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Radionuclide
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<h2 id="origin">Origin</h2> <h3>Natural</h3> <p>On Earth, naturally occurring radionuclides fall into three categories: primordial radionuclides, secondary radionuclides, and <a href="/facts/Cosmogenic/TlJwc4wV">cosmogenic</a> radionuclides. </p> <ul><li>Radionuclides are produced in <a href="/facts/Stellar_nucleosynthesis/qEQJdJe6">stellar nucleosynthesis</a> and <a href="/facts/Supernova_explosions/Pfo2J23l">supernova explosions</a> along with stable nuclides. Most decay quickly but can still be observed astronomically and can play a part in understanding astronomic processes. Primordial radionuclides, such as <a href="/facts/Uranium/n2sGWBzU">uranium</a> and <a href="/facts/Thorium/ysdWH470">thorium</a>, exist in the present time because their <a href="/facts/Half-life/kGVH8BAB">half-lives</a> are so long (>100 million years) that they have not yet completely decayed. Some radionuclides have half-lives so long (many times the age of the universe) that decay has only recently been detected, and for most practical purposes they can be considered stable, most notably <a href="/facts/Bismuth-209/Bxu7JrUs">bismuth-209</a>: detection of this decay meant that <a href="/facts/Bismuth/75FLjkoX">bismuth</a> was no longer considered stable. It is possible decay may be observed in other nuclides, adding to this list of primordial radionuclides.</li> <li>Secondary radionuclides are radiogenic isotopes derived from the decay of primordial radionuclides. They have shorter half-lives than primordial radionuclides. They arise in the <a href="/facts/Decay_chain/JvTwPNBn">decay chain</a> of the primordial isotopes <a href="/facts/Thorium-232/lRb3opzg">thorium-232</a>, <a href="/facts/Uranium-238/QhcHm6q8">uranium-238</a>, and <a href="/facts/Uranium-235/pe0RznDM">uranium-235</a>. Examples include the natural isotopes of <a href="/facts/Polonium/G4rzsyjP">polonium</a> and <a href="/facts/Radium/VWo5gkzn">radium</a>.</li> <li><a href="/facts/Cosmogenic_isotopes/TlJwc4wV">Cosmogenic isotopes</a>, such as <a href="/facts/Carbon-14/Ut8SBNNa">carbon-14</a>, are present because they are continually being formed in the atmosphere due to <a href="/facts/Cosmic_ray/uxCVdTKd">cosmic rays</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a></li></ul> <p>Many of these radionuclides exist only in trace amounts in nature, including all cosmogenic nuclides. Secondary radionuclides will occur in proportion to their half-lives, so short-lived ones will be very rare. For example, polonium can be found in <a href="/facts/Uranium/n2sGWBzU">uranium</a> ores at about 0.1 mg per <a href="/facts/Metric_ton/gMymLmWv">metric ton</a> (1 part in 1010).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> Further radionuclides may occur in nature in virtually undetectable amounts as a result of rare events such as spontaneous fission or uncommon cosmic ray interactions. </p> <h3>Nuclear fission</h3> <p>Radionuclides are produced as an unavoidable result of <a href="/facts/Nuclear_fission/LfkIylvm">nuclear fission</a> and <a href="/facts/Thermonuclear_device/T9zFe3H0">thermonuclear explosions</a>. The process of nuclear fission creates a wide range of <a href="/facts/Fission_products/xJd9MXXH">fission products</a>, most of which are radionuclides. Further radionuclides can be created from irradiation of the nuclear fuel (creating a range of <a href="/facts/Actinides/kHC4lxJV">actinides</a>) and of the surrounding structures, yielding <a href="/facts/Activation_products/reJFn1UJ">activation products</a>. This complex mixture of radionuclides with different chemistries and radioactivity makes handling <a href="/facts/Nuclear_waste/MjYh5tlu">nuclear waste</a> and dealing with <a href="/facts/Nuclear_fallout/I1kJkLKt">nuclear fallout</a> particularly problematic. </p> <h3>Synthetic</h3> <p><a href="/facts/Synthetic_radionuclide/QfnUWAS6">Synthetic radionuclides</a> are deliberately synthesised using <a href="/facts/Nuclear_reactor/8xqjIbge">nuclear reactors</a>, particle accelerators or radionuclide generators:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a> </p> <ul><li>As well as being extracted from nuclear waste, radioisotopes can be produced deliberately with nuclear reactors, exploiting the high flux of <a href="/facts/Neutron/oRCM1geb">neutrons</a> present. These neutrons activate elements placed within the reactor. A typical product from a nuclear reactor is <a href="/facts/Iridium-192/F1zVVPRq">iridium-192</a>. The elements that have a large propensity to take up the neutrons in the reactor are said to have a high <a href="/facts/Neutron_cross-section/gAkJmXXA">neutron cross-section</a>.</li> <li>Particle accelerators such as <a href="/facts/Cyclotron/Q8APwhWm">cyclotrons</a> accelerate particles to bombard a target to produce radionuclides. Cyclotrons accelerate protons at a target to produce positron-emitting radionuclides, e.g. <a href="/facts/Fluorine-18/4VpH1NYh">fluorine-18</a>.</li> <li>Radionuclide generators contain a parent radionuclide that decays to produce a radioactive daughter. The parent is usually produced in a nuclear reactor. A typical example is the <a href="/facts/Technetium-99m_generator/Ys7Kjnmk">technetium-99m generator</a> used in <a href="/facts/Nuclear_medicine/L9Dzjd90">nuclear medicine</a>. The parent produced in the reactor is <a href="/facts/Molybdenum-99/gpYnY3bx">molybdenum-99</a>.</li></ul> <h2 id="uses">Uses</h2> <p>Radionuclides are used in two major ways: either for their radiation alone (<a href="/facts/Irradiation/fHW0QNAa">irradiation</a>, <a href="/facts/Nuclear_battery/NRtrDfyB">nuclear batteries</a>) or for the combination of chemical properties and their radiation (tracers, biopharmaceuticals). </p> <ul><li>In <a href="/facts/Biology/1M1ee3pB">biology</a>, radionuclides of <a href="/facts/Carbon/ukrgQexo">carbon</a> can serve as <a href="/facts/Radioactive_tracer/0210Jncn">radioactive tracers</a> because they are chemically very similar to the nonradioactive nuclides, so most chemical, biological, and ecological processes treat them in a nearly identical way. One can then examine the result with a radiation detector, such as a <a href="/facts/Geiger_counter/3xDNYh7I">Geiger counter</a>, to determine where the provided atoms were incorporated. For example, one might culture plants in an environment in which the <a href="/facts/Carbon_dioxide/xGzpppEp">carbon dioxide</a> contained radioactive carbon; then the parts of the plant that incorporate atmospheric carbon would be radioactive. Radionuclides can be used to monitor processes such as <a href="/facts/DNA_replication/wrU6RuR3">DNA replication</a> or <a href="/facts/Amino_acid/WDxYwBny">amino acid</a> transport.</li> <li>in <a href="/facts/Physics/a7aH2y08">physics</a> and <a href="/facts/Biology/1M1ee3pB">biology</a> radionuclide X-ray fluorescence spectrometry is used to determine <a href="/facts/Chemical_composition/vjo4uMQ0">chemical composition</a> of the <a href="/facts/Chemical_compound/37FXqqtv">compound</a>. <a href="/facts/X-ray/wseP79cN">Radiation</a> from a radionuclide source hits the sample and excites characteristic X-rays in the sample. This radiation is registered and the chemical composition of the sample can be determined from the analysis of the measured spectrum. By measuring the energy of the characteristic radiation lines, it is possible to determine the <a href="/facts/Atomic_number/bgAr581S">proton number</a> of the <a href="/facts/Chemical_element/0jducgWD">chemical element</a> that emits the radiation, and by measuring the number of emitted <a href="/facts/Photon/mFNhAEzA">photons</a>, it is possible to determine the <a href="/facts/Concentration/wqBmz5od">concentration</a> of individual chemical elements.</li> <li>In <a href="/facts/Nuclear_medicine/L9Dzjd90">nuclear medicine</a>, radioisotopes are used for diagnosis, treatment, and research. Radioactive chemical tracers emitting gamma rays or positrons can provide diagnostic information about internal anatomy and the functioning of specific organs, including the <a href="/facts/Human_brain/qfSwSB8K">human brain</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> This is used in some forms of tomography: <a href="/facts/Single-photon_emission_computed_tomography/ag6of05C">single-photon emission computed tomography</a> and <a href="/facts/Positron_emission_tomography/5SmcW6qz">positron emission tomography</a> (PET) scanning and <a href="/facts/Cherenkov_luminescence_imaging/rspsLrRP">Cherenkov luminescence imaging</a>. Radioisotopes are also a method of treatment in <a href="/facts/Hemopoietic/VRDwMymd">hemopoietic</a> forms of tumors; the success for treatment of solid tumors has been limited. More powerful gamma sources <a href="/facts/Sterilization_(microbiology)/ajVXFl7a">sterilise</a> syringes and other medical equipment.</li> <li>In <a href="/facts/Food_preservation/6vkwko5H">food preservation</a>, radiation is used to stop the sprouting of root crops after harvesting, to kill parasites and pests, and to control the ripening of stored fruit and vegetables. <a href="/facts/Food_irradiation/CNS4ooTG">Food irradiation</a> usually uses beta-decaying nuclides with strong gamma emissions like <a href="/facts/Cobalt-60/hjDPVA8M">cobalt-60</a> or <a href="/facts/Caesium-137/NrY5Tb6j">caesium-137</a>.</li> <li>In <a href="/facts/Industrial_sector/X0sdl2dF">industry</a>, and in <a href="/facts/Mining/g6uDIFab">mining</a>, radionuclides are used to examine welds, to detect leaks, to study the rate of wear, erosion and corrosion of metals, and for on-stream analysis of a wide range of minerals and fuels.</li> <li>In <a href="/facts/Spacecraft/YQqQaUw0">spacecraft</a>, radionuclides are used to provide power and heat, notably through <a href="/facts/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator/Tsjjvp5h">radioisotope thermoelectric generators</a> (RTGs) and <a href="/facts/Radioisotope_heater_unit/6IoyhN7Q">radioisotope heater units</a> (RHUs).</li> <li>In <a href="/facts/Astronomy/0ArJVM1p">astronomy</a> and <a href="/facts/Physical_cosmology/ww4ChbEq">cosmology</a>, radionuclides play a role in understanding stellar and planetary process.</li> <li>In <a href="/facts/Particle_physics/YgIuyj2t">particle physics</a>, radionuclides help discover new physics (<a href="/facts/Physics_beyond_the_Standard_Model/UX68py44">physics beyond the Standard Model</a>) by measuring the energy and momentum of their beta decay products (for example, <a href="/facts/Neutrinoless_double_beta_decay/7u36G9d4">neutrinoless double beta decay</a> and the search for <a href="/facts/Weakly_interacting_massive_particles/EbWC6o3w">weakly interacting massive particles</a>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a></li> <li>In <a href="/facts/Ecology/YE8upuJU">ecology</a>, radionuclides are used to trace and analyze pollutants, to study the movement of surface water, and to measure water runoffs from rain and snow, as well as the flow rates of streams and rivers.</li> <li>In <a href="/facts/Geology/WGvVRIYF">geology</a>, <a href="/facts/Archaeology/K3Q5P38R">archaeology</a>, and <a href="/facts/Paleontology/60n5yldd">paleontology</a>, natural radionuclides are used to measure ages of rocks, minerals, and fossil materials.</li></ul> <h2 id="examples">Examples</h2> <p>The following table lists properties of selected radionuclides illustrating the range of properties and uses. </p> <table><tbody><tr><th>Isotope</th><th><i>Z</i></th><th><i>N</i></th><th>half-life</th><th>DM</th><th>DE <a href="/facts/KeV/YMT1fqX9">keV</a></th><th>Mode of formation</th><th>Comments</th></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Tritium/HWSa6EHy">Tritium</a> (3H)</th><td>1</td><td>2</td><td>12.3 y</td><td><a href="/facts/Beta_decay/vxTBlckp">β</a>−</td><td>19</td><td>Cosmogenic</td><td>lightest radionuclide, used in artificial <a href="/facts/Nuclear_fusion/hP0gLDqj">nuclear fusion</a>, also used for <a href="/facts/Radioluminescence/rsBBkXPK">radioluminescence</a> and as oceanic transient tracer. Synthesized from neutron bombardment of <a href="/facts/Lithium-6/XC311sQu">lithium-6</a> or <a href="/facts/Deuterium/Bv4wfCkw">deuterium</a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Beryllium-10/oz3rQBLB">Beryllium-10</a></th><td>4</td><td>6</td><td>1,387,000 y</td><td>β−</td><td>556</td><td>Cosmogenic</td><td>used to examine soil erosion, soil formation from regolith, and the age of ice cores</td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Carbon-14/Ut8SBNNa">Carbon-14</a></th><td>6</td><td>8</td><td>5,700 y</td><td>β−</td><td>156</td><td>Cosmogenic</td><td>used for <a href="/facts/Radiocarbon_dating/qjNglhKP">radiocarbon dating</a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Fluorine-18/4VpH1NYh">Fluorine-18</a></th><td>9</td><td>9</td><td>110 min</td><td>β+, <a href="/facts/Electron_Capture/EIccoV1u">EC</a></td><td>633/1655</td><td>Cosmogenic</td><td>positron source, synthesised for use as a medical <a href="/facts/Radiotracer/0210Jncn">radiotracer</a> in <a href="/facts/Positron_emission_tomography/5SmcW6qz">PET scans</a>.</td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Aluminium-26/INwQYapg">Aluminium-26</a></th><td>13</td><td>13</td><td>717,000 y</td><td>β+, <a href="/facts/Electron_Capture/EIccoV1u">EC</a></td><td>4004</td><td>Cosmogenic</td><td>exposure dating of rocks, sediment</td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Chlorine-36/IqR2WJxp">Chlorine-36</a></th><td>17</td><td>19</td><td>301,000 y</td><td>β−, <a href="/facts/Electron_Capture/EIccoV1u">EC</a></td><td>709</td><td>Cosmogenic</td><td>exposure dating of rocks, groundwater tracer</td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Potassium-40/RMnkrhvc">Potassium-40</a></th><td>19</td><td>21</td><td>1.24×109 y</td><td>β−, <a href="/facts/Electron_Capture/EIccoV1u">EC</a></td><td>1330 /1505</td><td>Primordial</td><td>used for <a href="/facts/Potassium-argon_dating/JQdWfdIB">potassium-argon dating</a>, source of atmospheric <a href="/facts/Argon/QX6NRH6d">argon</a>, source of <a href="/facts/Radiogenic_heat/KXP6MKk6">radiogenic heat</a>, largest source of natural radioactivity</td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Isotopes_of_calcium/YhuBa6LI">Calcium-41</a></th><td>20</td><td>21</td><td>99,400 y</td><td>EC</td><td></td><td>Cosmogenic</td><td>exposure dating of <a href="/facts/Carbonate_rocks/pKYTxRkM">carbonate rocks</a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Cobalt-60/hjDPVA8M">Cobalt-60</a></th><td>27</td><td>33</td><td>5.3 y</td><td>β−</td><td>2824</td><td>Synthetic</td><td>produces high energy gamma rays, used for radiotherapy, equipment sterilisation, food irradiation</td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Krypton-81/8hRKYepJ">Krypton-81</a></th><td>36</td><td>45</td><td>229,000 y</td><td>β+</td><td></td><td>Cosmogenic</td><td>groundwater dating</td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Strontium-90/VJNoC5eR">Strontium-90</a></th><td>38</td><td>52</td><td>28.8 y</td><td>β−</td><td>546</td><td>Fission product</td><td><a href="/facts/Medium-lived_fission_product/wxe6qNIp">medium-lived fission product</a>; probably most dangerous component of nuclear fallout</td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Technetium-99/0w2EE0G2">Technetium-99</a></th><td>43</td><td>56</td><td>210,000 y</td><td>β−</td><td>294</td><td>Fission product</td><td>most common isotope of the lightest unstable element, most significant of <a href="/facts/Long-lived_fission_products/wxe6qNIp">long-lived fission products</a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Technetium-99m/HgIqtvrv">Technetium-99m</a></th><td>43</td><td>56</td><td>6 hr</td><td><a href="/facts/Gamma_ray/5Drf913J">γ</a>,IC</td><td>141</td><td>Synthetic</td><td>most commonly used medical radioisotope, used as a radioactive tracer</td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Iodine-129/oJDlGf5H">Iodine-129</a></th><td>53</td><td>76</td><td>15,700,000 y</td><td>β−</td><td>194</td><td>Cosmogenic</td><td>longest lived <a href="/facts/Fission_product/xJd9MXXH">fission product</a>; groundwater tracer</td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Iodine-131/cMvRbKfK">Iodine-131</a></th><td>53</td><td>78</td><td>8 d</td><td>β−</td><td>971</td><td>Fission product</td><td>most significant short-term health hazard from nuclear fission, used in nuclear medicine, industrial tracer</td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Xenon-135/vU9yqxK4">Xenon-135</a></th><td>54</td><td>81</td><td>9.1 h</td><td>β−</td><td>1160</td><td>Fission product</td><td>strongest known "nuclear poison" (neutron-absorber), with a major effect on nuclear reactor operation.</td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Caesium-137/NrY5Tb6j">Caesium-137</a></th><td>55</td><td>82</td><td>30.2 y</td><td>β−</td><td>1176</td><td>Fission product</td><td>other major <a href="/facts/Medium-lived_fission_product/wxe6qNIp">medium-lived fission product</a> of concern</td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Gadolinium-153/1Ty1o8c1">Gadolinium-153</a></th><td>64</td><td>89</td><td>240 d</td><td>EC</td><td></td><td>Synthetic</td><td>Calibrating nuclear equipment, bone density screening</td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Bismuth-209/Bxu7JrUs">Bismuth-209</a></th><td>83</td><td>126</td><td>2.01×1019y</td><td><a href="/facts/Alpha_decay/rCsHNIUE">α</a></td><td>3137</td><td>Primordial</td><td>long considered stable, decay only detected in 2003</td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Polonium-210/8DnmI5Lg">Polonium-210</a></th><td>84</td><td>126</td><td>138 d</td><td>α</td><td>5307</td><td>Decay product</td><td>Highly toxic, used in <a href="/facts/Poisoning_of_Alexander_Litvinenko/uc3JQDrE">poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko</a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Radon-222/FTWdEQn0">Radon-222</a></th><td>86</td><td>136</td><td>3.8 d</td><td>α</td><td>5590</td><td>Decay product</td><td>gas, responsible for the majority of public exposure to ionizing radiation, second most frequent cause of lung cancer</td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Thorium-232/lRb3opzg">Thorium-232</a></th><td>90</td><td>142</td><td>1.4×1010 y</td><td>α</td><td>4083</td><td>Primordial</td><td>basis of <a href="/facts/Thorium_fuel_cycle/mohxxkx3">thorium fuel cycle</a></td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Uranium-235/pe0RznDM">Uranium-235</a></th><td>92</td><td>143</td><td>7×108y</td><td>α</td><td>4679</td><td>Primordial</td><td><a href="/facts/Fissile/XJR9qoxW">fissile</a>, main nuclear fuel</td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Uranium-238/QhcHm6q8">Uranium-238</a></th><td>92</td><td>146</td><td>4.5×109 y</td><td>α</td><td>4267</td><td>Primordial</td><td>Main Uranium isotope</td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Plutonium-238/JzY7TPFE">Plutonium-238</a></th><td>94</td><td>144</td><td>87.7 y</td><td>α</td><td>5593</td><td>Synthetic</td><td>used in radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) and radioisotope heater units as an energy source for spacecraft</td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Plutonium-239/eRobTXos">Plutonium-239</a></th><td>94</td><td>145</td><td>24,110 y</td><td>α</td><td>5245</td><td>Synthetic</td><td>used for most modern nuclear weapons</td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Americium-241/HnXXm1nx">Americium-241</a></th><td>95</td><td>146</td><td>432 y</td><td>α</td><td>5486</td><td>Synthetic</td><td>used in household smoke detectors as an ionising agent</td></tr><tr><th><a href="/facts/Californium-252/tX06MlFX">Californium-252</a></th><td>98</td><td>154</td><td>2.64 y</td><td>α/SF</td><td>6217</td><td>Synthetic</td><td>undergoes spontaneous fission (3% of decays), making it a powerful neutron source, used as a reactor initiator and for detection devices</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Key: <i>Z</i> = <a href="/facts/Atomic_number/bgAr581S">atomic number</a>; <i>N</i> = <a href="/facts/Neutron_number/eNtwGnVL">neutron number</a>; DM = decay mode; DE = decay energy; EC = <a href="/facts/Electron_capture/EIccoV1u">electron capture</a> </p> <h3>Household smoke detectors</h3> <p>Radionuclides are present in many homes as they are used inside the most common household <a href="/facts/Smoke_detector/WX5HPBPV">smoke detectors</a>. The radionuclide used is <a href="/facts/Americium-241/HnXXm1nx">americium-241</a>, which is created by bombarding plutonium with neutrons in a nuclear reactor. It decays by emitting <a href="/facts/Alpha_particle/dzNMs9WP">alpha particles</a> and <a href="/facts/Gamma_radiation/5Drf913J">gamma radiation</a> to become <a href="/facts/Neptunium-237/X3bPWwX1">neptunium-237</a>. Smoke detectors use a very small quantity of 241Am (about 0.29 micrograms per smoke detector) in the form of <a href="/facts/Americium_dioxide/8jrEHRKM">americium dioxide</a>. 241Am is used as it emits alpha particles which ionize the air in the detector's <a href="/facts/Ionization_chamber/y01K3yHE">ionization chamber</a>. A small electric voltage is applied to the ionized air which gives rise to a small electric current. In the presence of smoke, some of the ions are neutralized, thereby decreasing the current, which activates the detector's alarm.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="impacts-on-organisms">Impacts on organisms</h2> <p>Radionuclides that find their way into the environment may cause harmful effects as <a href="/facts/Radioactive_contamination/Rd6dcVM9">radioactive contamination</a>. They can also cause damage if they are excessively used during treatment or in other ways exposed to living beings, by <a href="/facts/Radiation_poisoning/oNFArLna">radiation poisoning</a>. Potential health damage from exposure to radionuclides depends on a number of factors, and "can damage the functions of healthy tissue/organs. Radiation exposure can produce effects ranging from skin redness and hair loss, to <a href="/facts/Radiation_burn/6XaIDoDR">radiation burns</a> and <a href="/facts/Acute_radiation_syndrome/oNFArLna">acute radiation syndrome</a>. Prolonged exposure can lead to cells being damaged and in turn lead to cancer. Signs of cancerous cells might not show up until years, or even decades, after exposure."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="summary-table-for-classes-of-nuclides-stable-and-radioactive">Summary table for classes of nuclides, stable and radioactive</h2> <p>Following is a summary table for the <a href="/facts/List_of_nuclides/RSRMmg77">list of 989 nuclides</a> with half-lives greater than one hour. A total of 251 nuclides have never been observed to decay, and are classically considered stable. Of these, 90 are believed to be absolutely stable except to <a href="/facts/Proton_decay/Awg3sEzD">proton decay</a> (which has never been observed), while the rest are "<a href="/facts/Observationally_stable/vC0VVvqN">observationally stable</a>" and theoretically can undergo radioactive decay with extremely long half-lives. </p><p>The remaining tabulated radionuclides have half-lives longer than 1 hour, and are well-characterized (see <a href="/facts/List_of_nuclides/RSRMmg77">list of nuclides</a> for a complete tabulation). They include 30 nuclides with measured half-lives longer than the estimated age of the universe (13.8 billion years<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a>), and another four nuclides with half-lives long enough (> 100 million years) that they are radioactive <a href="/facts/Primordial_nuclide/lFAUqHDv">primordial nuclides</a>, and may be detected on Earth, having survived from their presence in interstellar dust since before the formation of the <a href="/facts/Solar_System/QIcLSazQ">Solar System</a>, about 4.6 billion years ago. Another 60+ short-lived nuclides can be detected naturally as daughters of longer-lived nuclides or cosmic-ray products. The remaining known nuclides are known solely from artificial <a href="/facts/Nuclear_transmutation/MjlvjsV6">nuclear transmutation</a>. </p><p>Numbers are not exact, and may change slightly in the future, as "stable nuclides" are observed to be radioactive with very long half-lives. </p><p>This is a summary table<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> for the 989 nuclides with half-lives longer than one hour (including those that are stable), given in <a href="/facts/List_of_nuclides/RSRMmg77">list of nuclides</a>. </p> <table><tbody><tr><th>Stability class</th><th>Number of nuclides</th><th><a href="/facts/Running_total/ntKGNz7Y">Running total</a></th><th>Notes on running total</th></tr><tr><td>Theoretically stable to all but <a href="/facts/Proton_decay/Awg3sEzD">proton decay</a></td><td>90</td><td>90</td><td>Includes first 40 elements. Proton decay yet to be observed.</td></tr><tr><td>Theoretically stable to <a href="/facts/Alpha_decay/rCsHNIUE">alpha decay</a>, <a href="/facts/Beta_decay/vxTBlckp">beta decay</a>, <a href="/facts/Isomeric_transition/L8DHcqnk">isomeric transition</a>, and <a href="/facts/Double_beta_decay/ILmpbfqS">double beta decay</a> but not <a href="/facts/Spontaneous_fission/0QuJoVKI">spontaneous fission</a>, which is possible for "stable" nuclides ≥ <a href="/facts/Niobium-93/nbT6c0vs">niobium-93</a></td><td>56</td><td>146</td><td>All nuclides that are <i>possibly</i> completely stable (spontaneous fission has never been observed for nuclides with mass number < 232).</td></tr><tr><td>Energetically unstable to one or more known decay modes, but no decay yet seen. All considered "stable" until decay detected.</td><td>105</td><td>251</td><td>Total of classically <a href="/facts/Stable_nuclide/vC0VVvqN">stable nuclides</a>.</td></tr><tr><td>Radioactive <a href="/facts/Primordial_nuclide/lFAUqHDv">primordial nuclides</a>.</td><td>35</td><td>286</td><td>Total primordial elements include <a href="/facts/Uranium/n2sGWBzU">uranium</a>, <a href="/facts/Thorium/ysdWH470">thorium</a>, <a href="/facts/Bismuth/75FLjkoX">bismuth</a>, <a href="/facts/Rubidium-87/9jc8FbaB">rubidium-87</a>, <a href="/facts/Potassium-40/RMnkrhvc">potassium-40</a>, <a href="/facts/Tellurium-128/cE0X04xU">tellurium-128</a> plus all stable nuclides.</td></tr><tr><td>Radioactive nonprimordial, but naturally occurring on Earth.</td><td>61</td><td>347</td><td><a href="/facts/Carbon-14/Ut8SBNNa">Carbon-14</a> (and other isotopes generated by <a href="/facts/Cosmic_rays/uxCVdTKd">cosmic rays</a>) and daughters of radioactive primordial elements, such as <a href="/facts/Radium/VWo5gkzn">radium</a>, <a href="/facts/Polonium/G4rzsyjP">polonium</a>, etc. 41 of these have a half life of greater than one hour.</td></tr><tr><td>Radioactive synthetic half-life ≥ 1.0 hour). Includes most useful <a href="/facts/Radiotracer/0210Jncn">radiotracers</a>.</td><td>662</td><td>989</td><td>These 989 nuclides are listed in the article <a href="/facts/List_of_nuclides/RSRMmg77">List of nuclides</a>.</td></tr><tr><td>Radioactive synthetic (half-life < 1.0 hour).</td><td>>2400</td><td>>3300</td><td>Includes all well-characterized synthetic nuclides.</td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="list-of-commercially-available-radionuclides">List of commercially available radionuclides</h2> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/List_of_nuclides/RSRMmg77">List of nuclides</a> and <a href="/facts/Table_of_nuclides/wb9TQwN7">Table of nuclides</a></p> <p>This list covers common isotopes, most of which are available in very small quantities to the general public in most countries. Others that are not publicly accessible are traded commercially in industrial, medical, and scientific fields and are subject to government regulation. </p> <h3>Gamma emission only</h3> <table><tbody><tr><th>Isotope</th><th><a href="/facts/Specific_activity/KIv7s4N4">Activity</a></th><th>Half-life</th><th>Energies (<a href="/facts/Electronvolt/YMT1fqX9">keV</a>)</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Barium-133/qajGloJP">Barium-133</a></td><td>9694 TBq/kg (262 Ci/g)</td><td>10.7 years</td><td>81.0, 356.0</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Cadmium-109/2F42oNDz">Cadmium-109</a></td><td>96200 TBq/kg (2600 Ci/g)</td><td>453 days</td><td>88.0</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Cobalt-57/jIIqGRE3">Cobalt-57</a></td><td>312280 TBq/kg (8440 Ci/g)</td><td>270 days</td><td>122.1</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Cobalt-60/hjDPVA8M">Cobalt-60</a></td><td>40700 TBq/kg (1100 Ci/g)</td><td>5.27 years</td><td>1173.2, 1332.5</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Europium-152/IUWzfhMI">Europium-152</a></td><td>6660 TBq/kg (180 Ci/g)</td><td>13.5 years</td><td>121.8, 344.3, 1408.0</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Manganese-54/NUERgknG">Manganese-54</a></td><td>287120 TBq/kg (7760 Ci/g)</td><td>312 days</td><td>834.8</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Sodium-22/dGhdEPWX">Sodium-22</a></td><td>237540 Tbq/kg (6240 Ci/g)</td><td>2.6 years</td><td>511.0, 1274.5</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Zinc-65/4QJEMCzx">Zinc-65</a></td><td>304510 TBq/kg (8230 Ci/g)</td><td>244 days</td><td>511.0, 1115.5</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Technetium-99m/HgIqtvrv">Technetium-99m</a></td><td>1.95×107 TBq/kg (5.27 × 105 Ci/g)</td><td>6 hours</td><td>140</td></tr></tbody></table> <h3>Beta emission only</h3> <table><tbody><tr><th>Isotope</th><th>Activity</th><th>Half-life</th><th>Energies (keV)</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Strontium-90/VJNoC5eR">Strontium-90</a></td><td>5180 TBq/kg (140 Ci/g)</td><td>28.5 years</td><td>546.0</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Thallium-204/7BEwqp8j">Thallium-204</a></td><td>17057 TBq/kg (461 Ci/g)</td><td>3.78 years</td><td>763.4</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Carbon-14/Ut8SBNNa">Carbon-14</a></td><td>166.5 TBq/kg (4.5 Ci/g)</td><td>5730 years</td><td>156.5</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Tritium/HWSa6EHy">Tritium</a> (Hydrogen-3)</td><td>357050 TBq/kg (9650 Ci/g)</td><td>12.32 years</td><td>18.6</td></tr></tbody></table> <h3>Alpha emission only</h3> <table><tbody><tr><th>Isotope</th><th>Activity</th><th>Half-life</th><th>Energies (keV)</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Polonium-210/8DnmI5Lg">Polonium-210</a></td><td>166500 TBq/kg (4500 Ci/g)</td><td>138.376 days</td><td>5304.5</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Uranium-238/QhcHm6q8">Uranium-238</a></td><td>12580 kBq/kg (0.00000034 Ci/g)</td><td>4.468 billion years</td><td>4267</td></tr></tbody></table> <h3>Multiple radiation emitters</h3> <table><tbody><tr><th>Isotope</th><th>Activity</th><th>Half-life</th><th>Radiation types</th><th>Energies (keV)</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Caesium-137/NrY5Tb6j">Caesium-137</a></td><td>3256 TBq/kg (88 Ci/g)</td><td>30.1 years</td><td>Gamma & beta</td><td>G: 32, 661.6 B: 511.6, 1173.2</td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Americium-241/HnXXm1nx">Americium-241</a></td><td>129.5 TBq/kg (3.5 Ci/g)</td><td>432.2 years</td><td>Gamma & alpha</td><td>G: 59.5, 26.3, 13.9 A: 5485, 5443</td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul> <li>Physics portal</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/facts/List_of_nuclides/RSRMmg77">List of nuclides</a> shows all radionuclides with half-life > 1 hour</li> <li><a href="/facts/Hyperaccumulators_table_%25E2%2580%2593_3/2aImeEMd">Hyperaccumulators table – 3</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Radioactivity_in_biology/guwcMDWP">Radioactivity in biology</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Radiometric_dating/bDFjdPqV">Radiometric dating</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Radionuclide_cisternogram/awnx0okN">Radionuclide cisternogram</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Uses_of_radioactivity_in_oil_and_gas_wells/WtXLwyAC">Uses of radioactivity in oil and gas wells</a></li></ul> <h2 id="notes">Notes</h2> <ul><li>Carlsson, J.; Forssell Aronsson, E; Hietala, SO; Stigbrand, T; Tennvall, J; et al. (2003). "Tumour therapy with radionuclides: assessment of progress and problems". <i>Radiotherapy and Oncology</i>. 66 (2): 107–117. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0167-8140%2802%2900374-2">10.1016/S0167-8140(02)00374-2</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12648782">12648782</a>.</li> <li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130227084034/http://world-nuclear.org/info/inf56.html">"Radioisotopes in Industry"</a>. <i>World Nuclear Association</i>. Archived from <a href="http://world-nuclear.org/info/inf56.html">the original</a> on 2013-02-27. Retrieved 2008-05-02.</li> <li>Martin, James (2006). <i>Physics for Radiation Protection: A Handbook</i>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 130. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3527406111.</li></ul> <h2 id="further-reading">Further reading</h2> <ul><li>Luig, H.; Kellerer, A. M.; Griebel, J. R. (2011). "Radionuclides, 1. Introduction". <i>Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry</i>. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F14356007.a22_499.pub2">10.1002/14356007.a22_499.pub2</a>. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-3527306732.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> Wikimedia Commons has media related to Radionuclides. <ul><li><a href="http://www.epa.gov/rpdweb00/radionuclides/index.html">EPA – Radionuclides</a> – EPA's Radiation Protection Program: Information.</li> <li><a href="https://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodSafety/FoodContaminantsAdulteration/ChemicalContaminants/Radionuclides/UCM078341#level98">FDA – Radionuclides</a> – FDA's Radiation Protection Program: Information.</li> <li><a href="http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/chart/">Interactive Chart of Nuclides</a> – A chart of all nuclides</li> <li><a href="https://isotopes.gov/">National Isotope Development Center</a> – U.S. Government source of radionuclides – production, research, development, distribution, and information</li> <li><a href="http://www-nds.iaea.org/livechart">The Live Chart of Nuclides – IAEA </a></li> <li><a href="http://www-nds.iaea.org/mib">Radionuclides production simulator – IAEA </a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Petrucci, R. H.; Harwood, W. S.; Herring, F. G. (2002). General Chemistry (8th ed.). Prentice-Hall. pp. 1025–26. ISBN 0-13-014329-4. <a href="0-13-014329-4" target="_blank">0-13-014329-4</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>"Decay and Half Life". Retrieved 2009-12-14. <a href="http://www.iem-inc.com/prhlfr.html" target="_blank">http://www.iem-inc.com/prhlfr.html</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Stabin, Michael G. (2007). "3". In Stabin, Michael G (ed.). Radiation Protection and Dosimetry: An Introduction to Health Physics (Submitted manuscript). Springer. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-49983-3. ISBN 978-0387499826. <a href="978-0387499826" target="_blank">978-0387499826</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Best, Lara; Rodrigues, George; Velker, Vikram (2013). "1.3". Radiation Oncology Primer and Review. Demos Medical Publishing. ISBN 978-1620700044. <a href="978-1620700044" target="_blank">978-1620700044</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>Loveland, W.; Morrissey, D.; Seaborg, G.T. (2006). Modern Nuclear Chemistry. Wiley-Interscience. p. 57. Bibcode:2005mnc..book.....L. ISBN 978-0-471-11532-8. <a href="978-0-471-11532-8" target="_blank">978-0-471-11532-8</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Eisenbud, Merril; Gesell, Thomas F (1997-02-25). Environmental Radioactivity: From Natural, Industrial, and Military Sources. Elsevier. p. 134. ISBN 9780122351549. <a href="9780122351549" target="_blank">9780122351549</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Bagnall, K. W. (1962). "The Chemistry of Polonium". Advances in Inorganic Chemistry and Radiochemistry 4. New York: Academic Press. pp. 197–226. doi:10.1016/S0065-2792(08)60268-X. ISBN 0-12-023604-4. Retrieved June 14, 2012., p. 746 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Bagnall, K. W. (1962). "The Chemistry of Polonium". Advances in Inorganic Chemistry and Radiochemistry 4. New York: Academic Press., p. 198 <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>"Radioisotopes". www.iaea.org. 2016-07-15. Retrieved 2023-06-25. <a href="https://www.iaea.org/topics/nuclear-science/isotopes/radioisotopes" target="_blank">https://www.iaea.org/topics/nuclear-science/isotopes/radioisotopes</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Ingvar, David H. [in Swedish]; Lassen, Niels A. (1961). "Quantitative determination of regional cerebral blood-flow in man". The Lancet. 278 (7206): 806–807. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(61)91092-3. <a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_H._Ingvar" target="_blank">https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_H._Ingvar</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Ingvar, David H. [in Swedish]; Franzén, Göran (1974). "Distribution of cerebral activity in chronic schizophrenia". The Lancet. 304 (7895): 1484–1486. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(74)90221-9. PMID 4140398. <a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_H._Ingvar" target="_blank">https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_H._Ingvar</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Lassen, Niels A.; Ingvar, David H. [in Swedish]; Skinhøj, Erik [in Danish] (October 1978). "Brain Function and Blood Flow". Scientific American. 239 (4): 62–71. Bibcode:1978SciAm.239d..62L. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1078-62. PMID 705327. <a href="/wiki/Niels_A._Lassen" target="_blank">/wiki/Niels_A._Lassen</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Severijns, Nathal; Beck, Marcus; Naviliat-Cuncic, Oscar (2006). "Tests of the standard electroweak model in nuclear beta decay". Reviews of Modern Physics. 78 (3): 991–1040. arXiv:nucl-ex/0605029. Bibcode:2006RvMP...78..991S. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.78.991. S2CID 18494258. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>"Smoke Detectors and Americium". world-nuclear.org. Archived from the original on 2010-11-12. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101112082137/http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf57.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20101112082137/http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf57.html</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Office of Radiation Protection – Am 241 Fact Sheet – Washington State Department of Health Archived 2011-03-18 at the Wayback Machine <a href="http://www.doh.wa.gov/ehp/rp/factsheets/factsheets-htm/fs23am241.htm" target="_blank">http://www.doh.wa.gov/ehp/rp/factsheets/factsheets-htm/fs23am241.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>"Ionizing radiation, health effects and protective measures". World Health Organization. November 2012. Retrieved January 27, 2014. <a href="https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs371/en/" target="_blank">https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs371/en/</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>"Cosmic Detectives". The European Space Agency (ESA). 2013-04-02. Retrieved 2013-04-15. <a href="http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Science/Cosmic_detectives" target="_blank">http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Science/Cosmic_detectives</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Table data is derived by counting members of the list; see WP:CALC. References for the list data itself are given below in the reference section in list of nuclides <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:CALC" target="_blank">/wiki/Wikipedia:CALC</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> </ol>