thorns.html</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Jackson, Gemma (October 1934). "The morphology of the flowers of Rosa and certain cloesly related genera". American Journal of Botany. 21 (8): 453–466. Bibcode:1934AmJB...21..453J. doi:10.1002/j.1537-2197.1934.tb04973.x. <a href="https://bsapubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/j.1537-2197.1934.tb04973.x" target="_blank">https://bsapubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/j.1537-2197.1934.tb04973.x</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Jackson, Gemma (October 1934). "The morphology of the flowers of Rosa and certain cloesly related genera". American Journal of Botany. 21 (8): 453–466. Bibcode:1934AmJB...21..453J. doi:10.1002/j.1537-2197.1934.tb04973.x. <a href="https://bsapubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/j.1537-2197.1934.tb04973.x" target="_blank">https://bsapubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/j.1537-2197.1934.tb04973.x</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Mabberley, D. J. (1997). The Plant-Book: A Portable Dictionary of the Vascular Plants. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-41421-0. <a href="978-0-521-41421-0" target="_blank">978-0-521-41421-0</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>DeVore, M. L.; Pigg, K. B. (July 2007). "A brief review of the fossil history of the family Rosaceae with a focus on the Eocene Okanogan Highlands of eastern Washington State, USA, and British Columbia, Canada". Plant Systematics and Evolution. 266 (1–2): 45–57. Bibcode:2007PSyEv.266...45D. doi:10.1007/s00606-007-0540-3. ISSN 0378-2697. S2CID 10169419. <a href="http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00606-007-0540-3" target="_blank">http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00606-007-0540-3</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Kellner, A.; Benner, M.; Walther, H.; Kunzmann, L.; Wissemann, V.; Ritz, C. M. (March 2012). "Leaf Architecture of Extant Species of Rosa L. and the Paleogene Species Rosa lignitum Heer (Rosaceae)". International Journal of Plant Sciences. 173 (3): 239–250. Bibcode:2012IJPlS.173..239K. doi:10.1086/663965. ISSN 1058-5893. S2CID 83909271. <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/663965" target="_blank">https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/663965</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>"The History of Roses — Our Rose Garden". University of Illinois Extension. Retrieved 2021-02-26. <a href="https://web.extension.illinois.edu/roses/history.cfm" target="_blank">https://web.extension.illinois.edu/roses/history.cfm</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Tan, Jiongrui; Wang, Jing; Luo, Le; Yu, Chao; Xu, Tingliang; Wu, Yuying; Cheng, Tangren; Wang, Jia; Pan, Huitang; Zhang, Qixiang (2017). "Genetic relationships and evolution of old Chinese garden roses based on SSRs and chromosome diversity – Scientific Reports". Scientific Reports. 7 (1): 15437. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-15815-6. PMC 5684293. PMID 29133839. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5684293" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5684293</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Li S, Zhong M, Dong X, Jiang X, Xu Y, Sun Y, Cheng F, Li DZ, Tang K, Wang S, Dai S, Hu JY (December 2018). "Comparative transcriptomics identifies patterns of selection in roses". BMC Plant Biol. 18 (1): 371. Bibcode:2018BMCPB..18..371L. doi:10.1186/s12870-018-1585-x. PMC 6303930. PMID 30579326. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6303930" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6303930</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Li S, Zhong M, Dong X, Jiang X, Xu Y, Sun Y, Cheng F, Li DZ, Tang K, Wang S, Dai S, Hu JY (December 2018). "Comparative transcriptomics identifies patterns of selection in roses". BMC Plant Biol. 18 (1): 371. Bibcode:2018BMCPB..18..371L. doi:10.1186/s12870-018-1585-x. PMC 6303930. PMID 30579326. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6303930" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6303930</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Leus, Leen; Van Laere, Katrijn; De Riek, Jan; Van Huylenbroeck, Johan (2018). "Rose". In Van Huylenbroeck, Johan (ed.). Ornamental Crops. Handbook of Plant Breeding. Vol. 11. Springer. pp. 719–767 See p. 720. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-90698-0_27. ISBN 978-3-319-90697-3. <a href="978-3-319-90697-3" target="_blank">978-3-319-90697-3</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>"Rosa persica - Trees and Shrubs Online". www.treesandshrubsonline.org. Retrieved 2024-05-19. <a href="https://www.treesandshrubsonline.org/articles/rosa/rosa-persica/" target="_blank">https://www.treesandshrubsonline.org/articles/rosa/rosa-persica/</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Goody, Jack (1993). The Culture of Flowers. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-41441-5. OCLC 1148849511. <a href="0-521-41441-5" target="_blank">0-521-41441-5</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Bendahmane, Mohammed; Dubois, Annick; Raymond, Olivier; Bris, Manuel Le (2013). "Genetics and genomics of flower initiation and development in roses". Journal of Experimental Botany. 64 (4): 847–857. doi:10.1093/jxb/ers387. PMC 3594942. PMID 23364936. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3594942" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3594942</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Chen, Stefanos; Grunwald, Adrienne (2024-04-15). "Roses Are Red, Love Is True. Here's Why This Bouquet Costs $72". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2025-01-30. <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2024/04/15/nyregion/flowers-cost-roses-nyc.html" target="_blank">https://www.nytimes.com/2024/04/15/nyregion/flowers-cost-roses-nyc.html</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>"ADC Commercialisation bulletin #4: Fresh cut roses" (PDF). FOODNET Uganda 2009. May 14, 2001. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-06-30. Retrieved 13 March 2013. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120630085646/http://www.foodnet.cgiar.org/market/Uganda/reports/Roses.PDF" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120630085646/http://www.foodnet.cgiar.org/market/Uganda/reports/Roses.PDF</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Nikbakht, Ali; Kafi, M.A. (January 2004). "A study on the relationships between Iranian people and Damask rose (Rosa damascena) and its therapeutic and healing properties". Acta Horticulturae. 790 (790): 251–4. doi:10.17660/ActaHortic.2008.790.36. The origin of Damask rose is the Middle East and it is the national flower of Iran. Rose oil usage dates back to ancient civilization of Persia. Avicenna, the 10th century Persian physician, distilled its petals for medical purposes and commercial distillery existed in 1612 in Shiraz, Persia. <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260293005" target="_blank">https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260293005</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Stewart, D. (2005). The Chemistry Of Essential Oils Made Simple: God's Love Manifest In Molecules. Care. ISBN 978-0-934426-99-2. <a href="978-0-934426-99-2" target="_blank">978-0-934426-99-2</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>Angier, Bradford (1974). Field Guide to Edible Wild Plants. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books. p. 186. ISBN 0-8117-0616-8. OCLC 799792. <a href="0-8117-0616-8" target="_blank">0-8117-0616-8</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>"Rosa chinensis China Rose PFAF Plant Database". Pfaf.org. Retrieved 13 March 2013. <a href="http://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Rosa%20chinensis" target="_blank">http://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Rosa%20chinensis</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>"Rose Hip Benefits". Herbwisdom.com. Retrieved 17 January 2017. <a href="http://www.herbwisdom.com/herb-rose-hip.html" target="_blank">http://www.herbwisdom.com/herb-rose-hip.html</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>"dia-". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.) <a href="https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=dia-" target="_blank">https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=dia-</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:32"><p>"Rosewater recipes – BBC Food". Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2021-02-26. <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/rosewater" target="_blank">https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/rosewater</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:33"><p>Angier, Bradford (1974). Field Guide to Edible Wild Plants. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books. p. 186. ISBN 0-8117-0616-8. OCLC 799792. <a href="0-8117-0616-8" target="_blank">0-8117-0616-8</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:34"><p>"Rose Flavored Ice Cream with Rose Petals". eCurry. <a href="http://www.ecurry.com/blog/desserts-sweets/rose-flavored-ice-cream-with-rose-petals/" target="_blank">http://www.ecurry.com/blog/desserts-sweets/rose-flavored-ice-cream-with-rose-petals/</a> <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:35"><p>Samanth Subramanian (27 April 2012). "Rooh Afza, the syrup that sweetens the subcontinent's summers". The National. <a href="/wiki/Samanth_Subramanian" target="_blank">/wiki/Samanth_Subramanian</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:36"><p>Angier, Bradford (1974). Field Guide to Edible Wild Plants. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books. p. 186. ISBN 0-8117-0616-8. OCLC 799792. <a href="0-8117-0616-8" target="_blank">0-8117-0616-8</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:37"><p>"St. Petersburg Times – Google News Archive Search". google.com. <a href="https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=888&dat=19251031&id=rBlPAAAAIBAJ&pg=6474,906524" target="_blank">https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=888&dat=19251031&id=rBlPAAAAIBAJ&pg=6474,906524</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:38"><p>"rosepetal candy – Google Search". google.co.uk. <a href="https://www.google.co.uk/search?q=rosepetal+candy" target="_blank">https://www.google.co.uk/search?q=rosepetal+candy</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:39"><p>"Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS)". Food and Drug Administration. 6 September 2019. <a href="https://www.fda.gov/food/ingredientspackaginglabeling/gras/default.htm" target="_blank">https://www.fda.gov/food/ingredientspackaginglabeling/gras/default.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:40"><p>"Electronic Code of Federal Regulations (eCFR)". Electronic Code of Federal Regulations (eCFR). <a href="https://www.ecfr.gov/" target="_blank">https://www.ecfr.gov/</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:41"><p>Cyrino, Monica S. (2010). Aphrodite. Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World. Routledge. pp. 63, 96. ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6. <a href="978-0-415-77523-6" target="_blank">978-0-415-77523-6</a> <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:42"><p>Clark, Nora (2015). Aphrodite and Venus in Myth and Mimesis. Cambridge, England: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 209–210. ISBN 978-1-4438-7127-3. <a href="978-1-4438-7127-3" target="_blank">978-1-4438-7127-3</a> <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:43"><p>Iliad 23.185–187 <a href="/wiki/Iliad" target="_blank">/wiki/Iliad</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:44"><p>Cyrino, Monica S. (2010). Aphrodite. Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World. Routledge. pp. 63, 96. ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6. <a href="978-0-415-77523-6" target="_blank">978-0-415-77523-6</a> <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:45"><p>Ibycus, fragment 288.4 <a href="/wiki/Ibycus" target="_blank">/wiki/Ibycus</a> <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:46"><p>Cyrino, Monica S. (2010). Aphrodite. Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World. Routledge. pp. 63, 96. ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6. <a href="978-0-415-77523-6" target="_blank">978-0-415-77523-6</a> <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:47"><p>Pausanias, Description of Greece 6.24.7 Archived 2018-09-28 at the Wayback Machine <a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" target="_blank">/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)</a> <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:48"><p>Cyrino, Monica S. (2010). Aphrodite. Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World. Routledge. pp. 63, 96. ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6. <a href="978-0-415-77523-6" target="_blank">978-0-415-77523-6</a> <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:49"><p>Clark, Nora (2015). Aphrodite and Venus in Myth and Mimesis. Cambridge, England: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 209–210. ISBN 978-1-4438-7127-3. <a href="978-1-4438-7127-3" target="_blank">978-1-4438-7127-3</a> <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:50"><p>Watts, Donald C. (May 2, 2007). Dictionary of Plant Lore. Bath, United Kingdom: Elsevier. p. 322. ISBN 978-0-12-374086-1. <a href="978-0-12-374086-1" target="_blank">978-0-12-374086-1</a> <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:51"><p>"Rose Flower Meaning and Symbolism". 20 July 2016. <a href="https://www.ftd.com/blog/share/rose-meaning-and-symbolism" target="_blank">https://www.ftd.com/blog/share/rose-meaning-and-symbolism</a> <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:52"><p>Cucciniello, Lisa (2008). "Rose to Rosary: The Flower of Venus in Catholicism". In Hutton, Frankie (ed.). Rose Lore: Essays in Semiotics and Cultural History. Lexington Books. pp. 64–65. ISBN 978-0-7391-3015-5. OCLC 248733215. <a href="978-0-7391-3015-5" target="_blank">978-0-7391-3015-5</a> <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:53"><p>Clark, Nora (2015). Aphrodite and Venus in Myth and Mimesis. Cambridge, England: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 209–210. ISBN 978-1-4438-7127-3. <a href="978-1-4438-7127-3" target="_blank">978-1-4438-7127-3</a> <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:54"><p>Cucciniello 2008, pp. 65–67 - Cucciniello, Lisa (2008). "Rose to Rosary: The Flower of Venus in Catholicism". In Hutton, Frankie (ed.). Rose Lore: Essays in Semiotics and Cultural History. Lexington Books. pp. 64–65. ISBN 978-0-7391-3015-5. OCLC 248733215. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/248733215" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/248733215</a> <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:55"><p>Clark, Nora (2015). Aphrodite and Venus in Myth and Mimesis. Cambridge, England: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 209–210. ISBN 978-1-4438-7127-3. <a href="978-1-4438-7127-3" target="_blank">978-1-4438-7127-3</a> <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:56"><p>Clark, Nora (2015). Aphrodite and Venus in Myth and Mimesis. Cambridge, England: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 209–210. ISBN 978-1-4438-7127-3. <a href="978-1-4438-7127-3" target="_blank">978-1-4438-7127-3</a> <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:57"><p>Clark, Nora (2015). Aphrodite and Venus in Myth and Mimesis. Cambridge, England: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 209–210. ISBN 978-1-4438-7127-3. <a href="978-1-4438-7127-3" target="_blank">978-1-4438-7127-3</a> <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:58"><p>Clark, Nora (2015). Aphrodite and Venus in Myth and Mimesis. Cambridge, England: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 209–210. ISBN 978-1-4438-7127-3. <a href="978-1-4438-7127-3" target="_blank">978-1-4438-7127-3</a> <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:59"><p>Ugo Salvini "La rarissima Rosa di Trieste spezza l’oblio e rispunta a sorpresa sulle colline di Muggia" In: Il Piccolo 27.01.2021, La Rosa. <a href="https://ilpiccolo.gelocal.it/trieste/cronaca/2021/01/25/news/la-rarissima-rosa-di-trieste-spezza-l-oblio-e-rispunta-a-sorpresa-sulle-colline-di-muggia-1.39817480" target="_blank">https://ilpiccolo.gelocal.it/trieste/cronaca/2021/01/25/news/la-rarissima-rosa-di-trieste-spezza-l-oblio-e-rispunta-a-sorpresa-sulle-colline-di-muggia-1.39817480</a> <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:60"><p>"National Flower | The Rose". statesymbolsusa.org. 6 May 2014. <a href="https://statesymbolsusa.org/symbol-or-officially-designated-item/state-flower/rose" target="_blank">https://statesymbolsusa.org/symbol-or-officially-designated-item/state-flower/rose</a> <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:61"><p>"National Flower of United States – Fresh from the Grower". Growerflowers.com. Retrieved 2021-02-26. <a href="http://www.growerflowers.com/SENation.asp" target="_blank">http://www.growerflowers.com/SENation.asp</a> <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:62"><p>"Giving Roses for Valentine's Day? Here's How the Flower Came to Symbolize Love". TIME. 2019-02-13. Retrieved 2024-02-14. <a href="https://time.com/5519476/roses-symbol-love-valentines-day/" target="_blank">https://time.com/5519476/roses-symbol-love-valentines-day/</a> <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>