Security hacker

<h2 id="history">History</h2>
Further information: <a href="/facts/Timeline_of_computer_security_hacker_history/zPx4p8fA">Timeline of computer security hacker history</a>

<h3>Birth of subculture and entering mainstream: 1960s–1980s</h3>
The subculture around such hackers is termed network hacker subculture, hacker scene, or computer underground. It initially developed in the context of <a href="/facts/Phreaking/3Ldta7fW">phreaking</a> during the 1960s and the microcomputer <a href="/facts/Bulletin_board_system/22d9c9s2">BBS scene</a> of the 1980s. It is implicated with <a href="/facts/2600%3a_The_Hacker_Quarterly/kWU9wbS7">2600: The Hacker Quarterly</a> and the <a href="/facts/Alt.2600/kWU9wbS7">alt.2600</a> newsgroup.
In 1980, an article in the August issue of <a href="/facts/Psychology_Today/g5ccKEdt">Psychology Today</a> (with commentary by <a href="/facts/Philip_Zimbardo/laPJ7n66">Philip Zimbardo</a>) used the term "hacker" in its title: "The Hacker Papers." It was an excerpt from a Stanford Bulletin Board discussion on the addictive nature of computer use. In the 1982 film <a href="/facts/Tron/FdSGv2jj">Tron</a>, Kevin Flynn (<a href="/facts/Jeff_Bridges/1uxnjkd1">Jeff Bridges</a>) describes his intentions to break into ENCOM's computer system, saying "I've been doing a little hacking here." CLU is the <a href="/facts/Software/RP79lVSW">software</a> he uses for this. By 1983, hacking in the sense of breaking computer security had already been in use as computer jargon,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a> but there was no public awareness about such activities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a> However, the release of the film <a href="/facts/WarGames/3CegMQFX">WarGames</a> that year, featuring a computer intrusion into <a href="/facts/NORAD/uQgYBjz4">NORAD</a>, raised the public belief that computer security hackers (especially teenagers) could be a threat to national security. This concern became real when, in the same year, a gang of teenage hackers in <a href="/facts/Milwaukee/Ucx5PVHn">Milwaukee, Wisconsin</a>, known as <a href="/facts/The_414s/RzCFqQWa">The 414s</a>, broke into computer systems throughout the <a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a> and <a href="/facts/Canada/cWWFM8oc">Canada</a>, including those of <a href="/facts/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory/tlrLkV7r">Los Alamos National Laboratory</a>, <a href="/facts/Memorial_Sloan-Kettering_Cancer_Center/M9BVl8tB">Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center</a> and <a href="/facts/Security_Pacific_Bank/3kQwXE23">Security Pacific Bank</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a> The case quickly grew media attention,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a> and 17-year-old Neal Patrick emerged as the spokesman for the gang, including a cover story in <a href="/facts/Newsweek/ClFEs5So">Newsweek</a> entitled "Beware: Hackers at play", with Patrick's photograph on the cover.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a> The <a href="/facts/Newsweek/ClFEs5So">Newsweek</a> article appears to be the first use of the word hacker by the mainstream media in the pejorative sense.
Pressured by media coverage, congressman <a href="/facts/Dan_Glickman/FE9KvDC4">Dan Glickman</a> called for an investigation and began work on new laws against computer hacking.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a>
Neal Patrick testified before the <a href="/facts/U.S._House_of_Representatives/cdBPb9pY">U.S. House of Representatives</a> on September 26, 1983, about the dangers of computer hacking, and six bills concerning computer crime were introduced in the House that year.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a> As a result of these laws against computer criminality, white hat, <a href="/facts/Grey_hat/bn3qtbe8">grey hat</a> and black hat hackers try to distinguish themselves from each other, depending on the legality of their activities. These moral conflicts are expressed in <a href="/facts/Loyd_Blankenship/Y17FJF5N">The Mentor</a>'s "<a href="/facts/The_Hacker_Manifesto/kK9hXvHz">The Hacker Manifesto</a>", published 1986 in <a href="/facts/Phrack/guwr8z5E">Phrack</a>.
Use of the term hacker meaning computer criminal was also advanced by the title "Stalking the Wily Hacker", an article by <a href="/facts/Clifford_Stoll/uPpGafsq">Clifford Stoll</a> in the May 1988 issue of the <a href="/facts/Communications_of_the_ACM/Ix1DvEAk">Communications of the ACM</a>. Later that year, the release by <a href="/facts/Robert_Tappan_Morris%2c_Jr./CunYhUA3">Robert Tappan Morris, Jr.</a> of the so-called <a href="/facts/Morris_worm/moqgLa5t">Morris worm</a> provoked the popular media to spread this usage. The popularity of Stoll's book <a href="/facts/The_Cuckoo%2527s_Egg/oSbf6X0B">The Cuckoo's Egg</a>, published one year later, further entrenched the term in the public's consciousness.

<h2 id="classifications">Classifications</h2>
In computer security, a hacker is someone who focuses on the security mechanisms of computer and network systems. Hackers can include someone who endeavors to strengthen security mechanisms by exploring their weaknesses and also those who seek to access secure, unauthorized information despite security measures. Nevertheless, parts of the subculture see their aim in correcting security problems and use the word in a positive sense. White hat is the name given to ethical computer hackers, who utilize hacking in a helpful way. White hats are becoming a necessary part of the information security field.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a> They operate under a code, which acknowledges that breaking into other people's computers is bad, but that discovering and exploiting security mechanisms and breaking into computers is still an interesting activity that can be done ethically and legally. Accordingly, the term bears strong connotations that are favorable or pejorative, depending on the context.
Subgroups of the computer underground with different attitudes and motives use different terms to demarcate themselves from each other. These classifications are also used to exclude specific groups with whom they do not agree.

<h3>Cracker</h3>
<a href="/facts/Eric_S._Raymond/9jLGSUtk">Eric S. Raymond</a>, author of <a href="/facts/Jargon_File/tt0EIKfV">The New Hacker's Dictionary</a>, advocates that members of the computer underground should be called crackers. Yet, those people see themselves as hackers and even try to include the views of Raymond in what they see as a wider hacker culture, a view that Raymond has harshly rejected. Instead of a hacker/cracker dichotomy, they emphasize a spectrum of different categories, such as <a href="/facts/White_hat_(computer_security)/yPX3oYsF">white hat</a>, <a href="/facts/Grey_hat/bn3qtbe8">grey hat</a>, black hat and <a href="/facts/Script_kiddie/VBb5Rdzc">script kiddie</a>. In contrast to Raymond, they usually reserve the term cracker for more malicious activity.
According to Ralph D. Clifford, a cracker or cracking is to "gain unauthorized access to a computer in order to commit another crime such as destroying information contained in that system."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a> These subgroups may also be defined by the legal status of their activities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a>

<h3>White hat</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/White_hat_(computer_security)/yPX3oYsF">White hat (computer security)</a>
A <a href="/facts/White_hat_hacker/yPX3oYsF">white hat hacker</a> breaks security for non-malicious reasons, either to test their own security system, perform <a href="/facts/Penetration_test/Jd7lFd4z">penetration tests</a> or <a href="/facts/Vulnerability_assessment/MGzPr3c0">vulnerability assessments</a> for a client, or while working for a security company that makes security software. The term is generally synonymous with <a href="/facts/Hacker_ethic/PUM7qMPC">ethical hacker</a>, and certifications, courseware, classes, and online training covering the diverse arena of ethical hacking have been developed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a>

<h3>Black hat</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Black_hat_(computer_security)/QNzdbA8R">Black hat (computer security)</a>
A <a href="/facts/Black_hat_hacker/QNzdbA8R">black hat hacker</a> is a hacker who "violates computer security for little reason beyond maliciousness or for personal gain" (Moore, 2005).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a> The term was coined by <a href="/facts/Richard_Stallman/hhoPN0Mw">Richard Stallman</a>, to contrast the maliciousness of a criminal hacker versus the spirit of playfulness and exploration in <a href="/facts/Hacker_culture/8ww6P79y">hacker culture</a>, or the ethos of the <a href="/facts/White_hat_hacker/yPX3oYsF">white hat hacker</a> who performs hacking duties to identify places to repair or as a means of legitimate employment.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a> Black hat hackers form the stereotypical, illegal hacking groups often portrayed in popular culture, and are "the epitome of all that the public fears in a computer criminal".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a>

<h3>Grey hat</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Grey_hat/bn3qtbe8">Grey hat</a>
A grey hat hacker lies between a black hat and a white hat hacker, hacking for ideological reasons.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a> A grey hat hacker may surf the Internet and hack into a computer system for the sole purpose of notifying the administrator that their system has a security defect, for example. They may then offer to correct the defect for a fee.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a> Grey hat hackers sometimes find the defect in a system and publish the facts to the world instead of a group of people. Even though grey hat hackers may not necessarily perform hacking for their personal gain, unauthorized access to a system can be considered illegal and unethical.

<h3>Elite hacker</h3>
A <a href="/facts/Achieved_status/2KJxHf5u">social status</a> among hackers, elite is used to describe the most skilled. Newly discovered <a href="/facts/Exploit_(computer_security)/EdlqsRJM">exploits</a> circulate among these hackers. Elite <a href="/facts/Hacker_group/pPu6k66C">groups</a> such as <a href="/facts/Masters_of_Deception/rhBwYaUF">Masters of Deception</a> conferred a kind of credibility on their members.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a>

<h3>Script kiddie</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Script_kiddie/VBb5Rdzc">Script kiddie</a>
A <a href="/facts/Script_kiddie/VBb5Rdzc">script kiddie</a> (also known as a skid or skiddie) is an unskilled hacker who breaks into computer systems by using automated tools written by others (usually by other black hat hackers), hence the term script (i.e. a computer script that automates the hacking) kiddie (i.e. kid, child an individual lacking knowledge and experience, immature),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a> usually with little understanding of the underlying concept.

<h3>Neophyte</h3>
A neophyte ("<a href="/facts/Newbie/t39T2Mk1">newbie</a>", or "noob") is someone who is new to hacking or phreaking and has almost no knowledge or experience of the workings of technology and hacking.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a>

<h3>Blue hat</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/BlueHat/hmyn3Gw8">BlueHat</a>
A <a href="/facts/BlueHat/hmyn3Gw8">blue hat</a> hacker is someone outside computer security consulting firms who is used to bug-test a system prior to its launch, looking for exploits so they can be closed. <a href="/facts/Microsoft/nGIDDXdx">Microsoft</a> also uses the term BlueHat to represent a series of security briefing events.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a>

<h3>Hacktivist</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Hacktivist/Pf2eep2m">Hacktivist</a>
A hacktivist is a hacker who utilizes technology to publicize a social, ideological, religious or political message.
<a href="/facts/Hacktivism/Pf2eep2m">Hacktivism</a> can be divided into two main groups:

<ul><li><a href="/facts/Cyberterrorism/xd2dvXl5">Cyberterrorism</a> – Activities involving <a href="/facts/Website_defacement/5mwhFh3p">website defacement</a> or <a href="/facts/Denial-of-service_attack/6nkoK02J">denial-of-service attacks</a>; and,</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Freedom_of_information/pvfAVnFl">Freedom of information</a> – Making information that is not public, or is public in non-machine-readable formats, accessible to the public.</li></ul>
<h3>Nation state</h3>
Intelligence agencies and <a href="/facts/Cyberwarfare/UYp25v4v">cyberwarfare</a> operatives of nation states.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31">31</a>

<h3>Organized criminal gangs</h3>
Groups of hackers that carry out organized criminal activities for profit.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32">32</a> Modern-day <a href="/facts/Computer_hackers/4bAJ9F1A">computer hackers</a> have been compared to the <a href="/facts/Privateer/PfeEkF2p">privateers</a> of by-gone days.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33">33</a> These criminals hold computer systems hostage, demanding large payments from victims to restore access to their own computer systems and data.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34">34</a> Furthermore, recent <a href="/facts/Ransomware/muT4jcxj">ransomware</a> attacks on industries, including energy, food, and transportation, have been blamed on <a href="/facts/Criminal_organization/m2eEga1z">criminal organizations</a> based in or near a <a href="/facts/State_actor/9Y6B13Kf">state actor</a> – possibly with the country's knowledge and approval.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35">35</a> <a href="/facts/Data_breach/xGxRFY1A">Cyber theft</a> and ransomware attacks are now the fastest-growing crimes in the United States.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36">36</a> <a href="/facts/Bitcoin/UJvqfray">Bitcoin</a> and other <a href="/facts/Cryptocurrencies/Rg6JAS8y">cryptocurrencies</a> facilitate the <a href="/facts/Extortion/tv3TraAp">extortion</a> of huge ransoms from large companies, hospitals and city governments with little or no chance of being caught.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37">37</a>

<h2 id="attacks">Attacks</h2>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Computer_security/7E5dIy7G">Computer security</a>Hackers can usually be sorted into two types of attacks: mass attacks and targeted attacks.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38">38</a> They are sorted into the groups in terms of how they choose their victims and how they act on the attacks.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39">39</a>
A typical approach in an attack on Internet-connected system is:

<ol><li><a href="/facts/Network_enumeration/5Ue1C3ad">Network enumeration</a>: Discovering information about the intended target.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Vulnerability_(computing)/jg0Gr71M">Vulnerability analysis</a>: Identifying potential ways of attack.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Exploit_(computer_security)/EdlqsRJM">Exploitation</a>: Attempting to compromise the system by employing the vulnerabilities found through the vulnerability analysis.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40">40</a></li></ol>
In order to do so, there are several recurring tools of the trade and techniques used by computer criminals and security experts.

<h3>Security exploits</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Exploit_(computer_security)/EdlqsRJM">Exploit (computer security)</a>
A security exploit is a prepared application that takes advantage of a known weakness.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41">41</a> Common examples of security exploits are <a href="/facts/SQL_injection/QD0cwbk5">SQL injection</a>, <a href="/facts/Cross-site_scripting/dhtusKKm">cross-site scripting</a> and <a href="/facts/Cross-site_request_forgery/RN7XuvsW">cross-site request forgery</a> which abuse security holes that may result from substandard programming practice. Other exploits would be able to be used through <a href="/facts/File_Transfer_Protocol/THuWgzfw">File Transfer Protocol</a> (FTP), <a href="/facts/Hypertext_Transfer_Protocol/TWtvf7JD">Hypertext Transfer Protocol</a> (HTTP), <a href="/facts/PHP/vU6YRJX0">PHP</a>, <a href="/facts/Secure_Shell/wjVRw5zv">SSH</a>, <a href="/facts/Telnet/hxT0e85h">Telnet</a> and some Web pages. These are very common in Web site and Web domain hacking.

<h3>Techniques</h3>

Vulnerability scanner
A <a href="/facts/Vulnerability_scanner/3HCta3LV">vulnerability scanner</a> is a tool used to quickly check computers on a network for known weaknesses. Hackers also commonly use <a href="/facts/Port_scanner/bN9IbU79">port scanners</a>. These check to see which ports on a specified computer are "open" or available to access the computer, and sometimes will detect what program or service is listening on that port, and its version number. (<a href="/facts/Firewall_(computing)/Et2RkJaU">Firewalls</a> defend computers from intruders by limiting access to ports and machines, but they can still be circumvented.)
Finding vulnerabilities
Hackers may also attempt to find vulnerabilities manually. A common approach is to search for possible vulnerabilities in the code of the computer system then test them, sometimes <a href="/facts/Reverse_engineering/pmJCV7J7">reverse engineering</a> the software if the code is not provided. Experienced hackers can easily find patterns in code to find common vulnerabilities.
Brute-force attack
Password guessing. <a href="/facts/Brute-force_attacks/TXl8pkfb">Brute-force attacks</a> are used to quickly check all short password variations. For longer passwords, other methods such as the dictionary attack are used, because of the amount of time a brute-force search takes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42">42</a>
Password cracking
<a href="/facts/Password_cracking/cKnFAosH">Password cracking</a> is the process of recovering passwords from data that has been stored in or transmitted by a computer system. Common approaches include repeatedly trying guesses for the password, trying the most common passwords by hand, and repeatedly trying passwords from a "dictionary", or a text file with many passwords.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43">43</a>
Packet analyzer
A <a href="/facts/Packet_analyzer/mFQP7gWB">packet analyzer</a> ("packet sniffer") is an application that captures data packets, which can be used to capture passwords and other <a href="/facts/Data_in_transit/8f1ztg6C">data in transit</a> over the network.
Spoofing attack (phishing)
A <a href="/facts/Spoofing_attack/hyBGUakY">spoofing attack</a> involves one program, system or website that successfully masquerades as another by falsifying data and is thereby treated as a trusted system by a user or another program – usually to fool programs, systems or users into revealing confidential information, such as user names and passwords.
Rootkit
A <a href="/facts/Rootkit/PV3NlgGC">rootkit</a> is a program that uses low-level, hard-to-detect methods to subvert control of an operating system from its legitimate operators. Rootkits usually obscure their installation and attempt to prevent their removal through a subversion of standard system security. They may include replacements for system binaries, making it virtually impossible for them to be detected by checking <a href="/facts/Process_(computing)/Vcq7EnUV">process tables</a>.
Social engineering
In the second stage of the targeting process, hackers often use <a href="/facts/Social_engineering_(security)/7obTw773">social engineering</a> tactics to get enough information to access the network. They may contact the system administrator and pose as a user who cannot get access to his or her system. This technique is portrayed in the 1995 film <a href="/facts/Hackers_(film)/mLvPvvjj">Hackers</a>, when protagonist Dade "Zero Cool" Murphy calls a somewhat clueless employee in charge of security at a television network. Posing as an accountant working for the same company, Dade tricks the employee into giving him the phone number of a modem so he can gain access to the company's computer system.
Hackers who use this technique must be familiar with their target's security practices in order to trick the system administrator into giving them information. In some cases, a help-desk employee with limited security experience will answer the phone and be relatively easy to trick. Another approach is for the hacker to pose as an angry supervisor, and when his/her authority is questioned, threaten to fire the help-desk worker. Social engineering is very effective, because users are the most vulnerable part of an organization. No security devices or programs can keep an organization safe if an employee reveals a password to an unauthorized person.
Social engineering can be broken down into four sub-groups:
<ul><li>Intimidation As in the "angry supervisor" technique above, the hacker convinces the person who answers the phone that their job is in danger unless they help them. At this point, many people accept that the hacker is a supervisor and give them the information they seek.</li>
<li>Helpfulness The opposite of intimidation, helpfulness exploits many people's natural instinct to help others solve problems. Rather than acting angry, the hacker acts distressed and concerned. The help desk is the most vulnerable to this type of social engineering, as (a.) its general purpose is to help people; and (b.) it usually has the authority to change or reset passwords, which is exactly what the hacker wants.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44">44</a></li>
<li>Name-dropping The hacker uses names of authorized users to convince the person who answers the phone that the hacker is a legitimate user him or herself. Some of these names, such as those of webpage owners or company officers, can easily be obtained online. Hackers have also been known to obtain names by examining discarded documents (<a href="/facts/Garbage_picking/ULjnKd9o">"dumpster diving"</a>).</li>
<li>Technical Using technology is also a way to get information. A hacker can send a fax or email to a legitimate user, seeking a response that contains vital information. The hacker may claim that he or she is involved in law enforcement and needs certain data for an investigation, or for record-keeping purposes.</li></ul>
Trojan horses
A <a href="/facts/Trojan_horse_(computing)/FVqh3nDy">Trojan horse</a> is a program that seems to be doing one thing but is actually doing another. It can be used to set up a <a href="/facts/Backdoor_(computing)/4Vry8CKE">back door</a> in a computer system, enabling the intruder to gain access later. (The name refers to the <a href="/facts/Trojan_Horse/U65F4IYy">horse</a> from the <a href="/facts/Trojan_War/pBG5VawT">Trojan War</a>, with the conceptually similar function of deceiving defenders into bringing an intruder into a protected area.)
Computer virus
A <a href="/facts/Computer_virus/IyTC1usq">virus</a> is a self-replicating program that spreads by inserting copies of itself into other executable code or documents. By doing this, it behaves similarly to a <a href="/facts/Virus/mf88Bcbl">biological virus</a>, which spreads by inserting itself into living cells. While some viruses are harmless or mere hoaxes, most are considered malicious.
Computer worm
Like a virus, a <a href="/facts/Computer_worm/9qKR1Hx5">worm</a> is also a self-replicating program. It differs from a virus in that (a.) it propagates through computer networks without user intervention; and (b.) does not need to attach itself to an existing program. Nonetheless, many people use the terms "virus" and "worm" interchangeably to describe any self-propagating program.
Keystroke logging
A <a href="/facts/Keystroke_logging/DQRJfEvc">keylogger</a> is a tool designed to record ("log") every keystroke on an affected machine for later retrieval, usually to allow the user of this tool to gain access to confidential information typed on the affected machine. Some keyloggers use virus-, trojan-, and rootkit-like methods to conceal themselves. However, some of them are used for legitimate purposes, even to enhance computer security. For example, a business may maintain a keylogger on a computer used at a <a href="/facts/Point_of_sale/DwUHVn2v">point of sale</a> to detect evidence of employee fraud.
Attack patterns
<a href="/facts/Attack_patterns/CN7bqwHQ">Attack patterns</a> are defined as series of repeatable steps that can be applied to simulate an attack against the security of a system. They can be used for testing purposes or locating potential vulnerabilities. They also provide, either physically or in reference, a common solution pattern for preventing a given attack.
Tools and Procedures

A thorough examination of hacker tools and procedures may be found in Cengage Learning's E|CSA certification workbook.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45">45</a>
<h2 id="notable-intruders-and-criminal-hackers">Notable intruders and criminal hackers</h2>
Main article: <a href="/facts/List_of_computer_criminals/4RvNoS2n">List of computer criminals</a>
<h2 id="notable-security-hackers">Notable security hackers</h2>
Main article: <a href="/facts/List_of_hackers/nPBG21bt">List of hackers</a>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Andrew_Auernheimer/1NHj5B7V">Andrew Auernheimer</a>, sentenced to three years in prison, is a grey hat hacker whose security group <a href="/facts/Goatse_Security/DPI0Ml8j">Goatse Security</a> exposed a flaw in AT&T's iPad security.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Dan_Kaminsky/G1Gsa1qV">Dan Kaminsky</a> was a <a href="/facts/Domain_Name_System/rfxdWFsj">DNS</a> expert who exposed multiple flaws in the protocol and investigated Sony's rootkit security issues in 2005. He spoke in front of the United States Senate on technology issues.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Bernie_S/36SYYget">Ed Cummings</a> (also known as <a href="/facts/Bernie_S/36SYYget">Bernie S</a>) is a longstanding writer for 2600: The Hacker Quarterly. In 1995, he was arrested and charged with possession of technology that could be used for fraudulent purposes, and set legal precedents after being denied both a bail hearing and a speedy trial.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Eric_Corley/qt0Ke7Cd">Eric Corley</a> (also known as <a href="/facts/Emmanuel_Goldstein/hQhR3oJA">Emmanuel Goldstein</a>) is the longstanding publisher of <a href="/facts/2600%3a_The_Hacker_Quarterly/kWU9wbS7">2600: The Hacker Quarterly</a>. He is also the founder of the <a href="/facts/Hackers_on_Planet_Earth/kXUCHv6n">Hackers on Planet Earth</a> (HOPE) conferences. He has been part of the hacker community since the late 1970s.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Susan_Headley/44LedX1d">Susan Headley</a> (also known as Susan Thunder), was an American hacker active during the late 1970s and early 1980s widely respected for her expertise in <a href="/facts/Social_engineering_(security)/7obTw773">social engineering</a>, <a href="/facts/Pretexting/T2RDmn1G">pretexting</a>, and <a href="/facts/Psychological_subversion/T6EfPkT9">psychological subversion</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46">46</a> She became heavily involved in <a href="/facts/Phreaking/3Ldta7fW">phreaking</a> with <a href="/facts/Kevin_Mitnick/4zwvWL4B">Kevin Mitnick</a> and Lewis de Payne in <a href="/facts/Los_Angeles/pyXpYEX9">Los Angeles</a>, but later framed them for erasing the system files at US Leasing after a falling out, leading to Mitnick's first conviction.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47">47</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Gary_McKinnon/fDXTjs2Q">Gary McKinnon</a> is a Scottish hacker who was facing <a href="/facts/Extradition/W6tEfWRQ">extradition</a> to the <a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a> to face criminal charges. Many people in the UK called on the authorities to be lenient with McKinnon, who has <a href="/facts/Asperger_syndrome/TUpuw6Nn">Asperger syndrome</a>. The extradition has now been dropped.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48">48</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Gordon_Lyon/VSt7fUzA">Gordon Lyon</a>, known by the handle Fyodor, authored the <a href="/facts/Nmap/DMkAl9W6">Nmap Security Scanner</a> as well as many network security books and web sites. He is a founding member of the <a href="/facts/Honeynet_Project/hIgFmylb">Honeynet Project</a> and Vice President of <a href="/facts/Computer_Professionals_for_Social_Responsibility/cgneKzTS">Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Guccifer_2.0/992Aw5Jk">Guccifer 2.0</a>, who claimed that he hacked into the <a href="/facts/Democratic_National_Committee/zGbMqAUU">Democratic National Committee</a> (DNC) computer network</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Jacob_Appelbaum/0PC5MEJk">Jacob Appelbaum</a> is an advocate, security researcher, and developer for the <a href="/facts/Tor_(anonymity_network)/Wj6jjkx1">Tor</a> project. He speaks internationally for usage of Tor by human rights groups and others concerned about Internet anonymity and censorship.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Joanna_Rutkowska/nV35cVlK">Joanna Rutkowska</a> is a Polish computer security researcher who developed the <a href="/facts/Blue_Pill_(software)/S3YagdAI">Blue Pill</a> <a href="/facts/Rootkit/PV3NlgGC">rootkit</a> and <a href="/facts/Qubes_OS/BayvHVym">Qubes OS</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Jude_Milhon/nh34wNq4">Jude Milhon</a> (known as St. Jude) was an American hacker and activist, founding member of the <a href="/facts/Cypherpunk/YMn5XXo4">cypherpunk</a> movement, and one of the creators of <a href="/facts/Community_Memory/mwI8mpDA">Community Memory</a>, the first <a href="/facts/Computer_bulletin_board/bRuqfQfN">public computerized bulletin board system</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49">49</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Kevin_Mitnick/4zwvWL4B">Kevin Mitnick</a> was a computer security consultant and author, formerly the most wanted computer criminal in <a href="/facts/United_States/P0sCdLe5">United States</a> history.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50">50</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Len_Sassaman/M8MXvHgk">Len Sassaman</a> was a Belgian computer programmer and technologist who was also a privacy advocate.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Meredith_L._Patterson/STHsH1gh">Meredith L. Patterson</a> is a well-known technologist and <a href="/facts/Do-it-yourself_biology/e27KYWgQ">biohacker</a> who has presented research with <a href="/facts/Dan_Kaminsky/G1Gsa1qV">Dan Kaminsky</a> and <a href="/facts/Len_Sassaman/M8MXvHgk">Len Sassaman</a> at many international security and hacker conferences.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Kimberley_Vanvaeck/zPqB7WzH">Kimberley Vanvaeck</a> (known as Gigabyte) is a Belgian hacker recognized for writing the first virus in <a href="/facts/C_Sharp_(programming_language)/UC2gxeyb">C#</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51">51</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Micha%25C5%2582_Zalewski/W1blXSok">Michał Zalewski</a> (lcamtuf) is a prominent security researcher.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Solar_Designer/0cL2DpVg">Solar Designer</a> is the pseudonym of the founder of the <a href="/facts/Openwall_Project/ho6xlLUt">Openwall Project</a>.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Kane_Gamble/8phAJCxa">Kane Gamble</a>, sentenced to 2 years in youth detention, who is autistic, gained access to highly sensitive information and "cyber-terrorised" high-profile <a href="/facts/United_States_Intelligence_Community/JLLIfECW">U.S. intelligence</a> officials such as then <a href="/facts/CIA/U7urmQYL">CIA</a> chief <a href="/facts/John_O._Brennan/cSBIcn6c">John Brennan</a> or Director of National Intelligence <a href="/facts/James_Clapper/38uWy9K3">James Clapper</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52">52</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53">53</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54">54</a></li></ul>
<h2 id="customs">Customs</h2>
The computer underground<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55">55</a> has produced its own specialized slang, such as <a href="/facts/Leet/oAbNH1IL">1337speak</a>. Writing software and performing other activities to support these views is referred to as <a href="/facts/Hacktivism/Pf2eep2m">hacktivism</a>. Some consider illegal cracking ethically justified for these goals; a common form is <a href="/facts/Website_defacement/5mwhFh3p">website defacement</a>. The computer underground is frequently compared to the Wild West.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56">56</a> It is common for hackers to use aliases to conceal their identities.

<h3>Hacker groups and conventions</h3>
Main articles: <a href="/facts/Hacker_conference/Ynzt6exy">Hacker conference</a> and <a href="/facts/Hacker_group/pPu6k66C">Hacker group</a>
The computer underground is supported by regular real-world gatherings called <a href="/facts/Hacker_convention/Ynzt6exy">hacker conventions</a> or "hacker cons". These events include <a href="/facts/SummerCon/rLmQtDtE">SummerCon</a> (Summer), <a href="/facts/DEF_CON/PFzpWrSC">DEF CON</a>, <a href="/facts/HoHoCon/rJFBhx79">HoHoCon</a> (Christmas), <a href="/facts/ShmooCon/CwBmEnPB">ShmooCon</a> (February), <a href="/facts/Black_Hat_Conference/eUNo4nyK">Black Hat Conference</a>, <a href="/facts/Chaos_Communication_Congress/N7wXXSxh">Chaos Communication Congress</a>, AthCon, Hacker Halted, and <a href="/facts/H.O.P.E./kXUCHv6n">H.O.P.E.</a> Local Hackfest groups organize and compete to develop their skills to send a team to a prominent convention to compete in group pentesting, exploit and forensics on a larger scale. Hacker groups became popular in the early 1980s, providing access to hacking information and resources and a place to learn from other members. Computer <a href="/facts/Bulletin_board_systems/22d9c9s2">bulletin board systems</a> (BBSs), such as the Utopias, provided platforms for information-sharing via dial-up modem. Hackers could also gain credibility by being affiliated with elite groups.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57">57</a>

<h2 id="consequences-for-malicious-hacking">Consequences for malicious hacking</h2>
<h3>India</h3>
<table><tbody><tr><th>Section</th><th>Offence</th><th>Punishment</th></tr><tr><td>65</td><td>Tampering with computer source documents – Intentional concealment, destruction or alteration of source code when the computer source code is required to be kept or maintained by law for the time being in force</td><td>Imprisonment up to three years, or/and with fine up to 20000 rupees</td></tr><tr><td>66</td><td>Hacking</td><td>Imprisonment up to three years, or/and with fine up to 50000 rupees</td></tr></tbody></table>
<h3>Netherlands</h3>
<ul><li>Article 138ab of <a href="/facts/Law_of_the_Netherlands/e5mpcpnQ">Wetboek van Strafrecht</a> prohibits computervredebreuk, which is defined as intruding an automated work or a part thereof with intention and against the law. Intrusion is defined as access by means of:
<ul><li>Defeating <a href="/facts/Computer_security/7E5dIy7G">security measures</a></li>
<li>By technical means</li>
<li>By false signals or a false <a href="/facts/Key_(cryptography)/5W5PAmT4">cryptographic key</a></li>
<li>By the use of stolen <a href="/facts/User_(computing)/zQRzG0KG">usernames</a> and <a href="/facts/Password/WEoul230">passwords</a>.</li></ul></li></ul>
Maximum imprisonment is one year or a fine of the fourth category.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58">58</a>

<h3>United States</h3>
<a href="/facts/Title_18_of_the_United_States_Code/3yocUU3R">18 U.S.C.</a> <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/1030">§ 1030</a>, more commonly known as the <a href="/facts/Computer_Fraud_and_Abuse_Act/naSP6KRd">Computer Fraud and Abuse Act</a>, prohibits unauthorized access or damage of "protected computers". "Protected computers" are defined in <a href="/facts/Title_18_of_the_United_States_Code/3yocUU3R">18 U.S.C.</a> <a href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/1030#e_2">§ 1030(e)(2)</a> as:

<ul><li>A computer exclusively for the use of a financial institution or the United States Government, or, in the case of a computer not exclusively for such use, used by or for a financial institution or the United States Government and the conduct constituting the offense affects that use by or for the financial institution or the Government.</li>
<li>A computer which is used in or affecting interstate or foreign commerce or communication, including a computer located outside the United States that is used in a manner that affects interstate or foreign commerce or communication of the United States;</li></ul>
The maximum imprisonment or fine for violations of the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act depends on the severity of the violation and the offender's history of violations under the Act.
The <a href="/facts/FBI/UY93jwX6">FBI</a> has demonstrated its ability to recover ransoms paid in <a href="/facts/Cryptocurrency/Rg6JAS8y">cryptocurrency</a> by victims of cybertheft.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59">59</a>

<h2 id="hacking-and-the-media">Hacking and the media</h2>

<h3>Hacker magazines</h3>
Main category: Hacker magazines
The most notable hacker-oriented print publications are <a href="/facts/Phrack/guwr8z5E">Phrack</a>, Hakin9 and <a href="/facts/2600%3a_The_Hacker_Quarterly/kWU9wbS7">2600: The Hacker Quarterly</a>. While the information contained in hacker magazines and <a href="/facts/Ezine/MsAsjPNr">ezines</a> was often outdated by the time they were published, they enhanced their contributors' reputations by documenting their successes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60">60</a>

<h3>Hackers in fiction</h3>
See also: <a href="/facts/List_of_fictional_hackers/P8yfJMoz">List of fictional hackers</a>
Hackers often show an interest in fictional <a href="/facts/Cyberpunk/3MIjfHNL">cyberpunk</a> and <a href="/facts/Cyberculture/3Eyhakbn">cyberculture</a> literature and movies. The adoption of <a href="/facts/Fictional/p1AY3Xp4">fictional</a> <a href="/facts/Pseudonym/A5EjmWxQ">pseudonyms</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61">61</a> symbols, values and <a href="/facts/Metaphor/xwsLaqJI">metaphors</a> from these works is very common.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62">62</a>

<h4>Books</h4>
<ul><li>The <a href="/facts/Cyberpunk/3MIjfHNL">cyberpunk</a> novels of <a href="/facts/William_Gibson/yyVXYSfb">William Gibson</a> – especially the <a href="/facts/Sprawl_trilogy/qnydpVmp">Sprawl trilogy</a> – are very popular with hackers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63">63</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Helba/w3C86ttT">Helba</a> from the <a href="/facts/.hack/JVlL6qU6">.hack</a> manga and anime series</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Merlin_of_Amber/u0tk1IcM">Merlin of Amber</a>, the protagonist of the second series in <a href="/facts/The_Chronicles_of_Amber/BjGApupj">The Chronicles of Amber</a> by <a href="/facts/Roger_Zelazny/YVx1FLrp">Roger Zelazny</a>, is a young immortal hacker-mage prince who has the ability to traverse shadow dimensions.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Lisbeth_Salander/9P22SQg9">Lisbeth Salander</a> in <a href="/facts/The_Girl_with_the_Dragon_Tattoo/RDzT92Pp">The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo</a> by <a href="/facts/Stieg_Larsson/9gCJRH2b">Stieg Larsson</a></li>
<li>Alice from <a href="/facts/Heaven%2527s_Memo_Pad/X8YqPn58">Heaven's Memo Pad</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Ender%2527s_Game/IJXdswaa">Ender's Game</a> by <a href="/facts/Orson_Scott_Card/9TWKxmoW">Orson Scott Card</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Evil_Genius_(novel)/ojc5uAoe">Evil Genius</a> by <a href="/facts/Catherine_Jinks/zbfDr5Wo">Catherine Jinks</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Hackers_(anthology)/BNIUIYNn">Hackers (anthology)</a> by <a href="/facts/Jack_Dann/cCXSF2BX">Jack Dann</a> and <a href="/facts/Gardner_Dozois/4eHb95Gh">Gardner Dozois</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Little_Brother_(Doctorow_novel)/bseS4vTo">Little Brother</a> by <a href="/facts/Cory_Doctorow/rqVA8PBe">Cory Doctorow</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Neuromancer/J8ITMhBP">Neuromancer</a> by <a href="/facts/William_Gibson/yyVXYSfb">William Gibson</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Snow_Crash/a29mk9qx">Snow Crash</a> by <a href="/facts/Neal_Stephenson/DyjC6fmY">Neal Stephenson</a></li></ul>
<h4>Films</h4>

<ul><li><a href="/facts/Antitrust_(film)/UdwVfgff">Antitrust</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Blackhat_(film)/VVd7o5QY">Blackhat</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Cypher_(film)/XyEtLqMV">Cypher</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Eagle_Eye/gzVgYhpA">Eagle Eye</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Enemy_of_the_State_(film)/3RsAlvHu">Enemy of the State</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Firewall_(film)/5jXxKp3r">Firewall</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Girl_With_The_Dragon_Tattoo/RDzT92Pp">Girl With The Dragon Tattoo</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Hackers_(film)/mLvPvvjj">Hackers</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Live_Free_or_Die_Hard/ddnhhV1m">Live Free or Die Hard</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/The_Matrix_Series/YVA5Tum1">The Matrix series</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/The_Net_(1995_film)/dz2oFEnS">The Net</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/The_Net_2.0_(film)/nHu6rVeR">The Net 2.0</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Pirates_of_Silicon_Valley/IycD11hX">Pirates of Silicon Valley</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Skyfall/3KT5b1qk">Skyfall</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Sneakers_(1992_film)/cudrXKYj">Sneakers</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Swordfish_(film)/b0Bg7UbB">Swordfish</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Terminator_2%3a_Judgment_Day/6vTUIGKM">Terminator 2: Judgment Day</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Terminator_Salvation/ElXLTS00">Terminator Salvation</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Track_Down/24qIp2t7">Take Down</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Tron/FdSGv2jj">Tron</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Tron%3a_Legacy/qRUvuAzd">Tron: Legacy</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Untraceable/41fUUqHS">Untraceable</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/WarGames/3CegMQFX">WarGames</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Weird_Science_(film)/9TYgG1tF">Weird Science</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/The_Fifth_Estate_(film)/Teg0Jftz">The Fifth Estate</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Who_Am_I_%25E2%2580%2593_No_System_Is_Safe/g0WpGGv0">Who Am I – No System Is Safe (film)</a></li>
<li>"<a href="/facts/Johnny_English_Strikes_Again/Cyxn3TBK">Johnny English Strikes Again</a>"</li></ul>
<h4>TV series</h4>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Mr._Robot/MfVf3MzG">Mr. Robot</a></li></ul>
<h3>Non-fiction books</h3>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/The_Art_of_Deception/ftpnMJta">The Art of Deception</a> by <a href="/facts/Kevin_Mitnick/4zwvWL4B">Kevin Mitnick</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/The_Art_of_Intrusion/MhSCfwpz">The Art of Intrusion</a> by <a href="/facts/Kevin_Mitnick/4zwvWL4B">Kevin Mitnick</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/The_Cuckoo%2527s_Egg/oSbf6X0B">The Cuckoo's Egg</a> by <a href="/facts/Clifford_Stoll/uPpGafsq">Clifford Stoll</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Ghost_in_the_Wires/4zwvWL4B">Ghost in the Wires: My Adventures as the World's Most Wanted Hacker</a> by <a href="/facts/Kevin_Mitnick/4zwvWL4B">Kevin Mitnick</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Hackers%3a_Heroes_of_the_Computer_Revolution/FqItRzrk">Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution</a> by <a href="/facts/Steven_Levy/N1xIHBw8">Steven Levy</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/The_Hacker_Crackdown/7Qjpn7I9">The Hacker Crackdown</a> by <a href="/facts/Bruce_Sterling/cTrHhRnn">Bruce Sterling</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/The_Hacker%2527s_Handbook/7bxSz42u">The Hacker's Handbook</a> by Hugo Cornwall (Peter Sommer)</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Hacking%3a_The_Art_of_Exploitation_Second_Edition/NCHdU25o">Hacking: The Art of Exploitation Second Edition</a> by Jon Erickson</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Out_of_the_Inner_Circle/D5CRNXby">Out of the Inner Circle</a> by <a href="/facts/Bill_Landreth/cPdeTJa7">Bill Landreth</a> and <a href="/facts/Howard_Rheingold/GM0yxsz8">Howard Rheingold</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Underground_(Suelette_Dreyfus_book)/bYSx05jA">Underground</a> by <a href="/facts/Suelette_Dreyfus/ojdUtHeM">Suelette Dreyfus</a></li></ul>
<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>

<ul><li><a href="/facts/Cracking_of_wireless_networks/xphjXWD0">Cracking of wireless networks</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Cyber_spying/ohotQr6M">Cyber spying</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Cyber_Storm_Exercise/9sF4C96k">Cyber Storm Exercise</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Cybercrime/cSyaFF96">Cybercrime</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Government_hacking/pTYvMwvT">Government hacking</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Hacker_culture/8ww6P79y">Hacker culture</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Hacker_(expert)/bhg519lj">Hacker (expert)</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Hacker_Manifesto/kK9hXvHz">Hacker Manifesto</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/IT_risk/ypuDa6CL">IT risk</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Mathematical_beauty/HYwRap01">Mathematical beauty</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Metasploit_Project/sCtEhxlk">Metasploit Project</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Penetration_test/Jd7lFd4z">Penetration test</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Technology_assessment/7TIxr6Tu">Technology assessment</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Vulnerability_(computing)/jg0Gr71M">Vulnerability (computing)</a></li></ul>

<h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2>
<ul><li>Samuel Chng, Han Yu Lu, Ayush Kumar, David Yau (March 2022). <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S245195882200001X">"Hacker types, motivations and strategies: A comprehensive framework"</a>. Computers in Human Behavior Reports. 5. <a href="/facts/ISSN_(identifier)/DPAflDvU">ISSN</a> <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2451-9588">2451-9588</a>. Retrieved January 27, 2022.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)</li>
<li>Apro, Bill; Hammond, Graeme (2005). Hackers: The Hunt for Australia's Most Infamous Computer Cracker. Rowville, Vic: Five Mile Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 1-74124-722-5.</li>
<li>Beaver, Kevin (2010). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rIOxAmsA6hQC&pg=PP1">Hacking for Dummies</a>. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Pub. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-7645-5784-2.</li>
<li>Conway, Richard; Cordingley, Julian (2004). Code Hacking: A Developer's Guide to Network Security. Hingham, Mass: Charles River Media. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-58450-314-9.</li>
<li>Freeman, David H.; Mann, Charles C. (1997). <a href="https://archive.org/details/atlargestrangeca00free">At Large: The Strange Case of the World's Biggest Internet Invasion</a>. New York: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-684-82464-7.</li>
<li>Granville, Johanna (Winter 2003). <a href="https://www.scribd.com/doc/14361572/Dotcon-Dangers-of-Cybercrime-by-Johanna-Granville">"Dot.Con: The Dangers of Cyber Crime and a Call for Proactive Solutions"</a>. <a href="/facts/Australian_Journal_of_Politics_and_History/BLevpvGy">Australian Journal of Politics and History</a>. 49 (1): 102–109. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1467-8497.00284">10.1111/1467-8497.00284</a>. Retrieved February 20, 2014.</li>
<li>Gregg, Michael (2006). Certified Ethical Hacker. Indianapolis, Ind: Que Certification. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-7897-3531-7.</li>
<li>Hafner, Katie; Markoff, John (1991). <a href="https://archive.org/details/cyberpunk00kati">Cyberpunk: Outlaws and Hackers on the Computer Frontier</a>. New York: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-671-68322-5.</li>
<li>Harper, Allen; Harris, Shon; Ness, Jonathan (2011). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jMmpLwe2ezoC">Gray Hat Hacking: The Ethical Hacker's Handbook</a> (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-07-174255-9.</li>
<li>McClure, Stuart; Scambray, Joel; Kurtz, George (1999). <a href="https://archive.org/details/hackingexposedne00mccl">Hacking Exposed: Network Security Secrets and Solutions</a>. Berkeley, Calif: Mcgraw-Hill. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-07-212127-0.</li>
<li>Russell, Ryan (2004). Stealing the Network: How to Own a Continent. Rockland, Mass: Syngress Media. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-931836-05-0.</li>
<li>Taylor, Paul A. (1999). Hackers: Crime in the Digital Sublime. London: Routledge. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-415-18072-6.</li></ul>
<h2 id="external-links">External links</h2>

Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: Hacking

<ul><li> Media related to Hacking (computer security) at Wikimedia Commons</li>
<li><a href="http://edition.cnn.com/2001/TECH/internet/11/19/hack.history.idg/index.html">CNN Tech PCWorld Staff (November 2001). Timeline: A 40-year history of hacking from 1960 to 2001</a></li>
<li><a href="http://video.pbs.org/video/2365039353/">Can Hackers Be Heroes?</a> Video produced by <a href="/facts/Off_Book_(web_series)/FU7HWhE6">Off Book (web series)</a></li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">Gao, Xing (2015). "Information security investment for competitive firms with hacker behavior and security requirements". Annals of Operations Research. 235: 277–300. doi:10.1007/s10479-015-1925-2. S2CID 207085416. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">Winkler, Ira. Spies Among Us: How to Stop the Spies, Terrorists, Hackers, and Criminals You Don't Even Know You Encounter Every Day. John Wiley & Sons. 2005. pg. 92. ISBN 9780764589904. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">Sterling, Bruce (1993). "Part 2(d)". The Hacker Crackdown. McLean, Virginia: IndyPublish.com. p. 61. ISBN 1-4043-0641-2. <a href="1-4043-0641-2" target="_blank">1-4043-0641-2</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">"The Hacker's Dictionary". Archived from the original on November 8, 2020. Retrieved May 23, 2013. <a href="http://jargon-file.org/archive/jargon-1.5.0.dos.txt" target="_blank">http://jargon-file.org/archive/jargon-1.5.0.dos.txt</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">Political notes from 2012: September–December Archived December 9, 2012, at the Wayback Machine. stallman.org. <a href="http://stallman.org/archives/2012-sep-dec.html#06_December_2012_%28Ecuadorian_white_hat_cracker_freed%29" target="_blank">http://stallman.org/archives/2012-sep-dec.html#06_December_2012_%28Ecuadorian_white_hat_cracker_freed%29</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">Raymond, Eric S. "Jargon File: Cracker". Archived from the original on June 29, 2011. Retrieved May 8, 2010. Coined ca. 1985 by hackers in defense against journalistic misuse of hacker. <a href="http://catb.org/jargon/html/C/cracker.html" target="_blank">http://catb.org/jargon/html/C/cracker.html</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">Yagoda, Ben (March 6, 2014). "A Short History of 'Hack'". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on November 10, 2015. Retrieved June 21, 2019. Although Lifehacker and other neutral or positive applications of the word [hack] are increasingly prominent, the black-hat meaning still prevails among the general public. <a href="http://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/a-short-history-of-hack" target="_blank">http://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/a-short-history-of-hack</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">See the 1981 version of the Jargon File Archived April 2, 2018, at the Wayback Machine, entry "hacker", last meaning. <a href="http://www.catb.org/jargon/oldversions/jarg1-81-MM-DD.txt" target="_blank">http://www.catb.org/jargon/oldversions/jarg1-81-MM-DD.txt</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:10">Elmer-DeWitt, Philip (August 29, 1983). "The 414 Gang Strikes Again". Time. p. 75. Archived from the original on December 2, 2007. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071202043840/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,949797,00.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20071202043840/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,949797,00.html</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">Elmer-DeWitt, Philip (August 29, 1983). "The 414 Gang Strikes Again". Time. p. 75. Archived from the original on December 2, 2007. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071202043840/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,949797,00.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20071202043840/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,949797,00.html</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">"Beware: Hackers at play". Newsweek. September 5, 1983. pp. 42–46, 48. <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:14">Bailey, David (April 1984). "Attacks on Computers: Congressional Hearings and Pending Legislation". 1984 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy. Oakland, CA, USA: IEEE. pp. 180–186. doi:10.1109/SP.1984.10012. ISBN 978-0-8186-0532-1. S2CID 15187375. Archived from the original on June 24, 2024. Retrieved July 21, 2023. <a href="978-0-8186-0532-1" target="_blank">978-0-8186-0532-1</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">Bailey, David (April 1984). "Attacks on Computers: Congressional Hearings and Pending Legislation". 1984 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy. Oakland, CA, USA: IEEE. pp. 180–186. doi:10.1109/SP.1984.10012. ISBN 978-0-8186-0532-1. S2CID 15187375. Archived from the original on June 24, 2024. Retrieved July 21, 2023. <a href="978-0-8186-0532-1" target="_blank">978-0-8186-0532-1</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:22">Moore, Robert (2006). Cybercrime: Investigating High-Technology Computer Crime (1st ed.). Cincinnati, Ohio: Anderson Publishing. ISBN 978-1-59345-303-9. <a href="978-1-59345-303-9" target="_blank">978-1-59345-303-9</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:23">Okpa, John Thompson; Ugwuoke, Christopher Uchechukwu; Ajah, Benjamin Okorie; Eshioste, Emmanuel; Igbe, Joseph Egidi; Ajor, Ogar James; Okoi, Ofem, Nnana; Eteng, Mary Juachi; Nnamani, Rebecca Ginikanwa (September 5, 2022). "Cyberspace, Black-Hat Hacking and Economic Sustainability of Corporate Organizations in Cross-River State, Nigeria". SAGE Open. 12 (3): 215824402211227. doi:10.1177/21582440221122739. ISSN 2158-2440. S2CID 252096635.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) <a href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F21582440221122739" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1177%2F21582440221122739</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:55">Sterling, Bruce (1993). "Part 2(d)". The Hacker Crackdown. McLean, Virginia: IndyPublish.com. p. 61. ISBN 1-4043-0641-2. <a href="1-4043-0641-2" target="_blank">1-4043-0641-2</a> <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:56">Jordan, Tim; Taylor, Paul A. (2004). Hacktivism and Cyberwars. Routledge. pp. 133–134. ISBN 978-0-415-26003-9. Wild West imagery has permeated discussions of cybercultures. <a href="978-0-415-26003-9" target="_blank">978-0-415-26003-9</a> <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:57">Thomas, Douglas (2003). Hacker Culture. University of Minnesota Press. p. 90. ISBN 978-0-8166-3346-3. <a href="978-0-8166-3346-3" target="_blank">978-0-8166-3346-3</a> <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:58">Artikel 138ab Archived February 2, 2015, at the Wayback Machine. Wetboek van Strafrecht, December 27, 2012 <a href="http://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0001854/TweedeBoek/TitelV/Artikel138ab/geldigheidsdatum_27-12-2012" target="_blank">http://wetten.overheid.nl/BWBR0001854/TweedeBoek/TitelV/Artikel138ab/geldigheidsdatum_27-12-2012</a> <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:59">Nakashima, Ellen. Feds recover more than $2 million in ransomware payments from Colonial Pipeline hackers. Archived June 19, 2021, at the Wayback Machine Washington Post, June 7, 2021. <a href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2021/06/07/colonial-pipeline-ransomware-payment-recovered/" target="_blank">https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2021/06/07/colonial-pipeline-ransomware-payment-recovered/</a> <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:60">Thomas, Douglas (2003). Hacker Culture. University of Minnesota Press. p. 90. ISBN 978-0-8166-3346-3. <a href="978-0-8166-3346-3" target="_blank">978-0-8166-3346-3</a> <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:61">Swabey, Pete (February 27, 2013). "Data leaked by Anonymous appears to reveal Bank of America's hacker profiling operation". Information Age. Archived from the original on April 19, 2016. Retrieved February 21, 2014. <a href="http://www.information-age.com/it-management/risk-and-compliance/123456840/data-leaked-by-anonymous-appears-to-reveal-bank-of-america-s-hacker-profiling-operation" target="_blank">http://www.information-age.com/it-management/risk-and-compliance/123456840/data-leaked-by-anonymous-appears-to-reveal-bank-of-america-s-hacker-profiling-operation</a> <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:62">"Hackers and Viruses: Questions and Answers". Scienzagiovane. University of Bologna. November 12, 2012. Archived from the original on June 10, 2016. Retrieved February 21, 2014. <a href="http://www.scienzagiovane.unibo.it/English/hackers/6-faq.html" target="_blank">http://www.scienzagiovane.unibo.it/English/hackers/6-faq.html</a> <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:63">Staples, Brent (May 11, 2003). "A Prince of Cyberpunk Fiction Moves Into the Mainstream". The New York Times. Archived from the original on October 13, 2016. Retrieved February 20, 2017. Mr. Gibson's novels and short stories are worshiped by hackers <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2003/05/11/opinion/editorial-observer-a-prince-of-cyberpunk-fiction-moves-into-the-mainstream.html" target="_blank">https://www.nytimes.com/2003/05/11/opinion/editorial-observer-a-prince-of-cyberpunk-fiction-moves-into-the-mainstream.html</a> <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
</ol>

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