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Specific strength
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<h2 id="calculations-of-breaking-length">Calculations of breaking length</h2> L = T s / ρ g {\displaystyle L={\frac {T_{s}/\rho }{\mathbf {g} }}} <p>where L {\displaystyle L} is the length, T s {\displaystyle T_{s}} is the tensile strength, ρ {\displaystyle \rho } is the density and g {\displaystyle \mathbf {g} } is the acceleration due to gravity ( ≈ 9.8 {\displaystyle \approx 9.8} m/s 2 {\displaystyle ^{2}} ) </p> <h2 id="examples">Examples</h2> Specific tensile strength of various materials<table><tbody><tr><th>Material</th><th><a href="/facts/Tensile_strength/Cv2jPplR">Tensile strength</a> (<a href="/facts/Megapascal/Am1To2Qm">MPa</a>)</th><th><a href="/facts/Density/92p6hh9I">Density</a> (<a href="/facts/Gram/sRSW5RJb">g</a>/<a href="/facts/Cubic_centimetre/B8X0UHDI">cm3</a>)</th><th>Specific strength (<a href="/facts/Kilonewton/Ral9XgNl">kN</a>·<a href="/facts/Metre/hPhzc1CV">m</a>/<a href="/facts/Kilogram/lU2zbPk8">kg</a>)</th><th>Breaking length (<a href="/facts/Kilometre/hdQp79QE">km</a>)</th><th>Source</th></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Concrete/K6whGVNx">Concrete</a></td><td>2–5</td><td>2.30</td><td>5.22</td><td>0.44</td><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Polyoxymethylene/TFrYKSx7">Polyoxymethylene</a>; POM</td><td>69</td><td>1.42</td><td>49</td><td>4.95</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1"><sup>1</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Rubber/CbsjJxhY">Rubber</a></td><td>15</td><td>0.92</td><td>16.3</td><td>1.66</td><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Copper/I8PEE8oX">Copper</a></td><td>220</td><td>8.92</td><td>24.7</td><td>2.51</td><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Polypropylene/HM9PvoCz">Polypropylene</a>; PP</td><td>25–40</td><td>0.90</td><td>28–44</td><td>2.8–4.5</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>(Poly)<a href="/facts/Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene/WrksnpMv">acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene</a>; ABS</td><td>41–45</td><td>1.05</td><td>39–43</td><td></td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Polyethylene_terephthalate/Sc5UhmCB">Polyethylene terephthalate</a>; polyester; PET</td><td>80</td><td>1.3–1.4</td><td>57–62</td><td></td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Piano_wire/0dDHBfbM">Piano wire</a>; ASTM 228 Steel</td><td>1590–3340</td><td>7.8</td><td>204–428</td><td></td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Polylactic_acid/QHoY2H5I">Polylactic acid</a>; polylactide; PLA</td><td>53</td><td>1.24</td><td>43</td><td></td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Carbon_Steel/QGYURvFA">Low carbon steel</a> (AISI 1010)</td><td>365</td><td>7.87</td><td>46.4</td><td>4.73</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Stainless_steel/IDdo8bEx">Stainless steel</a> (304)</td><td>505</td><td>8.00</td><td>63.1</td><td>6.4</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Maraging_steel/rwc0qRpQ">Maraging steel</a> (18Ni(350))</td><td>2450</td><td>8.2</td><td>298.78</td><td>29.7</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Brass/pe8EHk6x">Brass</a></td><td>580</td><td>8.55</td><td>67.8</td><td>6.91</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Nylon/hBvG9bCw">Nylon</a></td><td>78</td><td>1.13</td><td>69.0</td><td>7.04</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Titanium/53ArnDoy">Titanium</a></td><td>344</td><td>4.51</td><td>76</td><td>7.75</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/41xx_steel/4vlmeTYx">CrMo Steel</a> (4130)</td><td>560–670</td><td>7.85</td><td>71–85</td><td>7.27–8.70</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/6061_aluminum_alloy/UnIooxgV">Aluminium alloy</a> (6061-T6)</td><td>310</td><td>2.70</td><td>115</td><td>11.70</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Oak/1NJJzkzB">Oak</a></td><td>90</td><td>0.78–0.69</td><td>115–130</td><td>12–13</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Inconel/Hnxd677l">Inconel</a> (X-750)</td><td>1250</td><td>8.28</td><td>151</td><td>15.4</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Magnesium_alloy/mmKDGhDL">Magnesium alloy</a></td><td>275</td><td>1.74</td><td>158</td><td>16.1</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Aluminium_alloy/1EzR3Y4t">Aluminium alloy</a> (7075-T6)</td><td>572</td><td>2.81</td><td>204</td><td>20.8</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Pine/HvMa9uc1">Pine wood</a> (American eastern white)</td><td>78</td><td>0.35</td><td>223</td><td>22.7</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Titanium_alloy/cMFhSKSL">Titanium alloy</a> (<a href="/facts/Titanium_Beta_C/K7z3A5mM">Beta C</a>)</td><td>1250</td><td>4.81</td><td>260</td><td>26.5</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Bainite/egNpJ945">Bainite</a></td><td>2500</td><td>7.87</td><td>321</td><td>32.4</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Reversibly_assembled_cellular_composite_materials/b27fskHc">Reversibly Assembled Cellular Composite Materials</a></td><td>0.073</td><td>0.0072</td><td>10,139</td><td>1035</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>Self-Reprogrammable Mechanical <a href="/facts/Metamaterial/3DeLU6ME">Metamaterials</a></td><td>0.01117</td><td>0.0103</td><td>1,084</td><td>111</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Balsa/TnCvlbg0">Balsa</a></td><td>73</td><td>0.14</td><td>521</td><td>53.2</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Carbon_fiber-reinforced_polymer/6PlL4mB2">Carbon–epoxy composite</a></td><td>1240</td><td>1.58</td><td>785</td><td>80.0</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Spider_silk/e1BwKC9S">Spider silk</a></td><td>1400</td><td>1.31</td><td>1,069</td><td>109</td><td></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Silicon_carbide/kQLVAYbr">Silicon carbide</a> fiber</td><td>3440</td><td>3.16</td><td>1,088</td><td>110</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>Miralon <a href="/facts/Carbon_nanotube/atuDPPaG">carbon nanotube</a> yarn C-series</td><td>1375</td><td>0.7–0.9</td><td>1,100</td><td>112</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Glass_fiber/IDL9pucz">Glass fiber</a></td><td>3400</td><td>2.60</td><td>1,307</td><td>133</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Basalt_fiber/tfFcB3X2">Basalt fiber</a></td><td>4840</td><td>2.70</td><td>1,790</td><td>183</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>1 μm <a href="/facts/Iron/QK1JYy8E">iron</a> <a href="/facts/Monocrystalline_whisker/pcYcJ8vr">whiskers</a></td><td>14000</td><td>7.87</td><td>1,800</td><td>183</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Vectran/ad87xXht">Vectran</a></td><td>2900</td><td>1.40</td><td>2,071</td><td>211</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Carbon_fiber/6PlL4mB2">Carbon fiber</a> (AS4)</td><td>4300</td><td>1.75</td><td>2,457</td><td>250</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Kevlar/cFyJP7p0">Kevlar</a></td><td>3620</td><td>1.44</td><td>2,514</td><td>256</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Dyneema/VDuc337R">Dyneema</a> (<a href="/facts/Ultra-high-molecular-weight_polyethylene/VDuc337R">UHMWPE</a>)</td><td>3600</td><td>0.97</td><td>3,711</td><td>378</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Zylon/3dyNo2XK">Zylon</a></td><td>5800</td><td>1.54</td><td>3,766</td><td>384</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Carbon_fiber/6PlL4mB2">Carbon fiber</a> (Toray T1100G)</td><td>7000</td><td>1.79</td><td>3,911</td><td>399</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Carbon_nanotube/atuDPPaG">Carbon nanotube</a> (see note below)</td><td>62000</td><td>0.037–1.34</td><td>46,268–N/A</td><td>4716–N/A</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Colossal_carbon_tube/Mo72alYF">Colossal carbon tube</a></td><td>6900</td><td>0.116</td><td>59,483</td><td>6066</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td><a href="/facts/Graphene/QDGUBaPt">Graphene</a></td><td>130500</td><td>2.090</td><td>62,453</td><td>6366</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td>Fundamental limit</td><td></td><td></td><td>9×1013</td><td>9.2×1012</td><td><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The data of this table is from best cases, and has been established for giving a rough figure. </p><p>Note: Multiwalled carbon nanotubes have the highest tensile strength of any material yet measured, with labs producing them at a tensile strength of 63 GPa,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> still well below their theoretical limit of 300 GPa. The first nanotube ropes (20 mm long) whose tensile strength was published (in 2000) had a strength of 3.6 GPa, still well below their theoretical limit.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> The density is different depending on the manufacturing method, and the lowest value is 0.037 or 0.55 (solid).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="the-yuri-and-space-tethers">The 'Yuri' and space tethers</h2> <p>The <a href="/facts/International_Space_Elevator_Consortium/VUBYsbM6">International Space Elevator Consortium</a> uses the "Yuri" as a name for the SI units describing specific strength. Specific strength is of fundamental importance in the description of <a href="/facts/Space_elevator/VUBYsbM6">space elevator</a> cable materials. One Yuri is conceived to be the SI unit for yield stress (or breaking stress) per unit of density of a material under tension. One Yuri equals 1 Pa⋅m3/kg or 1 <a href="/facts/Newton_(unit)/Ral9XgNl">N</a>⋅<a href="/facts/Meter/hPhzc1CV">m</a>/<a href="/facts/Kilogram/lU2zbPk8">kg</a>, which is the breaking/yielding <i>force</i> per <i>linear</i> density of the cable under tension.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> A functional Earth <a href="/facts/Space_elevator/VUBYsbM6">space elevator</a> would require a tether of 30–80 megaYuri (corresponding to 3100–8200 km of breaking length).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a> </p> <h2 id="fundamental-limit-on-specific-strength">Fundamental limit on specific strength</h2> <p>The null <a href="/facts/Energy_condition/Gu2eCv1X">energy condition</a> places a fundamental limit on the specific strength of any material.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a> The specific strength is bounded to be no greater than <i>c</i>2 ≈ 9×1013 <a href="/facts/Kilonewton/Ral9XgNl">kN</a>⋅<a href="/facts/Metre/hPhzc1CV">m</a>/<a href="/facts/Kilogram/lU2zbPk8">kg</a>, where <i>c</i> is the <a href="/facts/Speed_of_light/sKSQwdNx">speed of light</a>. This limit is achieved by electric and magnetic field lines, <a href="/facts/QCD_string/W3XjqMAS">QCD flux tubes</a>, and the fundamental strings hypothesized by <a href="/facts/String_theory/HUJFIPYH">string theory</a>. </p> <h2 id="tenacity-textile-strength">Tenacity (textile strength)</h2> <p> Tenacity is the customary measure of <a href="/facts/Strength_of_materials/CE77cUcB">strength</a> of a <a href="/facts/Fiber/ttkxAFBu">fiber</a> or <a href="/facts/Yarn/fhMTsWg2">yarn</a>. It is usually defined as the ultimate (breaking) force of the fiber (in <a href="/facts/Gram/sRSW5RJb">gram</a>-force units) divided by the <a href="/facts/Units_of_textile_measurement/HylEIRGM">denier</a>. Because denier is a measure of the linear density, the tenacity works out to be not a measure of force per unit area, but rather a quasi-dimensionless measure analogous to specific strength.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a> A tenacity of 1 {\displaystyle 1} corresponds to: 1 g ⋅ 9.80665 m s − 2 1 g / 9000 m = 9.80665 m s − 2 1 / 9000 m = 9.80665 m s − 2 9000 m = 88259.85 m 2 s − 2 {\displaystyle {\frac {1{\rm {\,g}}\cdot 9.80665{\rm {\,ms^{-2}}}}{1{\rm {\,g}}/9000{\rm {\,m}}}}={\frac {9.80665{\rm {\,ms^{-2}}}}{1/9000{\rm {\,m}}}}=9.80665{\rm {\,ms^{-2}}}\,9000{\rm {\,m}}=88259.85{\rm {\,m^{2}s^{-2}}}} Mostly Tenacity expressed in report as cN/tex. </p> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Specific_modulus/BKhvuMMa">Specific modulus</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Space_elevator/VUBYsbM6">Space elevator</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Space_tether/vuK7nbJx">Space tether</a></li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li><a href="http://www-materials.eng.cam.ac.uk/mpsite/interactive_charts/spec-spec/NS6Chart.html">Specific stiffness - Specific strength</a> chart, University of Cambridge, Department of Engineering</li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>"Acetal Polyoxymethylene Homopolymer - POM". AZoM.com. August 30, 2001. Archived from the original on July 22, 2020. Retrieved July 22, 2020. <a href="https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=762" target="_blank">https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=762</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>"Polypropylene - online catalogue source - supplier of research materials in small quantities - Goodfellow". www.goodfellow.com. Archived from the original on 2018-08-07. Retrieved 2017-04-24. <a href="http://www.goodfellow.com/E/Polypropylene.html" target="_blank">http://www.goodfellow.com/E/Polypropylene.html</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>"Polyacrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene - online catalogue source - supplier of research materials in small quantities - Goodfellow". www.goodfellow.com. Archived from the original on 2018-12-20. Retrieved 2018-07-29. <a href="http://www.goodfellow.com/E/Polyacrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene.html" target="_blank">http://www.goodfellow.com/E/Polyacrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene.html</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>"Polyethylene terephthalate - online catalogue source - supplier of research materials in small quantities - Goodfellow". www.goodfellow.com. Archived from the original on 2019-04-17. Retrieved 2018-07-29. <a href="http://www.goodfellow.com/E/Polyethylene-terephthalate.html" target="_blank">http://www.goodfellow.com/E/Polyethylene-terephthalate.html</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>"ASTM A228 Steel (UNS K08500)". www.matweb.com. Archived from the original on 2019-01-19. Retrieved 2019-01-17. <a href="http://www.matweb.com/search/datasheet_print.aspx?matguid=4bcaab41d4eb43b3824d9de31c2c6849" target="_blank">http://www.matweb.com/search/datasheet_print.aspx?matguid=4bcaab41d4eb43b3824d9de31c2c6849</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>"Polylactic acid - Biopolymer - online catalogue source - supplier of research materials in small quantities - Goodfellow". www.goodfellow.com. Archived from the original on 2018-07-29. Retrieved 2018-07-29. <a href="http://www.goodfellow.com/E/Polylactic-acid-Biopolymer.html" target="_blank">http://www.goodfellow.com/E/Polylactic-acid-Biopolymer.html</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>"AISI 1010 Steel, cold drawn". matweb.com. Archived from the original on 2018-04-18. 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