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Aphrodite, an ancient Greek goddess of love, beauty, and fertility, is closely linked to the Roman Venus and symbolizes desire, pleasure, and victory. Emerging from the sea foam near Cythera, her cult centers included Cyprus and Corinth. Celebrated annually at the Aphrodisia festival, Aphrodite is known for her many epithets like Cytherea and Cypris, reflecting her diverse roles. Married to Hephaestus but famously unfaithful, she had lovers including Ares and mortal Anchises. Aphrodite plays a key role in the Iliad and the Trojan War, and remains influential in modern Neopagan religions such as Wicca and Hellenism.

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Etymology

Hesiod derives the name Aphrodite from aphrós (ἀφρός) "sea-foam",3 interpreting the name as "risen from the foam",45 but most modern scholars regard this as a spurious folk etymology.67 Early-modern scholars of classical mythology attempted to argue that Aphrodite's name was of Greek or Indo-European origin, but these efforts have mostly been abandoned.8 Aphrodite's name is generally accepted to be of non-Greek (probably Semitic) origin, but its exact derivation cannot be determined with confidence.910

Scholars in the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries, accepting Hesiod's "foam" etymology as genuine, analyzed the second part of Aphrodite's name as *-odítē "wanderer"11 or as *-dítē "bright".1213 More recently, Michael Janda, also accepting Hesiod's etymology, has argued in favor of the latter of these interpretations and claims the story of a birth from the foam as an Indo-European mytheme.1415 Similarly, Krzysztof Tomasz Witczak proposes an Indo-European compound *abʰor- "very" and *dʰei- "to shine", also referring to Eos,16 and Daniel Kölligan has interpreted Aphrodite's name as "shining up from the mist/foam".17 Other scholars have argued that these hypotheses are unlikely, since Aphrodite's attributes are entirely different from those of both Eos and the Vedic deity Ushas.1819

Modern scholars, due to the believed Near Eastern origins of Aphrodite's worship, have since proposed Semitic origins for the name.2021 Some scholars, such as Fritz Hommel, have suggested that Aphrodite's name is a hellenized pronunciation of the name "Astarte"; other scholars, however, reject this as being linguistically untenable.2223 Martin West reconstructs a Cyprian Canaanite form of the name as either *ʿAprodît or *ʿAproḏît, and cautiously suggests the latter as being an epithet with the meaning "She of the Villages".24 Aren Wilson-Wright suggests the Phoenician form *ʾAprodīt as an elative epithet meaning "unique, excellent, sublime".25

A number of improbable non-Greek etymologies have also been suggested. One Semitic etymology compares Aphrodite to the Assyrian barīrītu, the name of a female demon that appears in Middle Babylonian and Late Babylonian texts.26 Hammarström27 looks to Etruscan, comparing (e)prθni "lord", an Etruscan honorific loaned into Greek as πρύτανις.282930 This would make the theonym in origin an honorific, "the lady".3132 Most scholars reject this etymology as implausible,333435 especially since Aphrodite's name actually appears in Etruscan in the borrowed form Apru (from Greek Aphrō, clipped form of Aphrodite).36 The medieval Etymologicum Magnum (c. 1150) offers a highly contrived etymology, deriving Aphrodite from the compound habrodíaitos (ἁβροδίαιτος), "she who lives delicately", from habrós and díaita. The alteration from b to ph is explained as a "familiar" characteristic of Greek "obvious from the Macedonians".37

In the Cypriot syllabary, a syllabic script used on the island of Cyprus from the eleventh until the fourth centuries BC, Aphrodite's name is attested in the forms 𐠀𐠡𐠦𐠭𐠃𐠂 (a-po-ro-ta-o-i, read right-to-left),38 𐠀𐠡𐠦𐠯𐠭𐠂 (a-po-ro-ti-ta-i, samewise),39 and finally 𐠀𐠡𐠦𐠯𐠪𐠈 (a-po-ro-ti-si-jo, "Aphrodisian", "related to Aphrodite", in the context of a month).40

Origins

Near Eastern love goddess

The cult of Aphrodite in Greece was imported from, or at least influenced by, the cult of Astarte in Phoenicia,41424344 which, in turn, was influenced by the cult of the Mesopotamian goddess known as "Ishtar" to the East Semitic peoples and as "Inanna" to the Sumerians.454647 Pausanias states that the first to establish a cult of Aphrodite were the Assyrians, followed by the Paphians of Cyprus and then the Phoenicians at Ascalon. The Phoenicians, in turn, taught her worship to the people of Cythera.48

Aphrodite took on Inanna-Ishtar's associations with sexuality and procreation.49 Furthermore, she was known as Ourania (Οὐρανία), which means "heavenly",50 a title corresponding to Inanna's role as the Queen of Heaven.5152 Early artistic and literary portrayals of Aphrodite are extremely similar on Inanna-Ishtar.53 Like Inanna-Ishtar, Aphrodite was also a warrior goddess;545556 the second-century AD Greek geographer Pausanias records that, in Sparta, Aphrodite was worshipped as Aphrodite Areia, which means "warlike".5758 He also mentions that Aphrodite's most ancient cult statues in Sparta and on Cythera showed her bearing arms.59606162 Modern scholars note that Aphrodite's warrior-goddess aspects appear in the oldest strata of her worship63 and see it as an indication of her Near Eastern origins.6465

Nineteenth-century classical scholars had a general aversion to the idea that ancient Greek religion was at all influenced by the cultures of the Near East,66 but even Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker, who argued that Near Eastern influence on Greek culture was largely confined to material culture,67 admitted that Aphrodite was clearly of Phoenician origin.68 The significant influence of Near Eastern culture on early Greek religion in general, and on the cult of Aphrodite in particular,69 is now widely recognized as dating to a period of orientalization during the eighth century BC,70 when archaic Greece was on the fringes of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.71

Indo-European dawn goddess

Some early comparative mythologists opposed to the idea of a Near Eastern origin argued that Aphrodite originated as an aspect of the Greek dawn goddess Eos7273 and that she was therefore ultimately derived from the Proto-Indo-European dawn goddess *Haéusōs (properly Greek Eos, Latin Aurora, Sanskrit Ushas).7475 Most modern scholars have now rejected the notion of a purely Indo-European Aphrodite,76777879 but it is possible that Aphrodite, originally a Semitic deity, may have been influenced by the Indo-European dawn goddess.80 Both Aphrodite and Eos were known for their erotic beauty and aggressive sexuality81 and both had relationships with mortal lovers.82 Both goddesses were associated with the colors red, white, and gold.83 Michael Janda etymologizes Aphrodite's name as an epithet of Eos meaning "she who rises from the foam [of the ocean]"84 and points to Hesiod's Theogony account of Aphrodite's birth as an archaic reflex of Indo-European myth.85 Aphrodite rising out of the waters after Cronus defeats Uranus as a mytheme would then be directly cognate to the Rigvedic myth of Indra defeating Vrtra, liberating Ushas.8687 Another key similarity between Aphrodite and the Indo-European dawn goddess is her close kinship to the Greek sky deity,88 since both of the main claimants to her paternity (Zeus and Uranus) are sky deities.89

Forms and epithets

Main page: Category:Epithets of Aphrodite

Aphrodite's most common cultic epithet was Ourania, meaning "heavenly",9091 but this epithet almost never occurs in literary texts, indicating a purely cultic significance.92 Another common name for Aphrodite was Pandemos ("For All the Folk").93 In her role as Aphrodite Pandemos, Aphrodite was associated with Peithō (Πείθω), meaning "persuasion",94 and could be prayed to for aid in seduction.95 The character of Pausanias in Plato's Symposium, takes differing cult-practices associated with different epithets of the goddess to claim that Ourania and Pandemos are, in fact, separate goddesses. He asserts that Aphrodite Ourania is the celestial Aphrodite, born from the sea foam after Cronus castrated Uranus, and the older of the two goddesses. According to the Symposium, Aphrodite Ourania is the inspiration of male homosexual desire, specifically the ephebic eros, and pederasty. Aphrodite Pandemos, by contrast, is the younger of the two goddesses: the common Aphrodite, born from the union of Zeus and Dione, and the inspiration of heterosexual desire and sexual promiscuity, the "lesser" of the two loves.9697 Paphian (Παφία), was one of her epithets, after the Paphos in Cyprus where she had emerged from the sea at her birth.98

Among the Neoplatonists and, later, their Christian interpreters, Ourania is associated with spiritual love, and Pandemos with physical love (desire). A representation of Ourania with her foot resting on a tortoise came to be seen as emblematic of discretion in conjugal love; it was the subject of a chryselephantine sculpture by Phidias for Elis, known only from a parenthetical comment by the geographer Pausanias.99 The image was taken up again after the Renaissance.100

One of Aphrodite's most common literary epithets is Philommeidḗs (φιλομμειδής),101 which means "smile-loving",102 but is sometimes mistranslated as "laughter-loving".103 This epithet occurs throughout both of the Homeric epics and the First Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite.104 Hesiod references it once in his Theogony in the context of Aphrodite's birth,105 but interprets it as "genital-loving" rather than "smile-loving".106 Monica Cyrino notes that the epithet may relate to the fact that, in many artistic depictions of Aphrodite, she is shown smiling.107 Other epithets of her include Mechanitis meaning skilled in inventing108 and Automata because, according to Servius, she was the source of spontaneous love.109

Common literary epithets of Aphrodite are Cypris and Cythereia,110 which derive from her associations with the islands of Cyprus and Cythera respectively.111 On Cyprus, Aphrodite was sometimes called Eleemon ("the merciful").112 In Athens, she was known as Aphrodite en kēpois ("Aphrodite of the Gardens").113 At Cape Colias, a town along the Attic coast, she was venerated as Genetyllis "Mother".114 The Spartans worshipped her as Potnia "Mistress", Enoplios "Armed", Morpho "Shapely", Ambologera "She who Postpones Old Age".115 Across the Greek world, she was known under epithets such as Melainis in Corinth "Black or Dark One",116 Skotia "Dark One", Androphonos "Killer of Men", Anosia "Unholy", and Tymborychos "Gravedigger",117 all of which indicate her darker, more violent nature.118

A male version of Aphrodite known as Aphroditus was worshipped in the city of Amathus on Cyprus.119120121 Aphroditus was depicted with the figure and dress of a woman, but had a beard, and was shown lifting his dress to reveal an erect phallus.122123 This gesture was believed to be an apotropaic symbol, and was thought to convey good fortune upon the viewer.124 Eventually, the popularity of Aphroditus waned as the mainstream, fully feminine version of Aphrodite became more popular, but traces of his cult are preserved in the later legends of Hermaphroditus.125

List of epithets

126127128

  • Androphagos, eating men.
  • Anosia, unholly.
  • Aphrogeneia, foam-sprung.129
  • Areia, related to war. There was an old xoanon of the goddess at Cythera.130 Several depictions in Greek art show Aphrodite as the opponent of the giant Mimas.131
  • Cypris, Cyprus is her homeland by Homer and Hesiod.
  • Cytheria, of Cythera.
  • Eleēmon, merciful
  • Enoplios, armed at Sparta.
  • Euploia, good sailing, related to ships. She had a temple at Piraeus.132
  • Genetyllis, by Aristophanes,an epithet close to Kolias.133
  • Hera, at Sparta there was a temple of Hera-Hypercheiria and a xoanon of Aphrodite-Hera that was offered to the brides.134
  • En kẽpois, of the gardens. The oldest of the fates was called "Άφροδίτη έν κήποις" (Aphrodite of the Gardens).
  • Epistrophia, of the return.
  • Kolias, goddess of childbirth in Attica, with a temple on the mountain "Kolias".
  • Limenia, of the harbour at Hermione.135
  • Melainis, dark one.
  • Melaina, black.
  • Morpho, at Sparta. She was depicted with a veil and rocks near her feet.136
  • Nymphia, of the marriage. She had a temple on the road from Troezen to Hermione.
  • Olympia, of Olympia.
  • Pandemos, of the whole demos. In Athens a great festival was celebrated on the Acropolis.
  • Paphia, of Paphos, with a great festival. The priests performed her mysteries.
  • Philomeidēs, smile loving.
  • Pontia, of the open sea, at Hermione.137
  • Praxis, act.
  • Skotia, dark one.
  • Ourania, heavenly that indicates her oriental descent.

Worship

Classical period

Main article: Ancient Greek religion

Aphrodite's main festival, the Aphrodisia, was celebrated across Greece, but particularly in Athens and Corinth. In Athens, the Aphrodisia was celebrated on the fourth day of the month of Hekatombaion in honor of Aphrodite's role in the unification of Attica.138139 During this festival, the priests of Aphrodite would purify the temple of Aphrodite Pandemos on the southwestern slope of the Acropolis with the blood of a sacrificed dove.140 Next, the altars would be anointed141 and the cult statues of Aphrodite Pandemos and Peitho would be escorted in a majestic procession to a place where they would be ritually bathed.142 Aphrodite was also honored in Athens as part of the Arrhephoria festival.143 The fourth day of every month was sacred to Aphrodite.144

Pausanias records that, in Sparta, Aphrodite was worshipped as Aphrodite Areia, which means "warlike".145146 This epithet stresses Aphrodite's connections to Ares, with whom she had extramarital relations.147148 Pausanias also records that, in Sparta149150 and on Cythera, a number of extremely ancient cult statues of Aphrodite portrayed her bearing arms.151152 Other cult statues showed her bound in chains.153

Aphrodite was the patron goddess of prostitutes of all varieties,154155 ranging from pornai (cheap street prostitutes typically owned as slaves by wealthy pimps) to hetairai (expensive, well-educated hired companions, who were usually self-employed and sometimes provided sex to their customers).156 The city of Corinth was renowned throughout the ancient world for its many hetairai,157 who had a widespread reputation for being among the most skilled, but also the most expensive, prostitutes in the Greek world.158 Corinth also had a major temple to Aphrodite located on the Acrocorinth159 and was one of the main centers of her cult.160 Records of numerous dedications to Aphrodite made by successful courtesans have survived in poems and in pottery inscriptions.161 References to Aphrodite in association with prostitution are found in Corinth as well as on the islands of Cyprus, Cythera, and Sicily.162 Aphrodite's Mesopotamian precursor Inanna-Ishtar was also closely associated with prostitution.163164165

Scholars in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries believed that the cult of Aphrodite may have involved ritual prostitution,166167 an assumption based on ambiguous passages in certain ancient texts, particularly a fragment of a skolion by the Boeotian poet Pindar,168 which mentions prostitutes in Corinth in association with Aphrodite.169 Modern scholars now dismiss the notion of ritual prostitution in Greece as a "historiographic myth" with no factual basis.170

Hellenistic and Roman periods

During the Hellenistic period, the Greeks identified Aphrodite with the ancient Egyptian goddesses Hathor and Isis.171172173 Aphrodite was the patron goddess of the Lagid queens and Queen Arsinoe II was identified as her mortal incarnation.174 Aphrodite was worshipped in Alexandria and had numerous temples in and around the city.175 Arsinoe II introduced the cult of Adonis to Alexandria and many of the women there partook in it.176 The Tessarakonteres, a gigantic catamaran galley designed by Archimedes for Ptolemy IV Philopator, had a circular temple to Aphrodite on it with a marble statue of the goddess herself.177 In the second century BC, Ptolemy VIII Physcon and his wives Cleopatra II and Cleopatra III dedicated a temple to Aphrodite Hathor at Philae.178 Statuettes of Aphrodite for personal devotion became common in Egypt starting in the early Ptolemaic times and extending until long after Egypt became a Roman province.179

The ancient Romans identified Aphrodite with their goddess Venus, who was originally a goddess of agricultural fertility, vegetation, and springtime.180 According to the Roman historian Livy, Aphrodite and Venus were officially identified in the third century BC181 when the cult of Venus Erycina was introduced to Rome from the Greek sanctuary of Aphrodite on Mount Eryx in Sicily.182 After this point, Romans adopted Aphrodite's iconography and myths and applied them to Venus.183 Because Aphrodite was the mother of the Trojan hero Aeneas in Greek mythology184 and the Roman tradition claimed Aeneas as the founder of Rome,185 Venus became venerated as Venus Genetrix, the mother of the entire Roman nation.186 Julius Caesar claimed to be directly descended from Aeneas's son Iulus187 and became a strong proponent of the cult of Venus.188 This precedent was later followed by his nephew Augustus and the later emperors claiming succession from him.189

This syncretism greatly impacted Greek worship of Aphrodite.190 During the Roman era, the cults of Aphrodite in many Greek cities began to emphasize her relationship with Troy and Aeneas.191 They also began to adopt distinctively Roman elements,192 portraying Aphrodite as more maternal, more militaristic, and more concerned with administrative bureaucracy.193 She was claimed as a divine guardian by many political magistrates.194 Appearances of Aphrodite in Greek literature also vastly proliferated, usually showing Aphrodite in a characteristically Roman manner.195

Mythology

Birth

Aphrodite is usually said to have been born near her chief center of worship, Paphos, on the island of Cyprus, which is why she is sometimes called "Cyprian", especially in the poetic works of Sappho. The Sanctuary of Aphrodite Paphia, marking her birthplace, was a place of pilgrimage in the ancient world for centuries.196 Other versions of her myth have her born near the island of Cythera, hence another of her names, "Cytherea".197 Cythera was a stopping place for trade and culture between Crete and the Peloponesus,198 so these stories may preserve traces of the migration of Aphrodite's cult from the Middle East to mainland Greece.199

According to the version of her birth recounted by Hesiod in his Theogony,200201 Cronus severed Uranus' genitals and threw them behind him into the sea.202203204 The foam from his genitals gave rise to Aphrodite205 (hence her name, which Hesiod interprets as "foam-arisen"),206 while the Giants, the Erinyes (furies), and the Meliae emerged from the drops of his blood.207208 Hesiod states that the genitals "were carried over the sea a long time, and white foam arose from the immortal flesh; with it a girl grew". After Aphrodite was born from the sea-foam, she washed up to shore in the presence of the other gods. Hesiod's account of Aphrodite's birth following Uranus's castration is probably derived from The Song of Kumarbi,209210 an ancient Hittite epic poem in which the god Kumarbi overthrows his father Anu, the god of the sky, and bites off his genitals, causing him to become pregnant and give birth to Anu's children, which include Ishtar and her brother Teshub, the Hittite storm god.211212

In the Iliad,213 Aphrodite is described as the daughter of Zeus and Dione.214 Dione's name appears to be a feminine cognate to Dios and Dion,215 which are oblique forms of the name Zeus.216 Zeus and Dione shared a cult at Dodona in northwestern Greece.217 In the Theogony, Hesiod describes Dione as an Oceanid,218 but Apollodorus makes her the thirteenth Titan, child of Gaia and Uranus.219

Marriage

Aphrodite is consistently portrayed as a nubile, infinitely desirable adult, having had no childhood.220 She is often depicted nude.221 In the Iliad, Aphrodite is the apparently unmarried consort of Ares, the god of war,222 and the wife of Hephaestus is a different goddess named Charis.223 Likewise, in Hesiod's Theogony, Aphrodite is unmarried and the wife of Hephaestus is Aglaea, the youngest of the three Charites.224

In Book Eight of the Odyssey,225 however, the blind singer Demodocus describes Aphrodite as the wife of Hephaestus and tells how she committed adultery with Ares during the Trojan War.226227 The sun-god Helios saw Aphrodite and Ares having sex in Hephaestus's bed and warned Hephaestus, who fashioned a fine, near invisible net.228 The next time Ares and Aphrodite had sex together, the net trapped them both.229 Hephaestus brought all the gods into the bedchamber to laugh at the captured adulterers,230 but Apollo, Hermes, and Poseidon had sympathy for Ares231 and Poseidon agreed to pay Hephaestus for Ares's release.232 Aphrodite returned to her temple in Cyprus, where she was attended by the Charites.233 This narrative probably originated as a Greek folk tale, originally independent of the Odyssey.234 In a much later interpolated detail, Ares put the young soldier Alectryon by the door to warn of Helios's arrival but Alectryon fell asleep on guard duty.235 Helios discovered the two and alerted Hephaestus; Ares in rage turned Alectryon into a rooster, which unfailingly crows to announce the sunrise.236

After exposing them, Hephaestus asks Zeus for his wedding gifts and dowry to be returned to him;237 by the time of the Trojan War, he is married to Charis/Aglaea, one of the Graces, apparently divorced from Aphrodite.238239 Afterwards, it was generally Ares who was regarded as the husband or official consort of the goddess; on the François Vase, the two arrive at the wedding of Peleus and Thetis on the same chariot, as do Zeus with Hera and Poseidon with Amphitrite. The poets Pindar and Aeschylus refer to Ares as Aphrodite's husband.240

Later stories were invented to explain Aphrodite's marriage to Hephaestus. In the most famous story, Zeus hastily married Aphrodite to Hephaestus in order to prevent the other gods from fighting over her.241 In another version of the myth, Hephaestus gave his mother Hera a golden throne, but when she sat on it, she became trapped and he refused to let her go until she agreed to give him Aphrodite's hand in marriage.242 Hephaestus was overjoyed to be married to the goddess of beauty, and forged her beautiful jewelry, including a strophion (στρόφιον) known as the kestos himas (κεστὸς ἱμάς),243 a saltire-shaped undergarment (usually translated as the girdle of Aphrodite),244 which accentuated her breasts245 and made her even more irresistible to men.246 Such strophia were commonly used in depictions of the Near Eastern goddesses Ishtar and Atargatis.247

Attendants

Aphrodite is almost always accompanied by Eros, the god of lust and sexual desire.248 In his Theogony, Hesiod describes Eros as one of the four original primeval forces born at the beginning of time,249 but, after the birth of Aphrodite from the sea foam, he is joined by Himeros and, together, they become Aphrodite's constant companions.250 In early Greek art, Eros and Himeros are both shown as idealized handsome youths with wings.251 The Greek lyric poets regarded the power of Eros and Himeros as dangerous, compulsive, and impossible for anyone to resist.252 In modern times, Eros is often seen as Aphrodite's son,253 but this is actually a comparatively late innovation.254 A scholion on Theocritus's Idylls remarks that the sixth-century BC poet Sappho had described Eros as the son of Aphrodite and Uranus,255 but the first surviving reference to Eros as Aphrodite's son comes from Apollonius of Rhodes's Argonautica, written in the third century BC, which makes him the son of Aphrodite and Ares.256 Later, the Romans, who saw Venus as a mother goddess, seized on this idea of Eros as Aphrodite's son and popularized it,257 making it the predominant portrayal in works on mythology until the present day.258

Aphrodite's main attendants were the three Charites, whom Hesiod identifies as the daughters of Zeus and Eurynome and names as Aglaea ("Splendor"), Euphrosyne ("Good Cheer"), and Thalia ("Abundance").259 The Charites had been worshipped as goddesses in Greece since the beginning of Greek history, long before Aphrodite was introduced to the pantheon.260 Aphrodite's other set of attendants was the three Horae (the "Hours"),261 whom Hesiod identifies as the daughters of Zeus and Themis and names as Eunomia ("Good Order"), Dike ("Justice"), and Eirene ("Peace").262 Aphrodite was also sometimes accompanied by Harmonia, her daughter by Ares, and Hebe, the daughter of Zeus and Hera.263

The fertility god Priapus was usually considered to be Aphrodite's son by Dionysus,264265 but he was sometimes also described as her son by Hermes, Adonis, or even Zeus.266 A scholion on Apollonius of Rhodes's Argonautica267 states that, while Aphrodite was pregnant with Priapus, Hera envied her and applied an evil potion to her belly while she was sleeping to ensure that the child would be hideous.268 In another version, Hera cursed Aphrodite's unborn son because he had been fathered by Zeus.269 When Aphrodite gave birth, she was horrified to see that the child had a massive, permanently erect penis, a potbelly, and a huge tongue.270 Aphrodite abandoned the infant to die in the wilderness, but a herdsman found him and raised him, later discovering that Priapus could use his massive penis to aid in the growth of plants.271

Anchises

Main article: Anchises

The First Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite (Hymn 5), which was probably composed sometime in the mid-seventh century BC,272 describes how Zeus once became annoyed with Aphrodite for causing deities to fall in love with mortals,273 so he caused her to fall in love with Anchises, a handsome mortal shepherd who lived in the foothills beneath Mount Ida near the city of Troy.274 Aphrodite appears to Anchises in the form of a tall, beautiful, mortal virgin while he is alone in his home.275 Anchises sees her dressed in bright clothing and gleaming jewelry, with her breasts shining with divine radiance.276 He asks her if she is Aphrodite and promises to build her an altar on top of the mountain if she will bless him and his family.277

Aphrodite lies and tells him that she is not a goddess, but the daughter of one of the noble families of Phrygia.278 She claims to be able to understand the Trojan language because she had a Trojan nurse as a child and says that she found herself on the mountainside after she was snatched up by Hermes while dancing in a celebration in honor of Artemis, the goddess of virginity.279 Aphrodite tells Anchises that she is still a virgin and begs him to take her to his parents.280 Anchises immediately becomes overcome with mad lust for Aphrodite and swears that he will have sex with her.281 Anchises takes Aphrodite, with her eyes cast downwards, to his bed, which is covered in the furs of lions and bears.282 He then strips her naked and makes love to her.283

After the lovemaking is complete, Aphrodite reveals her true divine form.284 Anchises is terrified, but Aphrodite consoles him and promises that she will bear him a son.285 She prophesies that their son will be the demigod Aeneas, who will be raised by the nymphs of the wilderness for five years before going to Troy to become a nobleman like his father.286 The story of Aeneas's conception is also mentioned in Hesiod's Theogony and in Book II of Homer's Iliad.287288

Adonis

Main article: Adonis

The myth of Aphrodite and Adonis is probably derived from the ancient Sumerian legend of Inanna and Dumuzid.289290291 The Greek name Ἄδωνις (Adōnis, Greek pronunciation: [ádɔːnis]) is derived from the Canaanite word ʼadōn, meaning "lord".292293 The earliest known Greek reference to Adonis comes from a fragment of a poem by the Lesbian poet Sappho (c. 630 – c. 570 BC), in which a chorus of young girls asks Aphrodite what they can do to mourn Adonis's death.294 Aphrodite replies that they must beat their breasts and tear their tunics.295 Later references flesh out the story with more details.296 According to the retelling of the story found in the poem Metamorphoses by the Roman poet Ovid (43 BC – 17/18 AD), Adonis was the son of Myrrha, who was cursed by Aphrodite with insatiable lust for her own father, King Cinyras of Cyprus, after Myrrha's mother bragged that her daughter was more beautiful than the goddess.297 Driven out after becoming pregnant, Myrrha was changed into a myrrh tree, but still gave birth to Adonis.298

Aphrodite found the baby and took him to the underworld to be fostered by Persephone.299 She returned for him once he was grown and discovered him to be strikingly handsome.300 Persephone wanted to keep Adonis, resulting in a custody battle between the two goddesses over whom should rightly possess Adonis.301 Zeus settled the dispute by decreeing that Adonis would spend one third of the year with Aphrodite, one third with Persephone, and one third with whomever he chose.302 Adonis chose to spend that time with Aphrodite.303 Then, one day, while Adonis was hunting, he was wounded by a wild boar and bled to death in Aphrodite's arms.304 In a semi-mocking work, the Dialogues of the Gods, the satirical author Lucian comedically relates how a frustrated Aphrodite complains to the moon goddess Selene about her son Eros making Persephone fall in love with Adonis and now she has to share him with her.305

In different versions of the story, the boar was either sent by Ares, who was jealous that Aphrodite was spending so much time with Adonis, or by Artemis, who wanted revenge against Aphrodite for having killed her devoted follower Hippolytus.306 In another version, Apollo in fury changed himself into a boar and killed Adonis because Aphrodite had blinded his son Erymanthus when he stumbled upon Aphrodite naked as she was bathing after intercourse with Adonis.307 The story also provides an etiology for Aphrodite's associations with certain flowers.308 Reportedly, as she mourned Adonis's death, she caused anemones to grow wherever his blood fell and declared a festival on the anniversary of his death.309 In one version of the story, Aphrodite injured herself on a thorn from a rose bush and the rose, which had previously been white, was stained red by her blood.310 According to Lucian's On the Syrian Goddess,311 each year during the festival of Adonis, the Adonis River in Lebanon (now known as the Abraham River) ran red with blood.312

The myth of Adonis is associated with the festival of the Adonia, which was celebrated by Greek women every year in midsummer.313 The festival, which was evidently already celebrated in Lesbos by Sappho's time, seems to have first become popular in Athens in the mid-fifth century BC.314 At the start of the festival, the women would plant a "garden of Adonis", a small garden planted inside a small basket or a shallow piece of broken pottery containing a variety of quick-growing plants, such as lettuce and fennel, or even quick-sprouting grains such as wheat and barley.315 The women would then climb ladders to the roofs of their houses, where they would place the gardens out under the heat of the summer sun.316 The plants would sprout in the sunlight but wither quickly in the heat.317 Then the women would mourn and lament loudly over the death of Adonis,318 tearing their clothes and beating their breasts in a public display of grief.319

Divine favoritism

In Hesiod's Works and Days, Zeus orders Aphrodite to make Pandora, the first woman, physically beautiful and sexually attractive.320 so "men will love to embrace" her.321 Aphrodite "spills grace" over Pandora's head322 and equips her with "painful desire and knee-weakening anguish".323 Aphrodite's attendants, Peitho, the Charites, and the Horae, adorn Pandora with finery and jewelry.324

After the deaths of their parents, the orphaned Cleothera along with Merope were raised by Aphrodite.325 The other Olympian goddesses also blessed the girls with gifts and blessings; Hera gave them beauty, Artemis high stature, and Athena taught them women's crafts.326327 When Cleothera and Merope were of age, Aphrodite consulted with Zeus to secure happy marriages for them.328

According to one myth, Aphrodite aided Hippomenes, a noble youth who wished to marry Atalanta, a maiden who was renowned throughout the land for her beauty, but who refused to marry any man unless he could outrun her in a footrace.329330 Atalanta was an exceedingly swift runner and she beheaded all of the men who lost to her.331332 Aphrodite gave Hippomenes three golden apples from the Garden of the Hesperides and instructed him to toss them in front of Atalanta as he raced her.333334 Hippomenes obeyed Aphrodite's order335 and Atalanta, seeing the beautiful, golden fruits, bent down to pick up each one, allowing Hippomenes to outrun her.336337 In the version of the story from Ovid's Metamorphoses, Hippomenes forgets to repay Aphrodite for her aid,338339 so she causes the couple to become inflamed with lust while they are staying at the temple of Cybele.340 The couple desecrate the temple by having sex in it, leading Cybele to turn them into lions as punishment.341342

The myth of Pygmalion is first mentioned by the third-century BC Greek writer Philostephanus of Cyrene,343344 but is first recounted in detail in Ovid's Metamorphoses.345 According to Ovid, Pygmalion was an exceedingly handsome sculptor from the island of Cyprus, who was so sickened by the immorality of women that he refused to marry.346347 He fell madly and passionately in love with the ivory cult statue he was carving of Aphrodite and longed to marry it.348349 Because Pygmalion was extremely pious and devoted to Aphrodite,350351 the goddess brought the statue to life.352353 Pygmalion married the girl the statue became and they had a son named Paphos, after whom the capital of Cyprus received its name.354355 Pseudo-Apollodorus later mentions "Metharme, daughter of Pygmalion, king of Cyprus".356

Anger myths

Aphrodite generously rewarded those who honored her, but also punished those who disrespected her, often quite brutally.357 A myth described in Apollonius of Rhodes's Argonautica and later summarized in the Bibliotheca of Pseudo-Apollodorus tells how, when the women of the island of Lemnos refused to sacrifice to Aphrodite, the goddess cursed them to stink horribly so that their husbands would never have sex with them.358 Instead, their husbands started having sex with their Thracian slave-girls.359 In anger, the women of Lemnos murdered the entire male population of the island, as well as all the Thracian slaves.360 When Jason and his crew of Argonauts arrived on Lemnos, they mated with the sex-starved women under Aphrodite's approval and repopulated the island.361 From then on, the women of Lemnos never disrespected Aphrodite again.362

In Euripides's tragedy Hippolytus, which was first performed at the City Dionysia in 428 BC, Theseus's son Hippolytus worships only Artemis, the goddess of virginity, and refuses to engage in any form of sexual contact.363 Aphrodite is infuriated by his prideful behavior364 and, in the prologue to the play, she declares that, by honoring only Artemis and refusing to venerate her, Hippolytus has directly challenged her authority.365 Aphrodite therefore causes Hippolytus's stepmother, Phaedra, to fall in love with him, knowing Hippolytus will reject her.366 After being rejected, Phaedra commits suicide and leaves a suicide note to Theseus telling him that she killed herself because Hippolytus attempted to rape her.367 Theseus prays to Poseidon to kill Hippolytus for his transgression.368 Poseidon sends a wild bull to scare Hippolytus's horses as he is riding by the sea in his chariot, causing the horses to bolt and smash the chariot against the cliffs, dragging Hippolytus to a bloody death across the rocky shoreline.369 The play concludes with Artemis vowing to kill Aphrodite's own mortal beloved (presumably Adonis) in revenge.370

Glaucus of Corinth angered Aphrodite by refusing to let his horses for chariot racing mate, since doing so would hinder their speed.371 During the chariot race at the funeral games of King Pelias, Aphrodite drove his horses mad and they tore him apart.372

Polyphonte was a young woman who chose a virginal life with Artemis instead of marriage and children, as favoured by Aphrodite. Aphrodite cursed her, causing her to have children by a bear. The resulting bear-like offspring Agrius and Oreius were wild cannibals who incurred the hatred of Zeus for attacking traveling strangers. Ultimately, Ares (who was Polyphonte's grandfather) and Hermes (who was originally dispatched by Zeus to kill them) transformed all Polyphonte, Agrius, and Oreius into birds of ill omen while the servant who begged for mercy was transformed into a woodpecker.373

According to Apollodorus, a jealous Aphrodite cursed Eos, the goddess of dawn, to be perpetually in love and have insatiable sexual desire because Eos once had lain with Aphrodite's sweetheart Ares.374

According to Ovid in his Metamorphoses (book 10.238 ff.), Propoetides who are the daughters of Propoetus from the city of Amathus on the island of Cyprus denied Aphrodite's divinity and failed to worship her properly. Therefore, Aphrodite turned them into the world's first prostitutes.375 According to Diodorus Siculus, when the Rhodian sea nymphe Halia's six sons by Poseidon arrogantly refused to let Aphrodite land upon their shore, the goddess cursed them with insanity. In their madness, they raped Halia. As punishment, Poseidon buried them in the island's sea-caverns.376

Xanthius, a descendant of Bellerophon, had two children: Leucippus and an unnamed daughter. Through the wrath of Aphrodite (reasons unknown), Leucippus fell in love with his own sister. They started a secret relationship but the girl was already betrothed to another man and he went on to inform her father Xanthius, without telling him the name of the seducer. Xanthius went straight to his daughter's chamber where she was together with Leucippus right at the moment. On hearing him enter, she tried to escape, but Xanthius hit her with a dagger, thinking that he was slaying the seducer, and killed her. Leucippus, failing to recognise his father at first, slew him. When the truth was revealed, he had to leave the country and took part in colonisation of Crete and the lands in Asia Minor.377

Queen Cenchreis of Cyprus, wife of King Cinyras, bragged that her daughter Myrrha was more beautiful than Aphrodite. Therefore, Myrrha was cursed by Aphrodite with insatiable lust for her own father, King Cinyras of Cyprus and he slept with her unknowingly in the dark. She eventually transformed into the myrrh tree and gave birth to Adonis in this form.378379380381 In another version of the same story, King of Assyria Theias was the father of Myrrha and Adonis, and again Aphrodite urged Myrrha, or Smyrna, to commit incest with her father, Theias. Myrrha's nurse helped with the scheme. When Theias discovered this, he flew into a rage, chasing his daughter with a knife. The gods turned her into a myrrh tree and Adonis eventually sprung from this tree. It was also said that Myrrha fled from her father, and Aphrodite transformed her into a tree. Adonis was then born when Theias shot an arrow into the tree or when a boar used its tusks to tear the tree's bark off.382 Cinyras also had three other daughters: Braesia, Laogora, and Orsedice. These girls by the wrath of Aphrodite (reasons unknown) cohabited with foreigners and ended their life in Egypt.383

The Muse Clio derided the goddess' own love for Adonis. Therefore, Clio fell in love with Pierus, son of Magnes and bore Hyacinth.384

Aegiale was a daughter of Adrastus and Amphithea and was married to Diomedes. Because of anger of Aphrodite, whom Diomedes had wounded in the war against Troy, she had multiple lovers, including a certain Hippolytus.385386 when Aegiale went so far as to threaten his life, he fled to Italy.387388 According to Stesichorus and Hesiod while Tyndareus sacrificing to the gods he forgot Aphrodite, therefore the goddess made his daughters twice and thrice wed and deserters of their husbands. Timandra deserted Echemus and went and came to Phyleus and Clytaemnestra deserted Agamemnon and lay with Aegisthus who was a worse mate for her and eventually killed her husband with her lover and finally, Helen of Troy deserted Menelaus under the influence of Aphrodite for Paris and her unfaitfulness eventually causes the War of Troy.389 As a result of her actions, Aphrodite caused the War of Troy in order to take Priam's kingdom and pass it down to her descendants.390

In one of the versions of the legend, Pasiphae did not make offerings to the goddess Venus [Aphrodite]. Because of this, Venus [Aphrodite] inspired in her an unnatural love for a bull resulting in the birth of the Minotaur391 or she cursed her because she was Helios's daughter who revealed her adultery to Hephaestus.392393 For Helios' own tale-telling, she cursed him with uncontrollable lust over the mortal princess Leucothoe, which led to him abandoning his then-lover Clytie, leaving her heartbroken.394

Lysippe was the mother of Tanais by Berossos. Her son only venerated Ares and was fully devoted to war, neglecting love and marriage. Aphrodite cursed him with falling in love with his own mother. Preferring to die rather than give up his chastity, he threw himself into the river Amazonius, which was subsequently renamed Tanais.395

According to Hyginus, Orpheus's mother Calliope of the Muses at the behest of Zeus, judged the dispute between the goddesses Aphrodite and Persephone over Adonis and decided that both shall possess him half of the year. This enraged Venus [Aphrodite], because she had not been granted what she thought was her right. Therefore, Venus [Aphrodite] inspired love for Orpheus in the women of Thrace, causing them to tear him apart as each of them sought Orpheus for herself.396

Aphrodite personally witnessed the young huntress Rhodopis swear eternal devotion and chastity to Artemis when she joined her group. Aphrodite then summoned her son Eros, and convinced him that such lifestyle was an insult to them both. So under her command, Eros made Rhodopis and Euthynicus, another young hunter who had shunned love and romance just like her, to fall in love with each other. Despite their chaste life, Rhodopis and Euthynicus withdrew to some cavern where they violated their vows. Artemis was not slow to take notice after seeing Aphrodite laugh, so she changed Rhodopis into a fountain as a punishment instead.397398

Judgment of Paris and Trojan War

Main articles: Judgement of Paris and Trojan War

The myth of the Judgement of Paris is mentioned briefly in the Iliad,399 but is described in depth in an epitome of the Cypria, a lost poem of the Epic Cycle,400 which records that all the gods and goddesses as well as various mortals were invited to the marriage of Peleus and Thetis (the eventual parents of Achilles).401 Only Eris, goddess of discord, was not invited.402 She was annoyed at this, so she arrived with a golden apple inscribed with the word καλλίστῃ (kallistēi, "for the fairest"), which she threw among the goddesses.403 Aphrodite, Hera, and Athena all claimed to be the fairest, and thus the rightful owner of the apple.404

The goddesses chose to place the matter before Zeus, who, not wanting to favor one of the goddesses, put the choice into the hands of Paris, a Trojan prince.405 After bathing in the spring of Mount Ida where Troy was situated, the goddesses appeared before Paris for his decision.406 In the extant ancient depictions of the Judgement of Paris, Aphrodite is only occasionally represented nude, and Athena and Hera are always fully clothed.407 Since the Renaissance, however, Western paintings have typically portrayed all three goddesses as completely naked.408All three goddesses were ideally beautiful and Paris could not decide between them, so they resorted to bribes.409 Hera tried to bribe Paris with power over all Asia and Europe,410 and Athena offered wisdom, fame and glory in battle,411 but Aphrodite promised Paris that, if he were to choose her as the fairest, she would let him marry the most beautiful woman on earth.412 This woman was Helen, who was already married to King Menelaus of Sparta.413 Paris selected Aphrodite and awarded her the apple.414 The other two goddesses were enraged and, as a direct result, sided with the Greeks in the Trojan War.415

Aphrodite plays an important and active role throughout the entirety of Homer's Iliad.416 In Book III, she rescues Paris from Menelaus after he foolishly challenges him to a one-on-one duel.417 She then appears to Helen in the form of an old woman and attempts to persuade her to have sex with Paris,418 reminding her of his physical beauty and athletic prowess.419 Helen immediately recognizes Aphrodite by her beautiful neck, perfect breasts, and flashing eyes420 and sharply chides the goddess.421 Aphrodite rebukes Helen, reminding her that, if she vexes her, she will punish her just as much as she has favored her already.422 Helen demurely follows Aphrodite's command.423

In Book V, Aphrodite charges into battle to rescue her son Aeneas from the Greek hero Diomedes.424 Diomedes recognizes Aphrodite as a "weakling" goddess425 and, thrusting his spear under Athena's guidance, nicks her wrist through her "ambrosial robe".426 Aphrodite borrows Ares's chariot to ride back to Mount Olympus, where she meets Dione. Aphrodite complains to her mother about Diomedes' handiwork, and Dione consoles her daughter with examples of gods wounded by mortals and notes that Diomedes is risking his life by fighting against the gods.427 In fact, Diomedes subsequently fought both Apollo and Ares but lived to an old age, his wife Aegialia, however, took other lovers with the help of the vengeful Aphrodite and never permitted him to return home to Argos after the war. Dione then heals Aphrodite's wounds while Zeus chides her for putting herself in danger,428429 reminding her that "her specialty is love, not war."430 According to Walter Burkert, this scene directly parallels a scene from Tablet VI of the Epic of Gilgamesh in which Ishtar, Aphrodite's Akkadian precursor, cries to her mother Antu after the hero Gilgamesh rejects her sexual advances, but she is mildly rebuked by her father Anu.431 In Book XIV of the Iliad, during the Dios Apate episode, Aphrodite lends her kestos himas to Hera for the purpose of seducing Zeus and distracting him from the battlefield, so the gods could interfere without the fear of Zeus.432 In the Theomachia in Book XXI, Aphrodite again enters the battlefield to carry Ares away after he is wounded by Athena.433434

Offspring

Sometimes poets and dramatists recounted ancient traditions, which varied, and sometimes they invented new details; later scholiasts might draw on either or simply guess.435436 Thus while Aeneas and Phobos were regularly described as offspring of Aphrodite, others listed here such as Priapus and Eros were sometimes said to be children of Aphrodite but with varying fathers and sometimes given other mothers or none at all.

OffspringFather
Aeneas,437 Lyrus/Lyrnus438Anchises
Phobos,439 Deimos,440 Harmonia,441442 the Erotes (Eros,443444 Anteros,445 Himeros,446 Pothos)447Ares448449
Hymenaios, Iacchus, Priapus,450 the Charites (Graces: Aglaea, Euphrosyne, Thalia)Dionysus
Hermaphroditos,451 Priapus452Hermes
Rhodos453Poseidon
Beroe, Golgos,454 Priapus (rarely)455Adonis456457
Eryx,458 Meligounis and several more unnamed daughters459Butes460461
Astynous462Phaethon463
Priapus464Zeus
Peitho465unknown

Iconography

Symbols

Rich-throned immortal Aphrodite, scheming daughter of Zeus, I pray you, with pain and sickness, Queen, crush not my heart, but come, if ever in the past you heard my voice from afar and hearkened, and left your father's halls and came, with gold chariot yoked; and pretty sparrows brought you swiftly across the dark earth fluttering wings from heaven through the air.

— Sappho, "Ode to Aphrodite", lines 1–10, translated by M. L. West466

Aphrodite's most prominent avian symbol was the dove,467 which was originally an important symbol of her Near Eastern precursor Inanna-Ishtar.468469 (In fact, the ancient Greek word for "dove", peristerá, may be derived from a Semitic phrase peraḥ Ištar, meaning "bird of Ishtar".470471) Aphrodite frequently appears with doves in ancient Greek pottery472 and the temple of Aphrodite Pandemos on the southwest slope of the Athenian Acropolis was decorated with relief sculptures of doves with knotted fillets in their beaks.473 Votive offerings of small, white, marble doves were also discovered in the temple of Aphrodite at Daphni.474 In addition to her associations with doves, Aphrodite was also closely linked with sparrows475 and she is described riding in a chariot pulled by sparrows in Sappho's "Ode to Aphrodite".476 According to myth, the dove was originally a nymph named Peristera who helped Aphrodite win in a flower-picking contest over her son Eros; for this Eros turned her into a dove, but Aphrodite took the dove under her wing and made it her sacred bird.477478

Because of her connections to the sea, Aphrodite was associated with a number of different types of water fowl,479 including swans, geese, and ducks.480 Aphrodite's other symbols included the sea, conch shells, and roses.481 The rose and myrtle flowers were both sacred to Aphrodite.482 A myth explaining the origin of Aphrodite's connection to myrtle goes that originally the myrtle was a maiden, Myrina, a dedicated priestess of Aphrodite. When her previous betrothed carried her away from the temple to marry her, Myrina killed him, and Aphrodite turned her into a myrtle, forever under her protection.483 Her most important fruit emblem was the apple,484 and in myth, she turned Melos, childhood friend and kin-in-law to Adonis, into an apple after he killed himself, mourning over Adonis' death. Likewise, Melos's wife Pelia was turned into a dove.485 She was also associated with pomegranates,486 possibly because the red seeds suggested sexuality487 or because Greek women sometimes used pomegranates as a method of birth control.488 In Greek art, Aphrodite is often also accompanied by dolphins and Nereids.489

In classical art

A scene of Aphrodite rising from the sea appears on the back of the Ludovisi Throne (c. 460 BC),490 which was probably originally part of a massive altar that was constructed as part of the Ionic temple to Aphrodite in the Greek polis of Locri Epizephyrii in Magna Graecia in southern Italy.491 The throne shows Aphrodite rising from the sea, clad in a diaphanous garment, which is drenched with seawater and clinging to her body, revealing her upturned breasts and the outline of her navel.492 Her hair hangs dripping as she reaches to two attendants standing barefoot on the rocky shore on either side of her, lifting her out of the water.493 Scenes with Aphrodite appear in works of classical Greek pottery,494 including a famous white-ground kylix by the Pistoxenos Painter dating the between c. 470 and 460 BC, showing her riding on a swan or goose.495 Aphrodite was often described as golden-haired and portrayed with this color hair in art.496

In c. 364/361 BC, the Athenian sculptor Praxiteles carved the marble statue Aphrodite of Knidos,497498 which Pliny the Elder later praised as the greatest sculpture ever made.499 The statue showed a nude Aphrodite modestly covering her pubic region while resting against a water pot with her robe draped over it for support.500501 The Aphrodite of Knidos was the first full-sized statue to depict Aphrodite completely naked502 and one of the first sculptures that was intended to be viewed from all sides.503504 The statue was purchased by the people of Knidos in around 350 BC505 and proved to be tremendously influential on later depictions of Aphrodite.506 The original sculpture has been lost,507508 but written descriptions of it as well several depictions of it on coins are still extant509510511 and over sixty copies, small-scale models, and fragments of it have been identified.512

The Greek painter Apelles of Kos, a contemporary of Praxiteles, produced the panel painting Aphrodite Anadyomene (Aphrodite Rising from the Sea).513 According to Athenaeus, Apelles was inspired to paint the painting after watching the courtesan Phryne take off her clothes, untie her hair, and bathe naked in the sea at Eleusis.514 The painting was displayed in the Asclepeion on the island of Kos.515 The Aphrodite Anadyomene went unnoticed for centuries,516 but Pliny the Elder records that, in his own time, it was regarded as Apelles's most famous work.517

During the Hellenistic and Roman periods, statues depicting Aphrodite proliferated;518 many of these statues were modeled at least to some extent on Praxiteles's Aphrodite of Knidos.519 Some statues show Aphrodite crouching naked;520 others show her wringing water out of her hair as she rises from the sea.521 Another common type of statue is known as Aphrodite Kallipygos, the name of which is Greek for "Aphrodite of the Beautiful Buttocks";522 this type of sculpture shows Aphrodite lifting her peplos to display her buttocks to the viewer while looking back at them from over her shoulder.523 The ancient Romans produced massive numbers of copies of Greek sculptures of Aphrodite524 and more sculptures of Aphrodite have survived from antiquity than of any other deity.525

Post-classical culture

Middle Ages

Early Christians frequently adapted pagan iconography to suit Christian purposes.526527528 In the Early Middle Ages, Christians adapted elements of Aphrodite/Venus's iconography and applied them to Eve and prostitutes,529 but also female saints and even the Virgin Mary.530 Christians in the east reinterpreted the story of Aphrodite's birth as a metaphor for baptism;531 in a Coptic stele from the sixth century AD, a female orant is shown wearing Aphrodite's conch shell as a sign that she is newly baptized.532 Throughout the Middle Ages, villages and communities across Europe still maintained folk tales and traditions about Aphrodite/Venus533 and travelers reported a wide variety of stories.534 Numerous Roman mosaics of Venus survived in Britain, preserving memory of the pagan past.535 In North Africa in the late fifth century AD, Fulgentius of Ruspe encountered mosaics of Aphrodite536 and reinterpreted her as a symbol of the sin of Lust,537 arguing that she was shown naked because "the sin of lust is never cloaked"538 and that she was often shown "swimming" because "all lust suffers shipwreck of its affairs".539 He also argued that she was associated with doves and conches because these are symbols of copulation,540 and that she was associated with roses because "as the rose gives pleasure, but is swept away by the swift movement of the seasons, so lust is pleasant for a moment, but is swept away forever."541

While Fulgentius had appropriated Aphrodite as a symbol of Lust,542 Isidore of Seville (c. 560–636) interpreted her as a symbol of marital procreative sex543 and declared that the moral of the story of Aphrodite's birth is that sex can only be holy in the presence of semen, blood, and heat, which he regarded as all being necessary for procreation.544 Meanwhile, Isidore denigrated Aphrodite/Venus's son Eros/Cupid as a "demon of fornication" (daemon fornicationis).545 Aphrodite/Venus was best known to Western European scholars through her appearances in Virgil's Aeneid and Ovid's Metamorphoses.546 Venus is mentioned in the Latin poem Pervigilium Veneris ("The Eve of Saint Venus"), written in the third or fourth century AD,547 and in Giovanni Boccaccio's Genealogia Deorum Gentilium.548

Since the Late Middle Ages. the myth of the Venusberg (German; French Mont de Vénus, "Mountain of Venus") – a subterranean realm ruled by Venus, hidden underneath Christian Europe – became a motif of European folklore rendered in various legends and epics. In German folklore of the 16th century, the narrative becomes associated with the minnesinger Tannhäuser, and in that form the myth was taken up in later literature and opera.

Art

Aphrodite is the central figure in Sandro Botticelli's painting Primavera, which has been described as "one of the most written about, and most controversial paintings in the world",549 and "one of the most popular paintings in Western art".550 The story of Aphrodite's birth from the foam was a popular subject matter for painters during the Italian Renaissance,551 who were attempting to consciously reconstruct Apelles of Kos's lost masterpiece Aphrodite Anadyomene based on the literary ekphrasis of it preserved by Cicero and Pliny the Elder.552 Artists also drew inspiration from Ovid's description of the birth of Venus in his Metamorphoses.553 Sandro Botticelli's The Birth of Venus (c. 1485) was also partially inspired by a description by Poliziano of a relief on the subject.554 Later Italian renditions of the same scene include Titian's Venus Anadyomene (c. 1525)555 and Raphael's painting in the Stufetta del cardinal Bibbiena (1516).556 Titian's biographer Giorgio Vasari identified all of Titian's paintings of naked women as paintings of "Venus",557 including an erotic painting from c. 1534, which he called the Venus of Urbino, even though the painting does not contain any of Aphrodite/Venus's traditional iconography and the woman in it is clearly shown in a contemporary setting, not a classical one.558

The Birth of Venus (1863) by Alexandre Cabanel Jacques-Louis David's final work was his 1824 magnum opus, Mars Being Disarmed by Venus,559 which combines elements of classical, Renaissance, traditional French art, and contemporary artistic styles.560 While he was working on the painting, David described it, saying, "This is the last picture I want to paint, but I want to surpass myself in it. I will put the date of my seventy-five years on it and afterwards I will never again pick up my brush."561 The painting was exhibited first in Brussels and then in Paris, where over 10,000 people came to see it.562 Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres's painting Venus Anadyomene was one of his major works.563 Louis Geofroy described it as a "dream of youth realized with the power of maturity, a happiness that few obtain, artists or others."564 Théophile Gautier declared: "Nothing remains of the marvelous painting of the Greeks, but surely if anything could give the idea of antique painting as it was conceived following the statues of Phidias and the poems of Homer, it is M. Ingres's painting: the Venus Anadyomene of Apelles has been found."565 Other critics dismissed it as a piece of unimaginative, sentimental kitsch,566 but Ingres himself considered it to be among his greatest works and used the same figure as the model for his later 1856 painting La Source.567

Paintings of Venus were favorites of the late nineteenth-century Academic artists in France.568569 In 1863, Alexandre Cabanel won widespread critical acclaim at the Paris Salon for his painting The Birth of Venus, which the French emperor Napoleon III immediately purchased for his own personal art collection.570 Édouard Manet's 1865 painting Olympia parodied the nude Venuses of the Academic painters, particularly Cabanel's Birth of Venus.571 In 1867, the English Academic painter Frederic Leighton displayed his Venus Disrobing for the Bath at the academy.572 The art critic J. B. Atkinson praised it, declaring that "Mr Leighton, instead of adopting corrupt Roman notions regarding Venus such as Rubens embodied, has wisely reverted to the Greek idea of Aphrodite, a goddess worshipped, and by artists painted, as the perfection of female grace and beauty".573 A year later, the English painter Dante Gabriel Rossetti, a founding member of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, painted Venus Verticordia (Latin for "Aphrodite, the Changer of Hearts"), showing Aphrodite as a nude red-headed woman in a garden of roses.574 Though he was reproached for his outré subject matter,575 Rossetti refused to alter the painting and it was soon purchased by J. Mitchell of Bradford.576 In 1879, William Adolphe Bouguereau exhibited at the Paris Salon his own Birth of Venus,577 which imitated the classical tradition of contrapposto and was met with widespread critical acclaim, rivalling the popularity of Cabanel's version from nearly two decades prior.578

Literature

William Shakespeare's erotic narrative poem Venus and Adonis (1593), a retelling of the courtship of Aphrodite and Adonis from Ovid's Metamorphoses,579580 was the most popular of all his works published within his own lifetime.581582 Six editions of it were published before Shakespeare's death (more than any of his other works)583 and it enjoyed particularly strong popularity among young adults.584 In 1605, Richard Barnfield lauded it,585 declaring that the poem had placed Shakespeare's name "in fames immortall Booke".586 Despite this, the poem has received mixed reception from modern critics;587 Samuel Taylor Coleridge defended it,588 but Samuel Butler complained that it bored him589 and C. S. Lewis described an attempted reading of it as "suffocating".590

Aphrodite appears in Richard Garnett's short story collection The Twilight of the Gods and Other Tales (1888),591 in which the gods' temples have been destroyed by Christians.592 Stories revolving around sculptures of Aphrodite were common in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.593 Examples of such works of literature include the novel The Tinted Venus: A Farcical Romance (1885) by Thomas Anstey Guthrie and the short story The Venus of Ille (1887) by Prosper Mérimée,594 both of which are about statues of Aphrodite that come to life.595 Another noteworthy example is Aphrodite in Aulis by the Anglo-Irish writer George Moore,596 which revolves around an ancient Greek family who moves to Aulis.597 The French writer Pierre Louÿs titled his erotic historical novel Aphrodite: mœurs antiques (1896) after the Greek goddess.598 The novel enjoyed widespread commercial success,599 but scandalized French audiences due to its sensuality and its decadent portrayal of Greek society.600

In the early twentieth century, stories of Aphrodite were used by feminist poets,601 such as Amy Lowell and Alicia Ostriker.602 Many of these poems dealt with Aphrodite's legendary birth from the foam of the sea.603 Other feminist writers, including Claude Cahun, Thit Jensen, and Anaïs Nin also made use of the myth of Aphrodite in their writings.604 Ever since the publication of Isabel Allende's book Aphrodite: A Memoir of the Senses in 1998, the name "Aphrodite" has been used as a title for dozens of books dealing with all topics even superficially connected to her domain.605 Frequently these books do not even mention Aphrodite,606 or mention her only briefly, but make use of her name as a selling point.607

Modern worship

In 1938, Gleb Botkin, a Russian immigrant to the United States, founded the Church of Aphrodite, a neopagan religion centered around the worship of a mother goddess, whom its practitioners identified as Aphrodite.608609 The Church of Aphrodite's theology was laid out in the book In Search of Reality, published in 1969, two years before Botkin's death.610 The book portrayed Aphrodite in a drastically different light than the one in which the Greeks envisioned her,611 instead casting her as "the sole Goddess of a somewhat Neoplatonic Pagan monotheism".612 It claimed that the worship of Aphrodite had been brought to Greece by the mystic teacher Orpheus,613 but that the Greeks had misunderstood Orpheus's teachings and had not realized the importance of worshipping Aphrodite alone.614

Aphrodite is a major deity in Wicca,615616 a contemporary nature-based syncretic Neopagan religion.617 Wiccans regard Aphrodite as one aspect of the Goddess618 and she is frequently invoked by name during enchantments dealing with love and romance.619620 Wiccans regard Aphrodite as the ruler of human emotions, erotic spirituality, creativity, and art.621 As one of the twelve Olympians, Aphrodite is a major deity within Hellenismos (Hellenic Polytheistic Reconstructionism),622623 a Neopagan religion which seeks to authentically revive and recreate the religion of ancient Greece in the modern world.624[better source needed] Unlike Wiccans, Hellenists are usually strictly polytheistic or pantheistic.625[better source needed] Hellenists venerate Aphrodite primarily as the goddess of romantic love,626[better source needed] but also as a goddess of sexuality, the sea, and war.627[better source needed] Her many epithets include "Sea Born", "Killer of Men", "She upon the Graves", "Fair Sailing", and "Ally in War".628[better source needed]

Genealogy

Aphrodite's family tree629
UranusGaia
Uranus' genitalsCoeusPhoebeCronusRhea
LetoZeusHeraPoseidonHadesDemeterHestia
ApolloArtemis    a630
     b631
AresHephaestus
Metis
Athena632
Maia
Hermes
Semele
Dionysus
Dione
    a633     b634
APHRODITE

See also

  • Ancient Greece portal
  • Religion portal
  • Myths portal

Notes

Bibliography

Look up Ἀφροδίτη in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Aphrodite.

References

  1. Ancient Greek: Ἀφροδίτη, romanized: Aphrodítē; Attic Greek pronunciation: [a.pʰro.dǐː.tɛː], Koinē Greek: [a.ɸroˈdi.te̝], Modern Greek: [a.froˈði.ti] /wiki/Ancient_Greek_language ↩

  2. This claim is made at Symposium 180e. It is hard to interpret the role of the various speeches in the dialogue and their relationship to what Plato actually thought; therefore, it is controversial whether Plato, in fact, believed this claim about Aphrodite. See Frisbee Sheffield, "The Role of the Earlier Speeches in the "Symposium": Plato's Endoxic Method?" in J. H. Lesher, Debra Nails & Frisbee C. C. Sheffield (eds.), Plato's Symposium: Issues in Interpretation and Reception, Harvard University Press, (2006). /wiki/Harvard_University_Press ↩

  3. Cyrino 2010, p. 14. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  4. Hesiod, Theogony, 190–197. /wiki/Theogony ↩

  5. Cyrino 2010, p. 14. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  6. Cyrino 2010, p. 14. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  7. West 2000, pp. 134–138. - West, Martin Litchfield (2000), "The Name of Aphrodite", Glotta, 76 (1./2. H), Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht: 134–138, JSTOR 40267103 https://www.jstor.org/stable/40267103 ↩

  8. West 2000, pp. 134–138. - West, Martin Litchfield (2000), "The Name of Aphrodite", Glotta, 76 (1./2. H), Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht: 134–138, JSTOR 40267103 https://www.jstor.org/stable/40267103 ↩

  9. West 2000, pp. 134–138. - West, Martin Litchfield (2000), "The Name of Aphrodite", Glotta, 76 (1./2. H), Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht: 134–138, JSTOR 40267103 https://www.jstor.org/stable/40267103 ↩

  10. Beekes 2009, p. 179. - Beekes, Robert S. P. (2009), Etymological Dictionary of Greek, vol. 1, Brill Publishers, ISBN 978-90-04-17418-4 https://archive.org/details/etymological-dictionary-of-greek_202306/page/n112/mode/1up ↩

  11. Paul Kretschmer, "Zum pamphylischen Dialekt", Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung auf dem Gebiet der Indogermanischen Sprachen, 33 (1895), 267. /wiki/Paul_Kretschmer ↩

  12. Ernst Maaß, "Aphrodite und die hl. Pelagia", Neue Jahrbücher für das klassische Altertum, 27 (1911), 457–468. ↩

  13. Vittore Pisani, "Akmon e Dieus", Archivio glottologico italiano, 24 (1930), 65–73. ↩

  14. Janda 2005, pp. 349–360. - Janda, Michael (2005), Elysion - Entstehung und Entwicklung der griechischen Religion, Institut für Sprachen und Literaturen, ISBN 978-3851247022 https://books.google.com/books?id=kglZAAAAMAAJ ↩

  15. Janda 2010, p. 65. - Janda, Michael (2010), Die Musik nach dem Chaos: der Schöpfungsmythos der europäischen Vorzeit, Institut für Sprachen und Literaturen, ISBN 978-3851242270 https://books.google.com/books?id=AQE4AQAAIAAJ ↩

  16. Witczak 1993, pp. 115–123. - Witczak, Krzysztof Tomasz (1993), Lambert Isebaert (ed.), "Greek Aphrodite and her Indo-European origins", Miscellanea Linguistica Graeco-Latina, Société des études classiques: 115–123 ↩

  17. Kölligan, Daniel (2007). "Aphrodite of the Dawn - Indo-European Heritage in Greek Divine Epithets and Theonyms". Letras Clássicas. 11 (11): 105–134. doi:10.11606/issn.2358-3150.v0i11p105-134. https://www.academia.edu/8880560 ↩

  18. Penglase 1994, p. 164. - Penglase, Charles (1994), Greek Myths and Mesopotamia: Parallels and Influence in the Homeric Hymns and Hesiod, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-15706-4 https://books.google.com/books?id=U4mFAgAAQBAJ&q=Ninurta&pg=PA42 ↩

  19. Boedeker 1974, pp. 15–16. - Boedeker, Deborah (1974), Aphrodite's Entry into Greek Epic, Brill Publishers, pp. 15–16 ↩

  20. Beekes 2009, p. 179. - Beekes, Robert S. P. (2009), Etymological Dictionary of Greek, vol. 1, Brill Publishers, ISBN 978-90-04-17418-4 https://archive.org/details/etymological-dictionary-of-greek_202306/page/n112/mode/1up ↩

  21. Cyrino 2010, pp. 26–27. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  22. Cyrino 2010, p. 26. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  23. West 2000, pp. 134–136. - West, Martin Litchfield (2000), "The Name of Aphrodite", Glotta, 76 (1./2. H), Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht: 134–138, JSTOR 40267103 https://www.jstor.org/stable/40267103 ↩

  24. West 2000, pp. 137–138. - West, Martin Litchfield (2000), "The Name of Aphrodite", Glotta, 76 (1./2. H), Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht: 134–138, JSTOR 40267103 https://www.jstor.org/stable/40267103 ↩

  25. Wilson-Wright, Aren M. (August 2019). Venus's Name - The Divine Name Aphrodite as a Phoenician Epithet. European Association of Biblical Studies Annual Conference. Warsaw. https://www.academia.edu/40109930 ↩

  26. Chicago Assyrian Dictionary, vol. 2, p. 111. ↩

  27. M. Hammarström, "Griechisch-etruskische Wortgleichungen", Glotta: Zeitschrift für griechische und lateinische Sprache 11 (1921), 215–216. ↩

  28. Frisk 1960, p. 196f. - Frisk, Hjalmar (1960), Griechisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, vol. 1, Carl Winter, p. 196f ↩

  29. Beekes 2009, p. 179. - Beekes, Robert S. P. (2009), Etymological Dictionary of Greek, vol. 1, Brill Publishers, ISBN 978-90-04-17418-4 https://archive.org/details/etymological-dictionary-of-greek_202306/page/n112/mode/1up ↩

  30. West 2000, p. 134. - West, Martin Litchfield (2000), "The Name of Aphrodite", Glotta, 76 (1./2. H), Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht: 134–138, JSTOR 40267103 https://www.jstor.org/stable/40267103 ↩

  31. Frisk 1960, p. 196f. - Frisk, Hjalmar (1960), Griechisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, vol. 1, Carl Winter, p. 196f ↩

  32. Beekes 2009, p. 179. - Beekes, Robert S. P. (2009), Etymological Dictionary of Greek, vol. 1, Brill Publishers, ISBN 978-90-04-17418-4 https://archive.org/details/etymological-dictionary-of-greek_202306/page/n112/mode/1up ↩

  33. Frisk 1960, p. 196f. - Frisk, Hjalmar (1960), Griechisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, vol. 1, Carl Winter, p. 196f ↩

  34. Beekes 2009, p. 179. - Beekes, Robert S. P. (2009), Etymological Dictionary of Greek, vol. 1, Brill Publishers, ISBN 978-90-04-17418-4 https://archive.org/details/etymological-dictionary-of-greek_202306/page/n112/mode/1up ↩

  35. West 2000, p. 134. - West, Martin Litchfield (2000), "The Name of Aphrodite", Glotta, 76 (1./2. H), Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht: 134–138, JSTOR 40267103 https://www.jstor.org/stable/40267103 ↩

  36. Beekes 2009, p. 179. - Beekes, Robert S. P. (2009), Etymological Dictionary of Greek, vol. 1, Brill Publishers, ISBN 978-90-04-17418-4 https://archive.org/details/etymological-dictionary-of-greek_202306/page/n112/mode/1up ↩

  37. Etymologicum Magnum, Ἀφροδίτη ↩

  38. O'Bryhim, Shawn David (22 June 2021). A Student's Commentary on Ovid's Metamorphoses Book 10. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 80. ISBN 9781119770503. 9781119770503 ↩

  39. "The Cypriot Syllabic Script word a-po-ro-ti-ta-i". palaeolexicon.com. Retrieved 24 April 2023. https://www.palaeolexicon.com/Word/Show/18235/ ↩

  40. Pestarino, Beatrice (8 August 2022). Kypriōn Politeia, the Political and Administrative Systems of the Classical Cypriot City-Kingdoms. Brill Publishers. pp. 135–136. ISBN 9789004520332. 9789004520332 ↩

  41. Breitenberger 2007, pp. 8–12. - Breitenberger, Barbara (2007), Aphrodite and Eros: The Development of Greek Erotic Mythology, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-96823-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=PSFePRxm1jAC&q=Cyprus&pg=PA10 ↩

  42. Cyrino 2010, pp. 49–52. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  43. Puhvel 1987, p. 27. - Puhvel, Jaan (1987), Comparative Mythology, Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 0-8018-3938-6 ↩

  44. Marcovich 1996, pp. 43–59. - Marcovich, Miroslav (1996), "From Ishtar to Aphrodite", Journal of Aesthetic Education, 39 (2): 43–59, doi:10.2307/3333191, JSTOR 3333191 https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3333191 ↩

  45. Burkert 1985, pp. 152–153. - Burkert, Walter (1985), Greek Religion, Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-36281-0 https://archive.org/details/greekreligion0000burk ↩

  46. Puhvel 1987, p. 27. - Puhvel, Jaan (1987), Comparative Mythology, Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 0-8018-3938-6 ↩

  47. Marcovich 1996, pp. 43–59. - Marcovich, Miroslav (1996), "From Ishtar to Aphrodite", Journal of Aesthetic Education, 39 (2): 43–59, doi:10.2307/3333191, JSTOR 3333191 https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3333191 ↩

  48. Pausanias, Description of Greece, I. XIV.7 https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Paus.+1.14.7 ↩

  49. Breitenberger 2007, p. 8. - Breitenberger, Barbara (2007), Aphrodite and Eros: The Development of Greek Erotic Mythology, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-96823-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=PSFePRxm1jAC&q=Cyprus&pg=PA10 ↩

  50. Breitenberger 2007, pp. 10–11. - Breitenberger, Barbara (2007), Aphrodite and Eros: The Development of Greek Erotic Mythology, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-96823-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=PSFePRxm1jAC&q=Cyprus&pg=PA10 ↩

  51. Breitenberger 2007, pp. 10–11. - Breitenberger, Barbara (2007), Aphrodite and Eros: The Development of Greek Erotic Mythology, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-96823-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=PSFePRxm1jAC&q=Cyprus&pg=PA10 ↩

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  53. Breitenberger 2007, p. 8. - Breitenberger, Barbara (2007), Aphrodite and Eros: The Development of Greek Erotic Mythology, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-96823-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=PSFePRxm1jAC&q=Cyprus&pg=PA10 ↩

  54. Breitenberger 2007, p. 8. - Breitenberger, Barbara (2007), Aphrodite and Eros: The Development of Greek Erotic Mythology, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-96823-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=PSFePRxm1jAC&q=Cyprus&pg=PA10 ↩

  55. Cyrino 2010, pp. 49–52. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  56. Penglase 1994, p. 163. - Penglase, Charles (1994), Greek Myths and Mesopotamia: Parallels and Influence in the Homeric Hymns and Hesiod, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-15706-4 https://books.google.com/books?id=U4mFAgAAQBAJ&q=Ninurta&pg=PA42 ↩

  57. Cyrino 2010, pp. 51–52. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  58. Budin 2010, pp. 85–86, 96, 100, 102–103, 112, 123, 125. - Budin, Stephanie L. (2010), "Aphrodite Enoplion", in Smith, Amy C.; Pickup, Sadie (eds.), Brill's Companion to Aphrodite, Brill's Companions in Classical Studies, Brill Publishers, pp. 85–86, 96, 100, 102–103, 112, 123, 125, ISBN 978-9047444503 https://books.google.com/books?id=mrq9CwAAQBAJ ↩

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  408. Bull 2005, pp. 346–347. - Bull, Malcolm (2005), The Mirror of the Gods: How Renaissance Artists Rediscovered the Pagan Gods, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-521923-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=WRLqAAAAMAAJ&q=Bull%20the%20Mirror%20of%20the%20Gods ↩

  409. Walcot 1977, p. 32. - Walcot, P. (April 1977), "The Judgement of Paris", Greece & Rome, 24 (1), Cambridge University Press: 31–39, doi:10.1017/S0017383500019616, JSTOR 642687, S2CID 162573370 https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0017383500019616 ↩

  410. Walcot 1977, p. 32. - Walcot, P. (April 1977), "The Judgement of Paris", Greece & Rome, 24 (1), Cambridge University Press: 31–39, doi:10.1017/S0017383500019616, JSTOR 642687, S2CID 162573370 https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0017383500019616 ↩

  411. Walcot 1977, p. 32. - Walcot, P. (April 1977), "The Judgement of Paris", Greece & Rome, 24 (1), Cambridge University Press: 31–39, doi:10.1017/S0017383500019616, JSTOR 642687, S2CID 162573370 https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0017383500019616 ↩

  412. Walcot 1977, pp. 32–33. - Walcot, P. (April 1977), "The Judgement of Paris", Greece & Rome, 24 (1), Cambridge University Press: 31–39, doi:10.1017/S0017383500019616, JSTOR 642687, S2CID 162573370 https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0017383500019616 ↩

  413. Walcot 1977, pp. 32–33. - Walcot, P. (April 1977), "The Judgement of Paris", Greece & Rome, 24 (1), Cambridge University Press: 31–39, doi:10.1017/S0017383500019616, JSTOR 642687, S2CID 162573370 https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0017383500019616 ↩

  414. Walcot 1977, pp. 32–33. - Walcot, P. (April 1977), "The Judgement of Paris", Greece & Rome, 24 (1), Cambridge University Press: 31–39, doi:10.1017/S0017383500019616, JSTOR 642687, S2CID 162573370 https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0017383500019616 ↩

  415. Walcot 1977, pp. 32–33. - Walcot, P. (April 1977), "The Judgement of Paris", Greece & Rome, 24 (1), Cambridge University Press: 31–39, doi:10.1017/S0017383500019616, JSTOR 642687, S2CID 162573370 https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0017383500019616 ↩

  416. Cyrino 2010, p. 85. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  417. Cyrino 2010, pp. 85–86. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  418. Cyrino 2010, pp. 35–36, 86–87. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  419. Cyrino 2010, pp. 36, 86–87. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  420. Cyrino 2010, p. 87. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  421. Cyrino 2010, pp. 87–88. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  422. Cyrino 2010, p. 88. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  423. Cyrino 2010, p. 88. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  424. Cyrino 2010, p. 49. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  425. Cyrino 2010, p. 49. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  426. Cyrino 2010, pp. 49–50. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  427. Cyrino 2010, p. 50. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  428. Cyrino 2010, p. 50. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  429. Burkert 2005, p. 300. - Burkert, Walter (2005), "Chapter Twenty: Near Eastern Connections", in Foley, John Miles (ed.), A Companion to Ancient Epic, Blackwell Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4051-0524-8 https://books.google.com/books?id=V4mZmoZhG68C&q=Epic+of+Gilgamesh+Iliad+and+Odyssey ↩

  430. Cyrino 2010, p. 50. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  431. Burkert 2005, pp. 299–300. - Burkert, Walter (2005), "Chapter Twenty: Near Eastern Connections", in Foley, John Miles (ed.), A Companion to Ancient Epic, Blackwell Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4051-0524-8 https://books.google.com/books?id=V4mZmoZhG68C&q=Epic+of+Gilgamesh+Iliad+and+Odyssey ↩

  432. Cyrino 2010, p. 36. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  433. Cyrino 2010, p. 50. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  434. Homer, Iliad 21.416–17. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134%3Abook%3D21%3Acard%3D400 ↩

  435. Bremmer, Jan N. (1996). "Mythology". The Oxford Classical Dictionary (Third ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 1018–1020. ISBN 019866172X. 019866172X ↩

  436. Reeve, Michael D. (1996). "Scholia". The Oxford Classical Dictionary (Third ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 1368. ISBN 019866172X. 019866172X ↩

  437. Cyrino 2010, pp. 92–93. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  438. Smith 1873, s.v. Anchises. - Smith, William (1873), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, John Murray https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.04.0104 ↩

  439. Kerényi 1951, p. 71. - Kerényi, Karl (1951), The Gods of the Greeks, Thames & Hudson https://archive.org/details/godsofgreeks00kerrich ↩

  440. Kerényi 1951, p. 71. - Kerényi, Karl (1951), The Gods of the Greeks, Thames & Hudson https://archive.org/details/godsofgreeks00kerrich ↩

  441. Cyrino 2010, p. 73. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  442. Kerényi 1951, p. 71. - Kerényi, Karl (1951), The Gods of the Greeks, Thames & Hudson https://archive.org/details/godsofgreeks00kerrich ↩

  443. Eros is usually mentioned as the son of Aphrodite but in other versions he is a parentless primordial. /wiki/Greek_primordial_deities ↩

  444. Cyrino 2010, pp. 44–45. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  445. Anteros was originally born from the sea alongside Aphrodite; only later became her son. ↩

  446. Cyrino 2010, pp. 44–45. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  447. Kerényi 1951, p. 71. - Kerényi, Karl (1951), The Gods of the Greeks, Thames & Hudson https://archive.org/details/godsofgreeks00kerrich ↩

  448. Cyrino 2010, p. 72. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  449. Kerényi 1951, p. 71. - Kerényi, Karl (1951), The Gods of the Greeks, Thames & Hudson https://archive.org/details/godsofgreeks00kerrich ↩

  450. Kerényi 1951, p. 176. - Kerényi, Karl (1951), The Gods of the Greeks, Thames & Hudson https://archive.org/details/godsofgreeks00kerrich ↩

  451. Diodorus Siculus, 4.6.5: "... Hermaphroditus, as he has been called, who was born of Hermes and Aphrodite and received a name which is a combination of those of both his parents." /wiki/Diodorus_Siculus ↩

  452. Kerényi 1951, p. 176. - Kerényi, Karl (1951), The Gods of the Greeks, Thames & Hudson https://archive.org/details/godsofgreeks00kerrich ↩

  453. Pindar, Olympian 7.14 makes her the daughter of Aphrodite, but does not mention any father. Herodorus, fr. 62 Fowler (Fowler 2001, p. 253), apud schol. Pindar Olympian 7.24–5; Fowler 2013, p. 591 make her the daughter of Aphrodite and Poseidon. https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Pind.%20O.%207&lang=original ↩

  454. Graves 1960, p. 70. - Graves, Robert (1960) [1955], The Greek Myths, Penguin Books https://archive.org/details/greekmythsvolume00robe ↩

  455. Kerényi 1951, p. 176. - Kerényi, Karl (1951), The Gods of the Greeks, Thames & Hudson https://archive.org/details/godsofgreeks00kerrich ↩

  456. Kerényi 1951, p. 76. - Kerényi, Karl (1951), The Gods of the Greeks, Thames & Hudson https://archive.org/details/godsofgreeks00kerrich ↩

  457. Cyrino 2010, p. 96. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  458. Diodorus Siculus, 4.23.2 /wiki/Diodorus_Siculus ↩

  459. Hesychius of Alexandria s. v. Μελιγουνίς: "Meligounis: this is what the island Lipara was called. Also one of the daughters of Aphrodite." /wiki/Hesychius_of_Alexandria ↩

  460. Apollodorus, 1.9.25. /wiki/Bibliotheca_(Pseudo-Apollodorus) ↩

  461. Servius on Aeneid, 1.574, 5.24 /wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus ↩

  462. Apollodorus, 3.14.3. /wiki/Bibliotheca_(Pseudo-Apollodorus) ↩

  463. Hesiod, Theogony 986–990; Pausanias, Description of Greece, 1.3.1 (using the name "Hemera" for Eos) /wiki/Hesiod ↩

  464. "Priapus", Suda On Line, Tr. Ross Scaife, 10 August 2014, Entry http://www.cs.uky.edu/~raphael/sol/sol-entries/pi/2277 ↩

  465. Gantz 1996, p. 104. - Gantz, Timothy (1996), Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources, Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 978-0-8018-5360-9 ↩

  466. West 2008, p. 36. - West, Martin Litchfield (2008) [1993], Greek Lyric Poetry: A New Translation by M. L. West, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-954039-6 ↩

  467. Cyrino 2010, pp. 121–122. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  468. Lewis & Llewellyn-Jones 2018, p. 335. - Lewis, Sian; Llewellyn-Jones, Lloyd (2018), The Culture of Animals in Antiquity: A Sourcebook with Commentaries, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-315-20160-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=GvJFDwAAQBAJ&q=Ishtar+doves&pg=PT335 ↩

  469. Botterweck & Ringgren 1990, p. 35. - Botterweck, G. Johannes; Ringgren, Helmer (1990), Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, vol. VI, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, ISBN 0-8028-2330-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=MCOd-uAEQy0C&q=Ishtar+doves&pg=PA35 ↩

  470. Lewis & Llewellyn-Jones 2018, p. 335. - Lewis, Sian; Llewellyn-Jones, Lloyd (2018), The Culture of Animals in Antiquity: A Sourcebook with Commentaries, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-315-20160-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=GvJFDwAAQBAJ&q=Ishtar+doves&pg=PT335 ↩

  471. Botterweck & Ringgren 1990, p. 35. - Botterweck, G. Johannes; Ringgren, Helmer (1990), Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, vol. VI, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, ISBN 0-8028-2330-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=MCOd-uAEQy0C&q=Ishtar+doves&pg=PA35 ↩

  472. Cyrino 2010, pp. 121–122. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  473. Cyrino 2010, p. 122. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  474. Cyrino 2010, p. 122. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  475. Cyrino 2010, pp. 121–122. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  476. Cyrino 2010, p. 122. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  477. Pepin, Ronald E. (2008). The Vatican Mythographers. Fordham University Press. p. 76. ISBN 978-0-8232-2892-8. 978-0-8232-2892-8 ↩

  478. De Gubernatis, Angelo (1872). Zoological Mythology - Or, The Legends of Animals. Vol. 2. Trübner & Company. p. 305. ISBN 978-0-598-54106-2. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) 978-0-598-54106-2 ↩

  479. Cyrino 2010, pp. 120–123. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  480. Cyrino 2010, pp. 120–123. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

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  482. Cyrino 2010, pp. 63, 96. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  483. Pepin, Ronald E. (2008). The Vatican Mythographers. Fordham University Press. p. 117. ISBN 978-0-8232-2892-8. 978-0-8232-2892-8 ↩

  484. Cyrino 2010, p. 64. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  485. Smith, William (1861), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, Walton and Maberly, s.v Melus. /wiki/William_Smith_(lexicographer) ↩

  486. Cyrino 2010, p. 63. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  487. Cyrino 2010, pp. 63–64. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  488. Cyrino 2010, pp. 63–64. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

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  490. Cyrino 2010, p. 106. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  491. Cyrino 2010, p. 106. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

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  496. Pitman 2003, pp. 9–10. - Pitman, Joanna (2003). On Blondes. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-58234-402-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=92Ep8V0DyskC&q=blond%20hair%20in%20ancient%20Greece ↩

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  503. Grant 1989, pp. 224–225. - Grant, Michael (1989), The Classical Greeks, History of Civilization, Charles Scribner's Sons, ISBN 0-684-19126-1 https://archive.org/details/classicalgreeks00gran_0 ↩

  504. Cyrino 2010, p. 76. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  505. Cyrino 2010, p. 76. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  506. Grant 1989, pp. 224–225. - Grant, Michael (1989), The Classical Greeks, History of Civilization, Charles Scribner's Sons, ISBN 0-684-19126-1 https://archive.org/details/classicalgreeks00gran_0 ↩

  507. Grant 1989, p. 224. - Grant, Michael (1989), The Classical Greeks, History of Civilization, Charles Scribner's Sons, ISBN 0-684-19126-1 https://archive.org/details/classicalgreeks00gran_0 ↩

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  509. Palagia & Pollitt 1996, p. 98. - Palagia, Olga; Pollitt, J. J. (1996), Personal Styles in Greek Sculpture, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-65738-5 https://books.google.com/books?id=7qSsh7agZxEC&q=Aphrodite+of+Knidos&pg=PA98 ↩

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  518. Cyrino 2010, pp. 77–78. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  519. Cyrino 2010, pp. 77–78. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  520. Cyrino 2010, p. 78. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  521. Cyrino 2010, p. 78. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  522. Cyrino 2010, p. 78. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

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  524. Cyrino 2010, pp. 77–78. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

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  568. McPhee 1986, pp. 66–67. - McPhee, Peter (1986), Proceedings of the Fifth George Rudé Seminar in French History, Victoria University of Wellington https://books.google.com/books?id=istnAAAAMAAJ&q=Venus+Bouguereau+Cabanel ↩

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  578. McPhee 1986, p. 66. - McPhee, Peter (1986), Proceedings of the Fifth George Rudé Seminar in French History, Victoria University of Wellington https://books.google.com/books?id=istnAAAAMAAJ&q=Venus+Bouguereau+Cabanel ↩

  579. Lákta 2017, pp. 56–58. - Lákta, Peter (2017), ""All Adonises Must Die": Shakespeare's Venus and Adonis and the episodic imaginary", in Marrapodi, Michele (ed.), Shakespeare and the Visual Arts: The Italian Influence, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-315-21225-8 https://books.google.com/books?id=pzslDwAAQBAJ&q=Venus+and+Adonis+popularity&pg=PA58 ↩

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  582. Hiscock 2017, p. unpaginated. - Hiscock, Andrew (2017), ""Suppose thou dost defend me from what is past": Shakespeare's Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece and the appetite for ancient memory", in Wilder, Lina Perkins (ed.), The Routledge Handbook of Shakespeare and Memory, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-315-74594-7 https://books.google.com/books?id=tUIwDwAAQBAJ&q=Venus+and+Adonis+most+popular&pg=PT400 ↩

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  593. Clark 2015, p. 364. - Clark, Nora (2015), Aphrodite and Venus in Myth and Mimesis, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4438-7127-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=Aw7nBwAAQBAJ&q=Venus+in+art&pg=PA409 ↩

  594. Clark 2015, pp. 361–362. - Clark, Nora (2015), Aphrodite and Venus in Myth and Mimesis, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4438-7127-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=Aw7nBwAAQBAJ&q=Venus+in+art&pg=PA409 ↩

  595. Clark 2015, pp. 361–362. - Clark, Nora (2015), Aphrodite and Venus in Myth and Mimesis, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4438-7127-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=Aw7nBwAAQBAJ&q=Venus+in+art&pg=PA409 ↩

  596. Clark 2015, p. 363. - Clark, Nora (2015), Aphrodite and Venus in Myth and Mimesis, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4438-7127-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=Aw7nBwAAQBAJ&q=Venus+in+art&pg=PA409 ↩

  597. Clark 2015, pp. 363–364. - Clark, Nora (2015), Aphrodite and Venus in Myth and Mimesis, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4438-7127-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=Aw7nBwAAQBAJ&q=Venus+in+art&pg=PA409 ↩

  598. Brooks & Alden 1980, pp. 836–844. - Brooks, Richard A.; Alden, Douglas W. (1980), A Critical Bibliography of French Literature, vol. 6, Syracuse University Press, ISBN 0-8156-2207-4 https://books.google.com/books?id=u_DvAZdjXx4C&q=Aphrodite+Pierre+Louys&pg=PA843 ↩

  599. Brooks & Alden 1980, pp. 836–844. - Brooks, Richard A.; Alden, Douglas W. (1980), A Critical Bibliography of French Literature, vol. 6, Syracuse University Press, ISBN 0-8156-2207-4 https://books.google.com/books?id=u_DvAZdjXx4C&q=Aphrodite+Pierre+Louys&pg=PA843 ↩

  600. Brooks & Alden 1980, pp. 836–844. - Brooks, Richard A.; Alden, Douglas W. (1980), A Critical Bibliography of French Literature, vol. 6, Syracuse University Press, ISBN 0-8156-2207-4 https://books.google.com/books?id=u_DvAZdjXx4C&q=Aphrodite+Pierre+Louys&pg=PA843 ↩

  601. Clark 2015, p. 369. - Clark, Nora (2015), Aphrodite and Venus in Myth and Mimesis, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4438-7127-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=Aw7nBwAAQBAJ&q=Venus+in+art&pg=PA409 ↩

  602. Clark 2015, pp. 369–371. - Clark, Nora (2015), Aphrodite and Venus in Myth and Mimesis, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4438-7127-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=Aw7nBwAAQBAJ&q=Venus+in+art&pg=PA409 ↩

  603. Clark 2015, p. 369. - Clark, Nora (2015), Aphrodite and Venus in Myth and Mimesis, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4438-7127-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=Aw7nBwAAQBAJ&q=Venus+in+art&pg=PA409 ↩

  604. Clark 2015, pp. 372–374. - Clark, Nora (2015), Aphrodite and Venus in Myth and Mimesis, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4438-7127-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=Aw7nBwAAQBAJ&q=Venus+in+art&pg=PA409 ↩

  605. Cyrino 2010, pp. 134–135. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  606. Cyrino 2010, pp. 134–135. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  607. Cyrino 2010, p. 135. - Cyrino, Monica S. (2010), Aphrodite, Gods and Heroes of the Ancient World, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-77523-6 https://books.google.com/books?id=7gyVn5GjXPkC ↩

  608. Clifton 2006, p. 139. - Clifton, Chas S. (2006), Her Hidden Children: The Rise of Wicca and Paganism in America, AltaMira Press, ISBN 978-0-7591-0201-9 https://books.google.com/books?id=VP5UmbX3ECwC&q=Wicca+and+Aphrodite&pg=PA141 ↩

  609. Pizza & Lewis 2009, pp. 327–328. - Pizza, Murphy; Lewis, James R. (2009), Handbook of Contemporary Paganism, Brill Publishers, ISBN 978-90-04-16373-7 https://books.google.com/books?id=rwzttsI9-NwC&q=modern+worship+of+Aphrodite&pg=PA330 ↩

  610. Clifton 2006, p. 141. - Clifton, Chas S. (2006), Her Hidden Children: The Rise of Wicca and Paganism in America, AltaMira Press, ISBN 978-0-7591-0201-9 https://books.google.com/books?id=VP5UmbX3ECwC&q=Wicca+and+Aphrodite&pg=PA141 ↩

  611. Clifton 2006, p. 141. - Clifton, Chas S. (2006), Her Hidden Children: The Rise of Wicca and Paganism in America, AltaMira Press, ISBN 978-0-7591-0201-9 https://books.google.com/books?id=VP5UmbX3ECwC&q=Wicca+and+Aphrodite&pg=PA141 ↩

  612. Clifton 2006, p. 141. - Clifton, Chas S. (2006), Her Hidden Children: The Rise of Wicca and Paganism in America, AltaMira Press, ISBN 978-0-7591-0201-9 https://books.google.com/books?id=VP5UmbX3ECwC&q=Wicca+and+Aphrodite&pg=PA141 ↩

  613. Clifton 2006, p. 141. - Clifton, Chas S. (2006), Her Hidden Children: The Rise of Wicca and Paganism in America, AltaMira Press, ISBN 978-0-7591-0201-9 https://books.google.com/books?id=VP5UmbX3ECwC&q=Wicca+and+Aphrodite&pg=PA141 ↩

  614. Clifton 2006, p. 141. - Clifton, Chas S. (2006), Her Hidden Children: The Rise of Wicca and Paganism in America, AltaMira Press, ISBN 978-0-7591-0201-9 https://books.google.com/books?id=VP5UmbX3ECwC&q=Wicca+and+Aphrodite&pg=PA141 ↩

  615. Gallagher 2005, pp. 109–110. - Gallagher, Ann-Marie (2005), The Wicca Bible: The Definitive Guide to Magic and the Craft, Sterling Publishing, ISBN 1-4027-3008-X https://books.google.com/books?id=VvvWkpnHXl4C&q=Wicca+and+Aphrodite&pg=PA109 ↩

  616. Sabin 2010, p. 125. - Sabin, Thea (2010), Wicca for Beginners: Fundamentals of Philosophy & Practice, Llewellyn Worldwide, ISBN 978-0-7387-1775-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQDhGFsht4UC&q=Wicca+and+Aphrodite&pg=PT132 ↩

  617. Sabin 2010, pp. 3–4. - Sabin, Thea (2010), Wicca for Beginners: Fundamentals of Philosophy & Practice, Llewellyn Worldwide, ISBN 978-0-7387-1775-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQDhGFsht4UC&q=Wicca+and+Aphrodite&pg=PT132 ↩

  618. Sabin 2010, p. 125. - Sabin, Thea (2010), Wicca for Beginners: Fundamentals of Philosophy & Practice, Llewellyn Worldwide, ISBN 978-0-7387-1775-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQDhGFsht4UC&q=Wicca+and+Aphrodite&pg=PT132 ↩

  619. Gallagher 2005, p. 110. - Gallagher, Ann-Marie (2005), The Wicca Bible: The Definitive Guide to Magic and the Craft, Sterling Publishing, ISBN 1-4027-3008-X https://books.google.com/books?id=VvvWkpnHXl4C&q=Wicca+and+Aphrodite&pg=PA109 ↩

  620. Sabin 2010, p. 124. - Sabin, Thea (2010), Wicca for Beginners: Fundamentals of Philosophy & Practice, Llewellyn Worldwide, ISBN 978-0-7387-1775-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQDhGFsht4UC&q=Wicca+and+Aphrodite&pg=PT132 ↩

  621. Gallagher 2005, pp. 109–110. - Gallagher, Ann-Marie (2005), The Wicca Bible: The Definitive Guide to Magic and the Craft, Sterling Publishing, ISBN 1-4027-3008-X https://books.google.com/books?id=VvvWkpnHXl4C&q=Wicca+and+Aphrodite&pg=PA109 ↩

  622. Matthew Brunwasser (20 June 2013). "The Greeks who worship the ancient gods". BBC. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-22972610 ↩

  623. Alexander 2007, p. 23. - Alexander, Timothy Jay (2007), Hellenismos Today (First ed.), Lulu.com, ISBN 978-1-4303-1427-1 https://books.google.com/books?id=Ie-aHv8rzHoC&q=Aphrodite+and+Hellenismos&pg=PA23 ↩

  624. Alexander 2007, p. 9. - Alexander, Timothy Jay (2007), Hellenismos Today (First ed.), Lulu.com, ISBN 978-1-4303-1427-1 https://books.google.com/books?id=Ie-aHv8rzHoC&q=Aphrodite+and+Hellenismos&pg=PA23 ↩

  625. Alexander 2007, pp. 22–23. - Alexander, Timothy Jay (2007), Hellenismos Today (First ed.), Lulu.com, ISBN 978-1-4303-1427-1 https://books.google.com/books?id=Ie-aHv8rzHoC&q=Aphrodite+and+Hellenismos&pg=PA23 ↩

  626. Alexander 2007, p. 23. - Alexander, Timothy Jay (2007), Hellenismos Today (First ed.), Lulu.com, ISBN 978-1-4303-1427-1 https://books.google.com/books?id=Ie-aHv8rzHoC&q=Aphrodite+and+Hellenismos&pg=PA23 ↩

  627. Alexander 2007, p. 23. - Alexander, Timothy Jay (2007), Hellenismos Today (First ed.), Lulu.com, ISBN 978-1-4303-1427-1 https://books.google.com/books?id=Ie-aHv8rzHoC&q=Aphrodite+and+Hellenismos&pg=PA23 ↩

  628. Alexander 2007, p. 23. - Alexander, Timothy Jay (2007), Hellenismos Today (First ed.), Lulu.com, ISBN 978-1-4303-1427-1 https://books.google.com/books?id=Ie-aHv8rzHoC&q=Aphrodite+and+Hellenismos&pg=PA23 ↩

  629. This chart is based upon Hesiod's Theogony, unless otherwise noted. /wiki/Hesiod ↩

  630. According to Homer, Iliad 1.570–579, 14.338, Odyssey 8.312, Hephaestus was apparently the son of Hera and Zeus, see Gantz, p. 74. /wiki/Homer ↩

  631. According to Hesiod, Theogony 927–929, Hephaestus was produced by Hera alone, with no father, see Gantz, p. 74. /wiki/Hesiod ↩

  632. According to Hesiod's Theogony 886–890, of Zeus' children by his seven wives, Athena was the first to be conceived, but the last to be born; Zeus impregnated Metis then swallowed her, later Zeus himself gave birth to Athena "from his head", see Gantz, pp. 51–52, 83–84. /wiki/Hesiod ↩

  633. According to Hesiod, Theogony 183–200, Aphrodite was born from Uranus' severed genitals, see Gantz, pp. 99–100. /wiki/Hesiod ↩

  634. According to Homer, Aphrodite was the daughter of Zeus (Iliad 3.374, 20.105; Odyssey 8.308, 320) and Dione (Iliad 5.370–71), see Gantz, pp. 99–100. /wiki/Homer ↩