Planetary nebula

<h2 id="observations">Observations</h2>

<h3>Discovery</h3>
The first planetary nebula discovered (though not yet termed as such) was the <a href="/facts/Dumbbell_Nebula/5e9WSj2K">Dumbbell Nebula</a> in the constellation of <a href="/facts/Vulpecula/sFKY38Ys">Vulpecula</a>. It was observed by <a href="/facts/Charles_Messier/dTokW7Yy">Charles Messier</a> on July 12, 1764 and listed as M27 in his <a href="/facts/Messier_object/YKz2MxzQ">catalogue</a> of nebulous objects.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a> To early observers with low-resolution telescopes, M27 and subsequently discovered planetary nebulae resembled the giant planets like <a href="/facts/Uranus/x7YwT1ar">Uranus</a>. As early as January 1779, the French astronomer <a href="/facts/Antoine_Darquier_de_Pellepoix/LaNtudt8">Antoine Darquier de Pellepoix</a> described in his observations of the <a href="/facts/Ring_Nebula/Iu1A7DNQ">Ring Nebula</a>, "a very dull nebula, but perfectly outlined; as large as Jupiter and looks like a fading planet".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a> 
The nature of these objects remained unclear. In 1782, <a href="/facts/William_Herschel/SsruaBvq">William Herschel</a>, discoverer of Uranus, found the <a href="/facts/Saturn_Nebula/BxgUt6Ry">Saturn Nebula</a> (NGC 7009) and described it as "A curious nebula, or what else to call it I do not know". He later described these objects as seeming to be planets "of the starry kind".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a> As noted by Darquier before him, Herschel found that the disk resembled a planet but it was too faint to be one. In 1785, Herschel wrote to <a href="/facts/J%25C3%25A9r%25C3%25B4me_Lalande/1TgNUA49">Jérôme Lalande</a>:

<blockquote>These are celestial bodies of which as yet we have no clear idea and which are perhaps of a type quite different from those that we are familiar with in the heavens. I have already found four that have a visible diameter of between 15 and 30 seconds. These bodies appear to have a disk that is rather like a planet, that is to say, of equal brightness all over, round or somewhat oval, and about as well defined in outline as the disk of the planets, of a light strong enough to be visible with an ordinary telescope of only one foot, yet they have only the appearance of a star of about ninth magnitude.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a></blockquote>
He assigned these to Class IV of his catalogue of "nebulae", eventually listing 78 "planetary nebulae", most of which are in fact galaxies.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a>
Herschel used the term "planetary nebulae" for these objects. The origin of this term not known.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a> The label "planetary nebula" became ingrained in the terminology used by astronomers to categorize these types of nebulae, and is still in use by astronomers today.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a>

<h3>Spectra</h3>
The nature of planetary nebulae remained unknown until the first <a href="/facts/Astronomical_spectroscopy/NDGQ7mmM">spectroscopic</a> observations were made in the mid-19th century. Using a <a href="/facts/Prism_(optics)/eodBFF70">prism</a> to disperse their light, <a href="/facts/William_Huggins/UVPpNGvt">William Huggins</a> was one of the earliest astronomers to study the <a href="/facts/Optical_spectrum/frPBh8o5">optical spectra</a> of astronomical objects.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a>
On August 29, 1864, Huggins was the first to analyze the spectrum of a planetary nebula when he observed <a href="/facts/Cat%2527s_Eye_Nebula/gvVk41YP">Cat's Eye Nebula</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a> His observations of stars had shown that their spectra consisted of a <a href="/facts/Continuum_(theory)/oz3r6kvm">continuum</a> of radiation with many <a href="/facts/Absorption_line/HuI4Bj5f">dark lines</a> superimposed. He found that many nebulous objects such as the <a href="/facts/Andromeda_Galaxy/MjmSLV6m">Andromeda Nebula</a> (as it was then known) had spectra that were quite similar. However, when Huggins looked at the Cat's Eye Nebula, he found a very different spectrum. Rather than a strong continuum with absorption lines superimposed, the Cat's Eye Nebula and other similar objects showed a number of <a href="/facts/Emission_spectrum/fxumR717">emission lines</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a> Brightest of these was at a wavelength of 500.7 <a href="/facts/Nanometre/a98sjHyu">nanometres</a>, which did not correspond with a line of any known element.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a>
At first, it was hypothesized that the line might be due to an unknown element, which was named <a href="/facts/Nebulium/K2V8xG4u">nebulium</a>. A similar idea had led to the discovery of <a href="/facts/Helium/yRul93TG">helium</a> through analysis of the <a href="/facts/Sun/CadPCVHh">Sun</a>'s spectrum in 1868.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a> While helium was isolated on Earth soon after its discovery in the spectrum of the Sun, "nebulium" was not. In the early 20th century, <a href="/facts/Henry_Norris_Russell/wWtTfeGG">Henry Norris Russell</a> proposed that, rather than being a new element, the line at 500.7 nm was due to a familiar element in unfamiliar conditions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a>
Physicists showed in the 1920s that in gas at extremely low densities, <a href="/facts/Electron/L0KBo5cW">electrons</a> can occupy <a href="/facts/Excited_state/czcLYNnr">excited</a> <a href="/facts/Metastability/H72SMWof">metastable</a> <a href="/facts/Energy_level/66x51Khc">energy levels</a> in atoms and ions that would otherwise be de-excited by collisions that would occur at higher densities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a> Electron transitions from these levels in <a href="/facts/Nitrogen/Nf1QpGDz">nitrogen</a> and <a href="/facts/Oxygen/acyn6o8r">oxygen</a> ions (O+, <a href="/facts/Doubly_ionized_oxygen/IxbzL5xV">O2+</a> (a.k.a. O iii), and N+) give rise to the 500.7 nm emission line and others.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a> These spectral lines, which can only be seen in very low-density gases, are called <a href="/facts/Forbidden_line/UeungKv0">forbidden lines</a>. Spectroscopic observations thus showed that nebulae were made of extremely rarefied gas.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a>

<h3>Central stars</h3>
The central stars of planetary nebulae are very hot.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a> Only when a star has exhausted most of its nuclear fuel can it collapse to a small size. Planetary nebulae are understood as a final stage of <a href="/facts/Stellar_evolution/Qa4vAGmn">stellar evolution</a>. Spectroscopic observations show that all planetary nebulae are expanding. This led to the idea that planetary nebulae were caused by a star's outer layers being thrown into space at the end of its life.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a>

<h3>Modern observations</h3>
Towards the end of the 20th century, technological improvements helped to further the study of planetary nebulae.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a> <a href="/facts/Space_telescope/BtI46sDX">Space telescopes</a> allowed astronomers to study light wavelengths outside those that the Earth's atmosphere transmits. The first UV observations of PNe (<a href="/facts/IC_2149/anY09BaX">IC 2149</a>) were performed from space, with the <a href="/facts/Orion_2_Space_Observatory/pblobURa">Orion 2 Space Observatory</a> (see <a href="/facts/Orion_1_and_Orion_2_Space_Observatories/pblobURa">Orion 1 and Orion 2 Space Observatories</a>) on board the <a href="/facts/Soyuz_13/Du2wd750">Soyuz 13</a> spacecraft in December 1973,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31">31</a> two photon emission from nebulae was detected for the first time.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32">32</a>
<a href="/facts/Infrared/44XdJNcc">Infrared</a> and ultraviolet studies of planetary nebulae allowed much more accurate determinations of nebular <a href="/facts/Temperature/QyGe4gmj">temperatures</a>, <a href="/facts/Density/92p6hh9I">densities</a> and elemental abundances.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33">33</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34">34</a> <a href="/facts/Charge-coupled_device/l6xffIcz">Charge-coupled device</a> technology allowed much fainter spectral lines to be measured accurately than had previously been possible. The Hubble Space Telescope also showed that while many nebulae appear to have simple and regular structures when observed from the ground, the very high <a href="/facts/Optical_resolution/TcLkPYFw">optical resolution</a> achievable by telescopes above the <a href="/facts/Earth%2527s_atmosphere/FV97Am25">Earth's atmosphere</a> reveals extremely complex structures.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35">35</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36">36</a>
Under the <a href="/facts/Morgan-Keenan_spectral_classification/dYrIuK9H">Morgan-Keenan spectral classification</a> scheme, planetary nebulae are classified as Type-P, although this notation is seldom used in practice.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37">37</a>

<h2 id="origins">Origins</h2>

Stars greater than 8 <a href="/facts/Solar_mass/j6Auhku8">solar masses</a> (M⊙) will probably end their lives in dramatic <a href="/facts/Supernova/Pfo2J23l">supernovae</a> explosions, while planetary nebulae seemingly only occur at the end of the lives of intermediate and low mass stars between 0.8 M⊙ to 8.0 M⊙.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38">38</a> Progenitor stars that form planetary nebulae will spend most of their lifetimes converting their <a href="/facts/Hydrogen/BoYHjl0J">hydrogen</a> into <a href="/facts/Helium/yRul93TG">helium</a> in the star's core by <a href="/facts/Nuclear_fusion/hP0gLDqj">nuclear fusion</a> at about 15 million <a href="/facts/Kelvin/E3trzC4C">K</a>. This generates energy in the core, which creates outward pressure that balances the crushing inward pressures of gravity.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39">39</a> This state of equilibrium is known as the <a href="/facts/Main_sequence/DJ3Wq8kd">main sequence</a>, which can last for tens of millions to billions of years, depending on the mass.
When the hydrogen in the core starts to run out, nuclear fusion generates less energy and gravity starts compressing the core, causing a rise in temperature to about 100 million K.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40">40</a> Such high core temperatures then make[how?] the star's cooler outer layers expand to create much larger red giant stars. This end phase causes a dramatic rise in stellar luminosity, where the released energy is distributed over a much larger surface area, which in fact causes the average surface temperature to be lower. In <a href="/facts/Stellar_evolution/Qa4vAGmn">stellar evolution</a> terms, stars undergoing such increases in luminosity are known as <a href="/facts/Asymptotic_giant_branch/R90sd1Hl">asymptotic giant branch stars</a> (AGB).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41">41</a> During this phase, the star can lose 50–70% of its total mass from its <a href="/facts/Stellar_wind/bn5J6vpx">stellar wind</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42">42</a>
For the more massive asymptotic giant branch stars that form planetary nebulae, whose progenitors exceed about 0.6M⊙, their cores will continue to contract. When temperatures reach about 100 million K, the available <a href="/facts/Helium/yRul93TG">helium nuclei</a> fuse into <a href="/facts/Carbon/ukrgQexo">carbon</a> and <a href="/facts/Oxygen/acyn6o8r">oxygen</a>, so that the star again resumes radiating energy, temporarily stopping the core's contraction. This new helium burning phase (fusion of helium nuclei) forms a growing inner core of inert carbon and oxygen. Above it is a thin helium-burning shell, surrounded in turn by a hydrogen-burning shell. However, this new phase lasts only 20,000 years or so, a very short period compared to the entire lifetime of the star.
The venting of atmosphere continues unabated into interstellar space, but when the outer surface of the exposed core reaches temperatures exceeding about 30,000 K, there are enough emitted <a href="/facts/Ultraviolet/kncBUqn5">ultraviolet</a> <a href="/facts/Photon/mFNhAEzA">photons</a> to <a href="/facts/Ionisation/W13Ceavd">ionize</a> the ejected atmosphere, causing the gas to shine as a planetary nebula.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43">43</a>

<h2 id="lifetime">Lifetime</h2>

After a star passes through the <a href="/facts/Asymptotic_giant_branch/R90sd1Hl">asymptotic giant branch</a> (AGB) phase, the short planetary nebula phase of stellar evolution begins<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44">44</a> as gases blow away from the central star at speeds of a few kilometers per second. The central star is the remnant of its AGB progenitor, an electron-degenerate carbon-oxygen core that has lost most of its hydrogen envelope due to mass loss on the AGB.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45">45</a> As the gases expand, the central star undergoes a two-stage evolution, first growing hotter as it continues to contract and hydrogen fusion reactions occur in the shell around the core and then slowly cooling when the hydrogen shell is exhausted through fusion and mass loss.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46">46</a> In the second phase, it radiates away its energy and fusion reactions cease, as the central star is not heavy enough to generate the core temperatures required for carbon and oxygen to fuse.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47">47</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48">48</a> During the first phase, the central star maintains constant luminosity,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49">49</a> while at the same time it grows ever hotter, eventually reaching temperatures around 100,000 K. In the second phase, it cools so much that it does not give off enough ultraviolet radiation to ionize the increasingly distant gas cloud. The star becomes a <a href="/facts/White_dwarf/gIYlTtrC">white dwarf</a>, and the expanding gas cloud becomes invisible to us, ending the planetary nebula phase of evolution.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50">50</a> For a typical planetary nebula, about 10,000 years<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51">51</a> passes between its formation and recombination of the resulting <a href="/facts/Plasma_(physics)/1d3btMVU">plasma</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52">52</a>

<h2 id="role-in-galactic-enrichment">Role in galactic enrichment</h2>

Planetary nebulae may play a very important role in galactic evolution. Newly born stars consist almost entirely of <a href="/facts/Hydrogen/BoYHjl0J">hydrogen</a> and <a href="/facts/Helium/yRul93TG">helium</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53">53</a> but as stars evolve through the <a href="/facts/Asymptotic_giant_branch/R90sd1Hl">asymptotic giant branch</a> phase,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54">54</a> they create heavier elements via <a href="/facts/Nuclear_fusion/hP0gLDqj">nuclear fusion</a> which are eventually expelled by strong <a href="/facts/Stellar_wind/bn5J6vpx">stellar winds</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55">55</a> Planetary nebulae usually contain larger proportions of elements such as <a href="/facts/Carbon/ukrgQexo">carbon</a>, <a href="/facts/Nitrogen/Nf1QpGDz">nitrogen</a> and <a href="/facts/Oxygen/acyn6o8r">oxygen</a>, and these are recycled into the interstellar medium via these powerful winds. In this way, planetary nebulae greatly enrich the <a href="/facts/Milky_Way/ulF6lccN">Milky Way</a> and their <a href="/facts/Nebula/hG6coklY">nebulae</a> with these heavier elements – collectively known by astronomers as metals and specifically referred to by the <a href="/facts/Metallicity/nhhPqbYF">metallicity parameter</a> Z.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56">56</a>
Subsequent generations of stars formed from such nebulae also tend to have higher metallicities. Although these metals are present in stars in relatively tiny amounts, they have marked effects on <a href="/facts/Stellar_evolution/Qa4vAGmn">stellar evolution</a> and fusion reactions. When stars formed earlier in the <a href="/facts/Universe/XbfpnDmM">universe</a> they theoretically contained smaller quantities of heavier elements.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57">57</a> Known examples are the metal poor <a href="/facts/Population_II/8ur1qDRK">Population II</a> stars. (See <a href="/facts/Stellar_population/8ur1qDRK">Stellar population</a>.)<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58">58</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59">59</a> Identification of stellar metallicity content is found by <a href="/facts/Astronomical_spectroscopy/NDGQ7mmM">spectroscopy</a>.

<h2 id="characteristics">Characteristics</h2>
<h3>Physical characteristics</h3>

A typical planetary nebula is roughly one <a href="/facts/Light_year/IGc5NdQb">light year</a> across, and consists of extremely rarefied gas, with a density generally from 100 to 10,000 particles per cm3.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60">60</a> (The Earth's atmosphere, by comparison, contains 2.5×1019 particles per cm3.) Young planetary nebulae have the highest densities, sometimes as high as 106 particles per cm3. As nebulae age, their expansion causes their density to decrease. The masses of planetary nebulae range from 0.1 to 1 <a href="/facts/Solar_mass/j6Auhku8">solar masses</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61">61</a>
Radiation from the central star heats the gases to temperatures of about 10,000 <a href="/facts/Kelvin/E3trzC4C">K</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62">62</a> The gas temperature in central regions is usually much higher than at the periphery reaching 16,000–25,000 K.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63">63</a> The volume in the vicinity of the central star is often filled with a very hot (coronal) gas having the temperature of about 1,000,000 K. This gas originates from the surface of the central star in the form of the fast stellar wind.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64">64</a>
Nebulae may be described as matter bounded or radiation bounded. In the former case, there is not enough matter in the nebula to absorb all the UV photons emitted by the star, and the visible nebula is fully ionized. In the latter case, there are not enough UV photons being emitted by the central star to ionize all the surrounding gas, and an ionization front propagates outward into the circumstellar envelope of neutral atoms.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65">65</a>

<h3>Numbers and distribution</h3>
About 3000 planetary nebulae are now known to exist in our galaxy,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66">66</a> out of 200 billion stars. Their very short lifetime compared to total stellar lifetime accounts for their rarity. They are found mostly near the plane of the <a href="/facts/Milky_Way/ulF6lccN">Milky Way</a>, with the greatest concentration near the <a href="/facts/Galactic_Center/TI4MwWwM">Galactic Center</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67">67</a>

<h3>Morphology</h3>

Only about 20% of planetary nebulae are spherically symmetric (for example, see <a href="/facts/Abell_39/dlrM7mKB">Abell 39</a>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68">68</a> A wide variety of shapes exist with some very complex forms seen. Planetary nebulae are classified by different authors into: stellar, disk, ring, irregular, helical, <a href="/facts/Bipolar_nebula/6p88qGkI">bipolar</a>, quadrupolar,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69">69</a> and other types,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70">70</a> although the majority of them belong to just three types: spherical, elliptical and bipolar. Bipolar nebulae are concentrated in the <a href="/facts/Galactic_plane/4eaqfCIB">galactic plane</a>, probably produced by relatively young massive progenitor stars; and bipolars in the <a href="/facts/Galactic_bulge/cjJ0LFan">galactic bulge</a> appear to prefer orienting their orbital axes parallel to the galactic plane.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71">71</a> On the other hand, spherical nebulae are probably produced by old stars similar to the Sun.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72">72</a>
The huge variety of the shapes is partially the projection effect—the same nebula when viewed under different angles will appear different.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73">73</a> Nevertheless, the reason for the huge variety of physical shapes is not fully understood.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74">74</a> Gravitational interactions with companion stars if the central stars are <a href="/facts/Binary_star/TYlDe1bD">binary stars</a> may be one cause. Another possibility is that planets disrupt the flow of material away from the star as the nebula forms. It has been determined that the more massive stars produce more irregularly shaped nebulae.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75">75</a> In January 2005, astronomers announced the first detection of magnetic fields around the central stars of two planetary nebulae,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76">76</a> predicted already in 1960s,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77">77</a> and hypothesized that the fields might be partly or wholly responsible for their remarkable shapes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78">78</a>

<h2 id="membership-in-clusters">Membership in clusters</h2>

Planetary nebulae have been detected as members in four Galactic <a href="/facts/Globular_clusters/FL0EERJU">globular clusters</a>: <a href="/facts/Messier_15/W4w5rbar">Messier 15</a>, <a href="/facts/Messier_22/P5ACumT6">Messier 22</a>, <a href="/facts/NGC_6441/v7zFAekd">NGC 6441</a> and <a href="/facts/Palomar_6/ecRUmj6m">Palomar 6</a>. Evidence also points to the potential discovery of planetary nebulae in globular clusters in the galaxy <a href="/facts/Andromeda_Galaxy/MjmSLV6m">M31</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79">79</a> However, there is currently only one case of a planetary nebula discovered in an <a href="/facts/Open_cluster/UodlJqcx">open cluster</a> that is agreed upon by independent researchers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80">80</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81">81</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82">82</a> That case pertains to the planetary nebula PHR 1315-6555 and the open cluster Andrews-Lindsay 1. Indeed, through cluster membership, PHR 1315-6555 possesses among the most precise distances established for a planetary nebula (i.e., a 4% distance solution). The cases of <a href="/facts/NGC_2818/F6SPDetc">NGC 2818</a> and NGC 2348 in <a href="/facts/Messier_46/uuKhAGlf">Messier 46</a>, exhibit mismatched velocities between the planetary nebulae and the clusters, which indicates they are line-of-sight coincidences.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83">83</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84">84</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85">85</a> A subsample of tentative cases that may potentially be cluster/PN pairs includes Abell 8 and Bica 6,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86">86</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87">87</a> and He 2-86 and NGC 4463.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88">88</a>
Theoretical models predict that planetary nebulae can form from <a href="/facts/Main-sequence/DJ3Wq8kd">main-sequence</a> stars of between one and eight solar masses, which puts the progenitor star's age at greater than 40 million years. Although there are a few hundred known open clusters within that age range, a variety of reasons limit the chances of finding a planetary nebula within.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89">89</a> For one reason, the planetary nebula phase for more massive stars is on the order of millennia, which is a blink of the eye in astronomic terms. Also, partly because of their small total mass, open clusters have relatively poor gravitational cohesion and tend to disperse after a relatively short time, typically from 100 to 600 million years.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90">90</a>

<h2 id="current-issues-in-planetary-nebula-studies">Current issues in planetary nebula studies</h2>
The distances to planetary nebulae are generally poorly determined,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91">91</a> but the <a href="/facts/Gaia_(spacecraft)/dlvcdkoN">Gaia</a> mission is now measuring direct <a href="/facts/Stellar_parallax/ywI9UWEJ">parallactic distances</a> between their central stars and neighboring stars.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92">92</a> It is also possible to determine distances to nearby planetary nebula by measuring their expansion rates. High resolution observations taken several years apart will show the expansion of the nebula perpendicular to the line of sight, while spectroscopic observations of the <a href="/facts/Doppler_shift/bzrK1BKf">Doppler shift</a> will reveal the velocity of expansion in the line of sight. Comparing the angular expansion with the derived velocity of expansion will reveal the distance to the nebula.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93">93</a>
The issue of how such a diverse range of nebular shapes can be produced is a debatable topic. It is theorised that interactions between material moving away from the star at different speeds gives rise to most observed shapes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94">94</a> However, some astronomers postulate that close binary central stars might be responsible for the more complex and extreme planetary nebulae.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95">95</a> Several have been shown to exhibit strong magnetic fields,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96">96</a> and their interactions with ionized gas could explain some planetary nebulae shapes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97">97</a>
There are two main methods of determining <a href="/facts/Metallicity/nhhPqbYF">metal abundances</a> in nebulae. These rely on recombination lines and collisionally excited lines. Large discrepancies are sometimes seen between the results derived from the two methods. This may be explained by the presence of small temperature fluctuations within planetary nebulae. The discrepancies may be too large to be caused by temperature effects, and some hypothesize the existence of cold knots containing very little hydrogen to explain the observations. However, such knots have yet to be observed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98">98</a>

<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Asymptotic_giant_branch/R90sd1Hl">Asymptotic giant branch</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Cosmic_distance_ladder/Xae3hVvK">Cosmic distance ladder</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Fast_Low-Ionization_Emission_Region/5vcpJNcb">Fast Low-Ionization Emission Region</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Nova_remnant/zlVAtW7X">Nova remnant</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/PG_1159_star/a0xvjHV1">PG 1159 star</a> (predegenerates)</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Protoplanetary_nebula/kfa40vFx">Protoplanetary nebula</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Supernova_remnant/tYboe2n4">Supernova remnant</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/White_dwarf/gIYlTtrC">White dwarf</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/List_of_planetary_nebulae/A6cuAo5u">List of planetary nebulae</a></li></ul>

<h3>Citations</h3>

<h3>Cited sources</h3>

<ul><li>Aller, Lawrence H.; Hyung, Siek (2003). "Historical Remarks on the Spectroscopic Analysis of Planetary Nebulae (invited review)". In Kwok, Sun; Dopita, Michael; Sutherland, Ralph (eds.). Planetary Nebulae: Their Evolution and Role in the Universe, Proceedings of the 209th Symposium of the International Astronomical Union held at Canberra, Australia, 19-23 November, 2001. Vol. 209. Astronomical Society of the Pacific. p. 15. <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003IAUS..209...15A">2003IAUS..209...15A</a>.</li>
<li>Allison, Mark (2006), Star clusters and how to observe them, Birkhäuser, pp. 56–8, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-84628-190-7</li>
<li>Bowen, I. S. (October 1927), "The Origin of the Chief Nebular Lines", Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 39 (231): 295–7, <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1927PASP...39..295B">1927PASP...39..295B</a>, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F123745">10.1086/123745</a></li>
<li>Frankowski, Adam; Soker, Noam (November 2009), "Very late thermal pulses influenced by accretion in planetary nebulae", New Astronomy, 14 (8): 654–8, <a href="/facts/ArXiv_(identifier)/H6EtgnBe">arXiv</a>:<a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0903.3364">0903.3364</a>, <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009NewA...14..654F">2009NewA...14..654F</a>, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.newast.2009.03.006">10.1016/j.newast.2009.03.006</a>, <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17128522">17128522</a>, A planetary nebula (PN) is an expanding ionized circumstellar cloud that was ejected during the asymptotic giant branch (AGB) phase of the stellar progenitor.</li>
<li>Frew, David J.; Parker, Quentin A. (May 2010), "Planetary Nebulae: Observational Properties, Mimics and Diagnostics", Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia, 27 (2): 129–148, <a href="/facts/ArXiv_(identifier)/H6EtgnBe">arXiv</a>:<a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1002.1525">1002.1525</a>, <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PASA...27..129F">2010PASA...27..129F</a>, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1071%2FAS09040">10.1071/AS09040</a>, <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:59429975">59429975</a></li>
<li>Gurzadyan, Grigor A. (1997), <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xxVkZBVIZeAC">The Physics and dynamics of planetary nebulae</a>, Springer, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-540-60965-0</li>
<li>Harpaz, Amos (1994), <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kd4VEZv8oo0C">Stellar Evolution</a>, A K Peters, Ltd., <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-56881-012-6</li>
<li>Hora, Joseph L.; Latter, William B.; <a href="/facts/Lori_Allen_(astronomer)/53tdBfM2">Allen, Lori E.</a>; Marengo, Massimo; Deutsch, Lynne K.; Pipher, Judith L. (September 2004), <a href="https://authors.library.caltech.edu/76271/1/2007hora-cond.pdf">"Infrared Array Camera (IRAC) Observations of Planetary Nebulae"</a> (PDF), Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series, 154 (1): 296–301, <a href="/facts/ArXiv_(identifier)/H6EtgnBe">arXiv</a>:<a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0405614">astro-ph/0405614</a>, <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004ApJS..154..296H">2004ApJS..154..296H</a>, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F422820">10.1086/422820</a>, <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53381952">53381952</a></li>
<li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180612141046/http://hubblesite.org/news_release/news/1997-38/91-astronomical">Hubble Witnesses the Final Blaze of Glory of Sun-Like Stars</a>, Hubblesite.org - Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) for NASA, 17 December 1997, archived from <a href="http://hubblesite.org/news_release/news/1997-38/91-astronomical">the original</a> on 12 June 2018, retrieved 10 June 2018</li>
<li>Huggins, W.; Miller, W. A. (1864), "On the Spectra of some of the Nebulae", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 154: 437–44, <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1864RSPT..154..437H">1864RSPT..154..437H</a>, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1864.0013">10.1098/rstl.1864.0013</a></li>
<li>Jacoby, George. H.; Ferland, Gary. J.; Korista, Kirk T. (2001), <a href="http://uknowledge.uky.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1104&context=physastron_facpub">"The Planetary Nebula A39: An Observational Benchmark for Numerical Modeling of Photoionized Plasmas"</a>, The Astrophysical Journal, 560 (1): 272–86, <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001ApJ...560..272J">2001ApJ...560..272J</a>, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F322489">10.1086/322489</a></li>
<li>Jordan, S.; Werner, K.; O'Toole, S. J. (March 2005), "Discovery of magnetic fields in central stars of planetary nebulae", Astronomy & Astrophysics, 432 (1): 273–9, <a href="/facts/ArXiv_(identifier)/H6EtgnBe">arXiv</a>:<a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0501040">astro-ph/0501040</a>, <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005A&A...432..273J">2005A&A...432..273J</a>, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1051%2F0004-6361%3A20041993">10.1051/0004-6361:20041993</a>, <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119361869">119361869</a></li>
<li>Kiss, L. L.; Szabó, Gy. M.; Balog, Z.; Parker, Q. A.; Frew, D. J. (November 2008), "AAOmega radial velocities rule out current membership of the planetary nebula NGC 2438 in the open cluster M46", <a href="/facts/Monthly_Notices_of_the_Royal_Astronomical_Society/3VkrFnzg">Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society</a>, 391 (1): 399–404, <a href="/facts/ArXiv_(identifier)/H6EtgnBe">arXiv</a>:<a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0809.0327">0809.0327</a>, <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008MNRAS.391..399K">2008MNRAS.391..399K</a>, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2966.2008.13899.x">10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13899.x</a>, <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15207860">15207860</a></li>
<li>Krause, Arthur (1961), <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gDSsAAAAIAAJ">Astronomy</a>, Oliver and Boyd, p. 187</li>
<li>Kwok, Sun (2000), <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120302015504/http://books.google.com/books?id=7NfqpZxO_o0C">The origin and evolution of planetary nebulae</a>, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 0-521-62313-8, archived from <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7NfqpZxO_o0C">the original</a> on March 2, 2012 (Chapter 1 can be downloaded <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040708190848/http://www.iras.ucalgary.ca/~kwok/chap1.pdf">here</a>.)</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Sun_Kwok/gVMA0zLU">Kwok, Sun</a> (June 2005), "Planetary Nebulae: New Challenges in the 21st Century", Journal of the Korean Astronomical Society, 38 (2): 271–8, <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005JKAS...38..271K">2005JKAS...38..271K</a>, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.5303%2FJKAS.2005.38.2.271">10.5303/JKAS.2005.38.2.271</a></li>
<li>Kwok, Sun; Su, Kate Y. L. (December 2005), "Discovery of Multiple Coaxial Rings in the Quadrupolar Planetary Nebula NGC 6881", The Astrophysical Journal, 635 (1): L49–52, <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005ApJ...635L..49K">2005ApJ...635L..49K</a>, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F499332">10.1086/499332</a>, We report the discovery of multiple two-dimensional rings in the quadrupolar planetary nebula NGC 6881. As many as four pairs of rings are seen in the bipolar lobes, and three rings are seen in the central torus. While the rings in the lobes have the same axis as one pair of the bipolar lobes, the inner rings are aligned with the other pair. The two pairs of bipolar lobes are likely to be carved out by two separate high-velocity outflows from the circumstellar material left over from the asymptotic giant branch (AGB) wind. The two-dimensional rings could be the results of dynamical instabilities or the consequence of a fast outflow interacting with remnants of discrete AGB circumstellar shells.</li>
<li>Kwok, Sun; Koning, Nico; Huang, Hsiu-Hui; Churchwell, Edward (2006), Barlow, M. J.; Méndez, R. H. (eds.), "Planetary nebulae in the GLIMPSE survey", Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union, Planetary Nebulae in our Galaxy and Beyond, 2 (S234), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 445–6, <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006IAUS..234..445K">2006IAUS..234..445K</a>, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1743921306003668">10.1017/S1743921306003668</a> (inactive 1 November 2024), Planetary nebulae (PNs) have high dust content and radiate strongly in the infrared. For young PNs, the dust component accounts for about one third of the total energy output of the nebulae (Zhang & Kwok 1991). The typical color temperatures of PNs are between 100 and 200 K, and at λ >5 μm, dust begins to dominate over bound-free emission from the ionized component. Although PNs are traditionally discovered through examination of photographic plates or Hα surveys, PNs can also be identified in infrared surveys by searching for red objects with a rising spectrum between 4–10 μm.{{citation}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)</li>
<li>Liu, X.-W.; Storey, P. J.; Barlow, M. J.; Danziger, I. J.; Cohen, M.; Bryce, M. (March 2000), "NGC 6153: a super–metal–rich planetary nebula?", Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 312 (3): 585–628, <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000MNRAS.312..585L">2000MNRAS.312..585L</a>, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1365-8711.2000.03167.x">10.1046/j.1365-8711.2000.03167.x</a></li>
<li>Maciel, W. J.; Costa, R. D. D.; Idiart, T. E. P. (October 2009), "Planetary nebulae and the chemical evolution of the Magellanic Clouds", Revista Mexicana de Astronomía y Astrofísica, 45: 127–37, <a href="/facts/ArXiv_(identifier)/H6EtgnBe">arXiv</a>:<a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0904.2549">0904.2549</a>, <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009RMxAA..45..127M">2009RMxAA..45..127M</a>, These objects are produced by low and intermediate mass stars, with main sequence masses roughly between 0.8 and 8 M⊙, and present a reasonably large age and metallicity spread.</li>
<li>Majaess, D. J.; Turner, D.; Lane, D. (December 2007), "In Search of Possible Associations between Planetary Nebulae and Open Clusters", Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 119 (862): 1349–60, <a href="/facts/ArXiv_(identifier)/H6EtgnBe">arXiv</a>:<a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0710.2900">0710.2900</a>, <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PASP..119.1349M">2007PASP..119.1349M</a>, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F524414">10.1086/524414</a>, <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18640979">18640979</a></li>
<li>Marochnik, L.S.; Shukurov, Anwar; Yastrzhembsky, Igor (1996), "Chapter 19: Chemical abundances", <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uRgWHDGpKZIC">The Milky Way galaxy</a>, Taylor & Francis, pp. 6–10, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-2-88124-931-0</li>
<li>Mermilliod, J.-C.; Clariá, J. J.; Andersen, J.; Piatti, A. E.; Mayor, M. (August 2001), "Red giants in open clusters. IX. NGC 2324, 2818, 3960 and 6259", Astronomy and Astrophysics, 375 (1): 30–9, <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001A&A...375...30M">2001A&A...375...30M</a>, <a href="/facts/CiteSeerX_(identifier)/SceDmd3c">CiteSeerX</a> <a href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.30.7545">10.1.1.30.7545</a>, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1051%2F0004-6361%3A20010845">10.1051/0004-6361:20010845</a>, <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:122773065">122773065</a></li>
<li>Miszalski, B.; Jones, D.; Rodríguez-Gil, P.; Boffin, H. M. J.; Corradi, R. L. M.; Santander-García, M. (2011), "Discovery of close binary central stars in the planetary nebulae NGC 6326 and NGC 6778", Astronomy and Astrophysics, 531: A158, <a href="/facts/ArXiv_(identifier)/H6EtgnBe">arXiv</a>:<a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1105.5731">1105.5731</a>, <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011A&A...531A.158M">2011A&A...531A.158M</a>, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1051%2F0004-6361%2F201117084">10.1051/0004-6361/201117084</a>, <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15010950">15010950</a></li>
<li>Moore, S. L. (October 2007), "Observing the Cat's Eye Nebula", Journal of the British Astronomical Association, 117 (5): 279–80, <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007JBAA..117R.279M">2007JBAA..117R.279M</a></li>
<li>Morris, M. (1990), "Bipolar asymmetry in the mass outflows of stars in transition", in Mennessier, M.O.; Omont, Alain (eds.), <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qTZld_-Y5qYC">From Miras to planetary nebulae: which path for stellar evolution?</a>, Montpellier, France, September 4–7, 1989 IAP astrophysics meeting: Atlantica Séguier Frontières, pp. 526–30, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-2-86332-077-8{{citation}}: CS1 maint: location (link)</li>
<li>Osterbrock, Donald E.; Ferland, G. J. (2005), Ferland, G. J. (ed.), <a href="https://archive.org/details/astrophysicsofga0000oste">Astrophysics of gaseous nebulae and active galactic nuclei</a>, University Science Books, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-891389-34-4</li>
<li>Parker, Quentin A.; Acker, A.; Frew, D. J.; Hartley, M.; Peyaud, A. E. J.; Ochsenbein, F.; Phillipps, S.; Russeil, D.; Beaulieu, S. F.; Cohen, M.; Köppen, J.; Miszalski, B.; Morgan, D. H.; Morris, R. A. H.; Pierce, M. J.; Vaughan, A. E. (November 2006), "The Macquarie/AAO/Strasbourg Hα Planetary Nebula Catalogue: MASH", Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 373 (1): 79–94, <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006MNRAS.373...79P">2006MNRAS.373...79P</a>, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2966.2006.10950.x">10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.10950.x</a></li>
<li>Parker, Quentin A.; Frew, David J.; Miszalski, B.; Kovacevic, Anna V.; Frinchaboy, Peter.; Dobbie, Paul D.; Köppen, J. (May 2011), "PHR 1315–6555: A bipolar planetary nebula in the compact Hyades-age open cluster ESO 96-SC04", Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 413 (3): 1835–1844, <a href="/facts/ArXiv_(identifier)/H6EtgnBe">arXiv</a>:<a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1101.3814">1101.3814</a>, <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011MNRAS.413.1835P">2011MNRAS.413.1835P</a>, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2966.2011.18259.x">10.1111/j.1365-2966.2011.18259.x</a>, <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16164749">16164749</a></li>
<li>Reed, Darren S.; Balick, Bruce; Hajian, Arsen R.; Klayton, Tracy L.; Giovanardi, Stefano; Casertano, Stefano; Panagia, Nino; Terzian, Yervant (November 1999), "Hubble Space Telescope Measurements of the Expansion of NGC 6543: Parallax Distance and Nebular Evolution", Astronomical Journal, 118 (5): 2430–41, <a href="/facts/ArXiv_(identifier)/H6EtgnBe">arXiv</a>:<a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9907313">astro-ph/9907313</a>, <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999AJ....118.2430R">1999AJ....118.2430R</a>, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F301091">10.1086/301091</a>, <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14746840">14746840</a></li>
<li>Soker, Noam (February 2002), "Why every bipolar planetary nebula is 'unique'", Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 330 (2): 481–6, <a href="/facts/ArXiv_(identifier)/H6EtgnBe">arXiv</a>:<a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0107554">astro-ph/0107554</a>, <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002MNRAS.330..481S">2002MNRAS.330..481S</a>, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1365-8711.2002.05105.x">10.1046/j.1365-8711.2002.05105.x</a>, <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16616082">16616082</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.spacedaily.com/news/stellar-chemistry-05a.html">The first detection of magnetic fields in the central stars of four planetary nebulae</a>, SpaceDaily Express, January 6, 2005, retrieved October 18, 2009, Source: Journal Astronomy & Astrophysics</li>
<li>Rees, B.; Zijlstra, A.A. (July 2013), "Alignment of the Angular Momentum Vectors of Planetary Nebulae in the Galactic Bulge", Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 435 (2): 975–991, <a href="/facts/ArXiv_(identifier)/H6EtgnBe">arXiv</a>:<a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1307.5711">1307.5711</a>, <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013MNRAS.435..975R">2013MNRAS.435..975R</a>, <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnras%2Fstt1300">10.1093/mnras/stt1300</a>, <a href="/facts/S2CID_(identifier)/ldJsHa2Y">S2CID</a> <a href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118414177">118414177</a></li>
<li><a href="http://messier.seds.org/planetar.html">Planetary Nebulae</a>, SEDS, September 9, 2013, retrieved 2013-11-10</li></ul>

<h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2>
<ul><li>Iliadis, Christian (2007), Nuclear physics of stars. Physics textbook, Wiley-VCH, pp. 18, 439–42, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3-527-40602-9</li>
<li>Renzini, A. (1987), S. Torres-Peimbert (ed.), "Thermal pulses and the formation of planetary nebula shells", Proceedings of the 131st Symposium of the IAU, 131: 391–400, <a href="/facts/Bibcode_(identifier)/9HtdQSGB">Bibcode</a>:<a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989IAUS..131..391R">1989IAUS..131..391R</a></li></ul>
<h2 id="external-links">External links</h2>

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Planetary nebulae.
 
<ul><li><a href="http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/P/planneb.html">Entry in the Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Astronomy, and Spaceflight</a></li>
<li><a href="https://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2001/1220/index.html">Press release on recent observations of the Cat's Eye Nebula</a></li>
<li><a href="http://messier.seds.org/planetar.html">Planetary Nebulae</a>, SEDS Messier Pages</li>
<li><a href="http://www.spacedaily.com/news/stellar-chemistry-05a.html">The first detection of magnetic fields in the central stars of four planetary nebulae</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.nightskyinfo.com/planetary_nebulae">Planetary Nebulae—Information and amateur observations</a></li>
<li><a href="http://xstructure.inr.ac.ru/x-bin/theme3.py?level=1&index1=38478">Planetary nebula on arxiv.org</a></li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">Frankowski & Soker 2009, pp. 654–8 - Frankowski, Adam; Soker, Noam (November 2009), "Very late thermal pulses influenced by accretion in planetary nebulae", New Astronomy, 14 (8): 654–8, arXiv:0903.3364, Bibcode:2009NewA...14..654F, doi:10.1016/j.newast.2009.03.006, S2CID 17128522, A planetary nebula (PN) is an expanding ionized circumstellar cloud that was ejected during the asymptotic giant branch (AGB) phase of the stellar progenitor. <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0903.3364" target="_blank">https://arxiv.org/abs/0903.3364</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">Darquier, A. (1777). Observations astronomiques, faites à Toulouse (Astronomical observations, made in Toulouse). Avignon: J. Aubert; (and Paris: Laporte, etc.). <a href="https://archive.org/details/BUSA077-240-_126" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/BUSA077-240-_126</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">Olson, Don; Caglieris, Giovanni Maria (June 2017). "Who Discovered the Ring Nebula?". Sky & Telescope. pp. 32–37. <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">Wolfgang Steinicke. "Antoine Darquier de Pellepoix". Retrieved 9 June 2018. <a href="http://www.klima-luft.de/steinicke/ngcic/persons/darquier.htm" target="_blank">http://www.klima-luft.de/steinicke/ngcic/persons/darquier.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">Daley, Jason (May 8, 2018). "The Sun Will Produce a Beautiful Planetary Nebula When It Dies". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 30 March 2020. <a href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/sun-will-produce-beautiful-planetary-nebula-when-it-dies-180969028/" target="_blank">https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/sun-will-produce-beautiful-planetary-nebula-when-it-dies-180969028/</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">They are created after the red giant phase, when most of the outer layers of the star have been expelled by strong stellar winds Frew & Parker 2010, pp. 129–148 <a href="/wiki/Stellar_wind" target="_blank">/wiki/Stellar_wind</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">Frankowski & Soker 2009, pp. 654–8 - Frankowski, Adam; Soker, Noam (November 2009), "Very late thermal pulses influenced by accretion in planetary nebulae", New Astronomy, 14 (8): 654–8, arXiv:0903.3364, Bibcode:2009NewA...14..654F, doi:10.1016/j.newast.2009.03.006, S2CID 17128522, A planetary nebula (PN) is an expanding ionized circumstellar cloud that was ejected during the asymptotic giant branch (AGB) phase of the stellar progenitor. <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0903.3364" target="_blank">https://arxiv.org/abs/0903.3364</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">Kwok 2000, pp. 1–7 - Kwok, Sun (2000), The origin and evolution of planetary nebulae, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-62313-8, archived from the original on March 2, 2012 <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120302015504/http://books.google.com/books?id=7NfqpZxO_o0C" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120302015504/http://books.google.com/books?id=7NfqpZxO_o0C</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">Darquier, A. (1777). Observations astronomiques, faites à Toulouse (Astronomical observations, made in Toulouse). Avignon: J. Aubert; (and Paris: Laporte, etc.). <a href="https://archive.org/details/BUSA077-240-_126" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/BUSA077-240-_126</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">Olson, Don; Caglieris, Giovanni Maria (June 2017). "Who Discovered the Ring Nebula?". Sky & Telescope. pp. 32–37. <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">Wolfgang Steinicke. "Antoine Darquier de Pellepoix". Retrieved 9 June 2018. <a href="http://www.klima-luft.de/steinicke/ngcic/persons/darquier.htm" target="_blank">http://www.klima-luft.de/steinicke/ngcic/persons/darquier.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">Zijlstra, A. (2015). "Planetary nebulae in 2014: A review of research" (PDF). Revista Mexicana de Astronomía y Astrofísica. 51: 221–230. arXiv:1506.05508. Bibcode:2015RMxAA..51..221Z. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. <a href="http://www.astroscu.unam.mx/rmaa/RMxAA..51-2/PDF/RMxAA..51-2_azijlstra.pdf" target="_blank">http://www.astroscu.unam.mx/rmaa/RMxAA..51-2/PDF/RMxAA..51-2_azijlstra.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">Quoted in Hoskin, Michael (2014). "William Herschel and the Planetary Nebulae". Journal for the History of Astronomy. 45 (2): 209–225. Bibcode:2014JHA....45..209H. doi:10.1177/002182861404500205. S2CID 122897343. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">p. 16 in Mullaney, James (2007). The Herschel Objects and How to Observe Them. Astronomers' Observing Guides. Bibcode:2007hoho.book.....M. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-68125-2. ISBN 978-0-387-68124-5. <a href="978-0-387-68124-5" target="_blank">978-0-387-68124-5</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">Kwok 2000, pp. 1–7 - Kwok, Sun (2000), The origin and evolution of planetary nebulae, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-62313-8, archived from the original on March 2, 2012 <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120302015504/http://books.google.com/books?id=7NfqpZxO_o0C" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120302015504/http://books.google.com/books?id=7NfqpZxO_o0C</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">Moore 2007, pp. 279–80 - Moore, S. L. (October 2007), "Observing the Cat's Eye Nebula", Journal of the British Astronomical Association, 117 (5): 279–80, Bibcode:2007JBAA..117R.279M <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007JBAA..117R.279M" target="_blank">https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007JBAA..117R.279M</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">SEDS 2013 - Planetary Nebulae, SEDS, September 9, 2013, retrieved 2013-11-10 <a href="http://messier.seds.org/planetar.html" target="_blank">http://messier.seds.org/planetar.html</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">Hubblesite.org 1997 - Hubble Witnesses the Final Blaze of Glory of Sun-Like Stars, Hubblesite.org - Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) for NASA, 17 December 1997, archived from the original on 12 June 2018, retrieved 10 June 2018 <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180612141046/http://hubblesite.org/news_release/news/1997-38/91-astronomical" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20180612141046/http://hubblesite.org/news_release/news/1997-38/91-astronomical</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">Moore 2007, pp. 279–80 - Moore, S. L. (October 2007), "Observing the Cat's Eye Nebula", Journal of the British Astronomical Association, 117 (5): 279–80, Bibcode:2007JBAA..117R.279M <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007JBAA..117R.279M" target="_blank">https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007JBAA..117R.279M</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:20">Kwok 2000, pp. 1–7 - Kwok, Sun (2000), The origin and evolution of planetary nebulae, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-62313-8, archived from the original on March 2, 2012 <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120302015504/http://books.google.com/books?id=7NfqpZxO_o0C" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120302015504/http://books.google.com/books?id=7NfqpZxO_o0C</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:21">Moore 2007, pp. 279–80 - Moore, S. L. (October 2007), "Observing the Cat's Eye Nebula", Journal of the British Astronomical Association, 117 (5): 279–80, Bibcode:2007JBAA..117R.279M <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007JBAA..117R.279M" target="_blank">https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007JBAA..117R.279M</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:22">Huggins & Miller 1864, pp. 437–44 - Huggins, W.; Miller, W. A. (1864), "On the Spectra of some of the Nebulae", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 154: 437–44, Bibcode:1864RSPT..154..437H, doi:10.1098/rstl.1864.0013 <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1864RSPT..154..437H" target="_blank">https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1864RSPT..154..437H</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:23">Kwok 2000, pp. 1–7 - Kwok, Sun (2000), The origin and evolution of planetary nebulae, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-62313-8, archived from the original on March 2, 2012 <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120302015504/http://books.google.com/books?id=7NfqpZxO_o0C" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120302015504/http://books.google.com/books?id=7NfqpZxO_o0C</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:24">Kwok 2000, pp. 1–7 - Kwok, Sun (2000), The origin and evolution of planetary nebulae, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-62313-8, archived from the original on March 2, 2012 <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120302015504/http://books.google.com/books?id=7NfqpZxO_o0C" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120302015504/http://books.google.com/books?id=7NfqpZxO_o0C</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:25">Bowen 1927, pp. 295–7 - Bowen, I. S. (October 1927), "The Origin of the Chief Nebular Lines", Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 39 (231): 295–7, Bibcode:1927PASP...39..295B, doi:10.1086/123745 <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1927PASP...39..295B" target="_blank">https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1927PASP...39..295B</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:26">Kwok 2000, pp. 1–7 - Kwok, Sun (2000), The origin and evolution of planetary nebulae, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-62313-8, archived from the original on March 2, 2012 <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120302015504/http://books.google.com/books?id=7NfqpZxO_o0C" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120302015504/http://books.google.com/books?id=7NfqpZxO_o0C</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:27">Gurzadyan 1997 - Gurzadyan, Grigor A. (1997), The Physics and dynamics of planetary nebulae, Springer, ISBN 978-3-540-60965-0 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xxVkZBVIZeAC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=xxVkZBVIZeAC</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:28">Frankowski & Soker 2009, pp. 654–8 - Frankowski, Adam; Soker, Noam (November 2009), "Very late thermal pulses influenced by accretion in planetary nebulae", New Astronomy, 14 (8): 654–8, arXiv:0903.3364, Bibcode:2009NewA...14..654F, doi:10.1016/j.newast.2009.03.006, S2CID 17128522, A planetary nebula (PN) is an expanding ionized circumstellar cloud that was ejected during the asymptotic giant branch (AGB) phase of the stellar progenitor. <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0903.3364" target="_blank">https://arxiv.org/abs/0903.3364</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:29">Kwok 2000, pp. 1–7 - Kwok, Sun (2000), The origin and evolution of planetary nebulae, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-62313-8, archived from the original on March 2, 2012 <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120302015504/http://books.google.com/books?id=7NfqpZxO_o0C" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120302015504/http://books.google.com/books?id=7NfqpZxO_o0C</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:30">Kwok 2005, pp. 271–8 - Kwok, Sun (June 2005), "Planetary Nebulae: New Challenges in the 21st Century", Journal of the Korean Astronomical Society, 38 (2): 271–8, Bibcode:2005JKAS...38..271K, doi:10.5303/JKAS.2005.38.2.271 <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005JKAS...38..271K" target="_blank">https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005JKAS...38..271K</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:31">Gurzadyan, G.A. (1975). "The ultraviolet spectrum of planetary nebula IC 2149". MNRAS. 172: 249–256. doi:10.1093/mnras/172.1.249. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnras%2F172.1.249" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmnras%2F172.1.249</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:32">Gurzadyan, G.A. (1976). "Two-photon emission in planetary nebula IC 2149". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 88: 891. doi:10.1086/130041. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:33">Hora et al. 2004, pp. 296–301 - Hora, Joseph L.; Latter, William B.; Allen, Lori E.; Marengo, Massimo; Deutsch, Lynne K.; Pipher, Judith L. (September 2004), "Infrared Array Camera (IRAC) Observations of Planetary Nebulae" (PDF), Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series, 154 (1): 296–301, arXiv:astro-ph/0405614, Bibcode:2004ApJS..154..296H, doi:10.1086/422820, S2CID 53381952 <a href="https://authors.library.caltech.edu/76271/1/2007hora-cond.pdf" target="_blank">https://authors.library.caltech.edu/76271/1/2007hora-cond.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:34">Kwok et al. 2006, pp. 445–6 - Kwok, Sun; Koning, Nico; Huang, Hsiu-Hui; Churchwell, Edward (2006), Barlow, M. J.; Méndez, R. H. (eds.), "Planetary nebulae in the GLIMPSE survey", Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union, Planetary Nebulae in our Galaxy and Beyond, 2 (S234), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 445–6, Bibcode:2006IAUS..234..445K, doi:10.1017/S1743921306003668 (inactive 1 November 2024), Planetary nebulae (PNs) have high dust content and radiate strongly in the infrared. For young PNs, the dust component accounts for about one third of the total energy output of the nebulae (Zhang & Kwok 1991). The typical color temperatures of PNs are between 100 and 200 K, and at λ >5 μm, dust begins to dominate over bound-free emission from the ionized component. Although PNs are traditionally discovered through examination of photographic plates or Hα surveys, PNs can also be identified in infrared surveys by searching for red objects with a rising spectrum between 4–10 μm. <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006IAUS..234..445K" target="_blank">https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006IAUS..234..445K</a> <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:35">Reed et al. 1999, pp. 2430–41 - Reed, Darren S.; Balick, Bruce; Hajian, Arsen R.; Klayton, Tracy L.; Giovanardi, Stefano; Casertano, Stefano; Panagia, Nino; Terzian, Yervant (November 1999), "Hubble Space Telescope Measurements of the Expansion of NGC 6543: Parallax Distance and Nebular Evolution", Astronomical Journal, 118 (5): 2430–41, arXiv:astro-ph/9907313, Bibcode:1999AJ....118.2430R, doi:10.1086/301091, S2CID 14746840 <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9907313" target="_blank">https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9907313</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:36">Aller & Hyung 2003, p. 15 - Aller, Lawrence H.; Hyung, Siek (2003). "Historical Remarks on the Spectroscopic Analysis of Planetary Nebulae (invited review)". In Kwok, Sun; Dopita, Michael; Sutherland, Ralph (eds.). Planetary Nebulae: Their Evolution and Role in the Universe, Proceedings of the 209th Symposium of the International Astronomical Union held at Canberra, Australia, 19-23 November, 2001. Vol. 209. Astronomical Society of the Pacific. p. 15. Bibcode:2003IAUS..209...15A. <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003IAUS..209...15A" target="_blank">https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003IAUS..209...15A</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:37">Krause 1961, p. 187 - Krause, Arthur (1961), Astronomy, Oliver and Boyd, p. 187 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gDSsAAAAIAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=gDSsAAAAIAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:38">Maciel, Costa & Idiart 2009, pp. 127–37 - Maciel, W. J.; Costa, R. D. D.; Idiart, T. E. P. (October 2009), "Planetary nebulae and the chemical evolution of the Magellanic Clouds", Revista Mexicana de Astronomía y Astrofísica, 45: 127–37, arXiv:0904.2549, Bibcode:2009RMxAA..45..127M, These objects are produced by low and intermediate mass stars, with main sequence masses roughly between 0.8 and 8 M⊙, and present a reasonably large age and metallicity spread. <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0904.2549" target="_blank">https://arxiv.org/abs/0904.2549</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:39">Harpaz 1994, pp. 55–80 - Harpaz, Amos (1994), Stellar Evolution, A K Peters, Ltd., ISBN 978-1-56881-012-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kd4VEZv8oo0C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=kd4VEZv8oo0C</a> <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:40">Harpaz 1994, pp. 99–112 - Harpaz, Amos (1994), Stellar Evolution, A K Peters, Ltd., ISBN 978-1-56881-012-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kd4VEZv8oo0C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=kd4VEZv8oo0C</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:41">Harpaz 1994, pp. 99–112 - Harpaz, Amos (1994), Stellar Evolution, A K Peters, Ltd., ISBN 978-1-56881-012-6 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kd4VEZv8oo0C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=kd4VEZv8oo0C</a> <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:42">Wood, P. R.; Olivier, E. A.; Kawaler, S. D. (2004). "Long Secondary Periods in Pulsating Asymptotic Giant Branch Stars: An Investigation of Their Origin". The Astrophysical Journal. 604 (2): 800. Bibcode:2004ApJ...604..800W. doi:10.1086/382123. S2CID 121264287. <a href="/wiki/The_Astrophysical_Journal" target="_blank">/wiki/The_Astrophysical_Journal</a> <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:56">Kwok 2000, pp. 199–207 - Kwok, Sun (2000), The origin and evolution of planetary nebulae, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-62313-8, archived from the original on March 2, 2012 <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120302015504/http://books.google.com/books?id=7NfqpZxO_o0C" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120302015504/http://books.google.com/books?id=7NfqpZxO_o0C</a> <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:58">Marochnik, Shukurov & Yastrzhembsky 1996, pp. 6–10 - Marochnik, L.S.; Shukurov, Anwar; Yastrzhembsky, Igor (1996), "Chapter 19: Chemical abundances", The Milky Way galaxy, Taylor & Francis, pp. 6–10, ISBN 978-2-88124-931-0 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uRgWHDGpKZIC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uRgWHDGpKZIC</a> <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:60">Osterbrock & Ferland 2005, p. 10 - Osterbrock, Donald E.; Ferland, G. J. (2005), Ferland, G. J. (ed.), Astrophysics of gaseous nebulae and active galactic nuclei, University Science Books, ISBN 978-1-891389-34-4 <a href="https://archive.org/details/astrophysicsofga0000oste" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/astrophysicsofga0000oste</a> <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:61">Osterbrock & Ferland 2005, p. 10 - Osterbrock, Donald E.; Ferland, G. J. (2005), Ferland, G. J. (ed.), Astrophysics of gaseous nebulae and active galactic nuclei, University Science Books, ISBN 978-1-891389-34-4 <a href="https://archive.org/details/astrophysicsofga0000oste" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/astrophysicsofga0000oste</a> <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:62">Gurzadyan 1997, p. 238 - Gurzadyan, Grigor A. (1997), The Physics and dynamics of planetary nebulae, Springer, ISBN 978-3-540-60965-0 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xxVkZBVIZeAC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=xxVkZBVIZeAC</a> <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:63">Gurzadyan 1997, pp. 130–7 - Gurzadyan, Grigor A. (1997), The Physics and dynamics of planetary nebulae, Springer, ISBN 978-3-540-60965-0 <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xxVkZBVIZeAC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=xxVkZBVIZeAC</a> <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:64">Osterbrock & Ferland 2005, pp. 261–2 - Osterbrock, Donald E.; Ferland, G. J. (2005), Ferland, G. J. (ed.), Astrophysics of gaseous nebulae and active galactic nuclei, University Science Books, ISBN 978-1-891389-34-4 <a href="https://archive.org/details/astrophysicsofga0000oste" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/astrophysicsofga0000oste</a> <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:65">Osterbrock & Ferland 2005, p. 207 - Osterbrock, Donald E.; Ferland, G. J. (2005), Ferland, G. J. (ed.), Astrophysics of gaseous nebulae and active galactic nuclei, University Science Books, ISBN 978-1-891389-34-4 <a href="https://archive.org/details/astrophysicsofga0000oste" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/astrophysicsofga0000oste</a> <a href="#fnref:65" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:66">Parker et al. 2006, pp. 79–94 - Parker, Quentin A.; Acker, A.; Frew, D. J.; Hartley, M.; Peyaud, A. E. J.; Ochsenbein, F.; Phillipps, S.; Russeil, D.; Beaulieu, S. F.; Cohen, M.; Köppen, J.; Miszalski, B.; Morgan, D. H.; Morris, R. A. H.; Pierce, M. J.; Vaughan, A. E. (November 2006), "The Macquarie/AAO/Strasbourg Hα Planetary Nebula Catalogue: MASH", Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 373 (1): 79–94, Bibcode:2006MNRAS.373...79P, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.10950.x <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006MNRAS.373...79P" target="_blank">https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006MNRAS.373...79P</a> <a href="#fnref:66" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:67">Majaess, Turner & Lane 2007, pp. 1349–60 - Majaess, D. J.; Turner, D.; Lane, D. (December 2007), "In Search of Possible Associations between Planetary Nebulae and Open Clusters", Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 119 (862): 1349–60, arXiv:0710.2900, Bibcode:2007PASP..119.1349M, doi:10.1086/524414, S2CID 18640979 <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/0710.2900" target="_blank">https://arxiv.org/abs/0710.2900</a> <a href="#fnref:67" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:68">Jacoby, Ferland & Korista 2001, pp. 272–86 - Jacoby, George. H.; Ferland, Gary. J.; Korista, Kirk T. (2001), "The Planetary Nebula A39: An Observational Benchmark for Numerical Modeling of Photoionized Plasmas", The Astrophysical Journal, 560 (1): 272–86, Bibcode:2001ApJ...560..272J, doi:10.1086/322489 <a href="http://uknowledge.uky.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1104&context=physastron_facpub" target="_blank">http://uknowledge.uky.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1104&context=physastron_facpub</a> <a href="#fnref:68" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:69">Kwok & Su 2005, pp. L49–52 - Kwok, Sun; Su, Kate Y. L. (December 2005), "Discovery of Multiple Coaxial Rings in the Quadrupolar Planetary Nebula NGC 6881", The Astrophysical Journal, 635 (1): L49–52, Bibcode:2005ApJ...635L..49K, doi:10.1086/499332, We report the discovery of multiple two-dimensional rings in the quadrupolar planetary nebula NGC 6881. As many as four pairs of rings are seen in the bipolar lobes, and three rings are seen in the central torus. While the rings in the lobes have the same axis as one pair of the bipolar lobes, the inner rings are aligned with the other pair. The two pairs of bipolar lobes are likely to be carved out by two separate high-velocity outflows from the circumstellar material left over from the asymptotic giant branch (AGB) wind. The two-dimensional rings could be the results of dynamical instabilities or the consequence of a fast outflow interacting with remnants of discrete AGB circumstellar shells. <a href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005ApJ...635L..49K" target="_blank">https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005ApJ...635L..49K</a> <a href="#fnref:69" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:72">Osterbrock, Donald E.; Ferland, G. J. (2005), Ferland, G. J. (ed.), Astrophysics of gaseous nebulae and active galactic nuclei, University Science Books, ISBN 978-1-891389-34-4 <a href="978-1-891389-34-4" target="_blank">978-1-891389-34-4</a> <a href="#fnref:72" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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</ol>

Planetary nebula open-in-new

Planetary nebula