Body piercing

<h2 id="history">History</h2>

Body adornment has only recently become a subject of serious scholarly research by <a href="/facts/Archaeologist/K3Q5P38R">archaeologists</a>, who have been hampered in studying body piercing by a scarcity of primary sources.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1">1</a> Early records rarely discussed the use of piercings or their meaning, and while jewelry is common among grave goods, the deterioration of the flesh that it once adorned makes it difficult to discern how the jewelry may have been used.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2">2</a>
The modern record has been also distorted by the 20th-century inventions of piercing enthusiast <a href="/facts/Doug_Malloy/GIn6jd9n">Doug Malloy</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3">3</a> In the 1960s and 1970s, Malloy marketed contemporary body piercing by giving it the patina of history.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4">4</a> His pamphlet Body & Genital Piercing in Brief included such commonly reproduced <a href="/facts/Urban_legend/zBubH9kG">urban legends</a> as the notion that <a href="/facts/Albert,_Prince_Consort/R2QynoEy">Prince Albert</a> invented the <a href="/facts/Prince_Albert_piercing/QxE5bpyp">piercing that shares his name</a> in order to diminish the appearance of his large penis in tight trousers, and that Roman <a href="/facts/Centurion/Fe7vvrhu">centurions</a> attached their capes to nipple piercings.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5">5</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6">6</a> Some of Malloy's myths were reprinted as fact in subsequently published histories of piercing.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7">7</a>

<h3>Ear piercing</h3>
See also: <a href="/facts/Earrings/qxhJ7UIX">Earrings</a>
 
Ear piercing has been practiced all over the world since ancient times, and there is considerable written and archaeological evidence of the practice. Mummified bodies with pierced ears have been discovered, including the oldest mummified body discovered to date, the 5,300-year-old <a href="/facts/%C3%96tzi_the_Iceman/ow4P4rQo">Ötzi the Iceman</a>, which was found in a <a href="/facts/Glacier/8GrKVUSS">glacier</a> in Italy.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a> The mummy had an ear piercing 7–11 mm (0.28–0.43 in) in diameter.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a> The oldest <a href="/facts/Earrings/qxhJ7UIX">earrings</a> found in a grave date to 2500 BCE. These were located in the <a href="/facts/Sumer/bxRz093q">Sumerian</a> city of <a href="/facts/Ur/buNPcTEL">Ur</a>, home of the <a href="/facts/Bible/SqkRTKCh">Biblical</a> <a href="/facts/Patriarchs_(Bible)/X8kP2VKU">patriarch</a> <a href="/facts/Abraham/gHguuYch">Abraham</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a> Earrings are mentioned in the Bible. In <a href="/facts/Book_of_Genesis/uFEgtYrb">Genesis</a> 35:4,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a> <a href="/facts/Jacob/z6lKzP3W">Jacob</a> buries the earrings worn by members of his household along with their <a href="/facts/Cult_image/wblFa18C">idols</a>. In <a href="/facts/Book_of_Exodus/7Mse01aP">Exodus</a> 32,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a> <a href="/facts/Aaron/raWl8fp3">Aaron</a> makes the <a href="/facts/Golden_calf/4u5PTmbk">golden calf</a> from melted earrings. <a href="/facts/Deuteronomy/z2DwjhJp">Deuteronomy</a> 15:12–17<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a> dictates ear piercing for a slave who chooses not to be freed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a> Earrings are also referenced in connection to the <a href="/facts/Hindu/D7TFhcg1">Hindu</a> goddess <a href="/facts/Lakshmi/G0aDlQpn">Lakshmi</a> in the <a href="/facts/Vedas/yQgc8B2x">Vedas</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a> Earrings for pierced ears were found in a grave in the <a href="/facts/Ukok/VwaTeFCe">Ukok</a> region between Russia and China dated between 400 and 300 BCE.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a>

Among the <a href="/facts/Tlingit_people/gBEdklwR">Tlingit people</a> of the <a href="/facts/Pacific_Northwest/EjJhETXc">Pacific Northwest</a> of America, earrings were a sign of nobility and wealth, as the placement of each earring on a child had to be purchased at an expensive <a href="/facts/Potlatch/JL0xYvt1">potlatch</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a> Earrings were common in the <a href="/facts/Eighteenth_dynasty_of_Egypt/aT7N6fPT">Eighteenth dynasty</a> of Egypt (1550–1292 BCE), generally taking the form of a dangling, gold hoop.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a> Gem-studded, golden earrings shaped like asps seem to have been reserved for nobility.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a> The <a href="/facts/Ancient_Greece/PTVBrWXq">ancient Greeks</a> wore paste pendant earrings shaped like sacred birds or <a href="/facts/Demigod/uKDPFQdT">demigods</a>, while the women of ancient Rome wore precious <a href="/facts/Gemstone/kHffmvE3">gemstones</a> in their ears.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a>
In Europe, earrings for women fell from fashion generally between the 4th and 16th centuries, as styles in clothing and hair tended to obscure the ears, but they gradually thereafter came back into vogue in Italy, Spain, England and France—spreading as well to North America—until after World War I when piercing fell from favor and the newly invented Clip-on earring became fashionable.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a> According to The Anatomie of Abuses by <a href="/facts/Philip_Stubbs/XvqvUUBB">Philip Stubbs</a>, earrings were even more common among men of the 16th century than women, while <a href="/facts/Raphael_Holinshed/kAz0m1Sh">Raphael Holinshed</a> in 1577 confirms the practice among "lusty <a href="/facts/Courtier/kJgL3YBW">courtiers</a>" and "gentlemen of courage."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a> Evidently originating in Spain, the practice of ear piercing among European men spread to the court of <a href="/facts/Henry_III_of_France/AR5xkFLv">Henry III of France</a> and then to <a href="/facts/Elizabethan_era/DMfrDl3t">Elizabethan era</a> England, where earrings (typically worn in one ear only) were sported by such notables as <a href="/facts/Robert_Carr,_1st_Earl_of_Somerset/MVKKYqPK">Robert Carr, 1st Earl of Somerset</a>, <a href="/facts/Shakespeare/ohI96JTv">Shakespeare</a>, <a href="/facts/Sir_Walter_Raleigh/4XLgHJI1">Sir Walter Raleigh</a> and <a href="/facts/Charles_I_of_England/r7IEjNGh">Charles I of England</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a> Common men wore earrings as well. From the European <a href="/facts/Middle_Ages/RqzEKB9v">Middle Ages</a>, a superstitious belief that piercing one ear improved long-distance vision led to the practice among sailors and explorers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a> Sailors also pierced their ears in the belief that their earrings could pay for a Christian burial if their bodies washed up on shore.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a>

<h3>Nose piercing</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Nose_piercing/o8WUKURB">Nose piercing</a>

Nose piercing also has a long history. c. 1500 BCE, the Vedas refer to Lakshmi's nose piercings,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a> but modern practice in India is believed to have spread from the Middle Eastern nomadic tribes by route of the <a href="/facts/Mughal_emperors/WJnl1jIP">Mughal emperors</a> in the 16th century.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a> It remains customary for Indian <a href="/facts/Hindu/D7TFhcg1">Hindu</a> women of childbearing age to wear a nose stud, usually in the left nostril, due to the nostril's association with the female reproductive organs in <a href="/facts/Ayurvedic_medicine/XCgFAdb3">Ayurvedic medicine</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31">31</a> This piercing is sometimes done the night before the woman marries.
In <a href="/facts/Book_of_Genesis/uFEgtYrb">Genesis</a> 24:22,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32">32</a> Abraham's servant gives <a href="/facts/Rebecca/JWlUW87t">Rebecca</a> a nose ring. Nose piercing has been practiced by the <a href="/facts/Bedouin/gIASwABv">Bedouin</a> tribes of the Middle East and the <a href="/facts/Berber_people/kuN9pFNf">Berber</a> and <a href="/facts/Beja_people/xQT2jT8q">Beja</a> peoples of Africa,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33">33</a> as well as <a href="/facts/Australian_Aboriginals/DNAQ5z5m">Australian Aboriginals</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34">34</a> Many Native American and Alaskan tribes practiced septum piercing. It was popular among the <a href="/facts/Aztec/Tn5vj064">Aztecs</a>, the <a href="/facts/Mayan_culture/JMynpRSR">Mayans</a> and the tribes of New Guinea, who adorned their pierced noses with bones and feathers to symbolize wealth and (among men) virility.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35">35</a> The name of the <a href="/facts/Nez_Perce_tribe/jIyYWGB5">Nez Perce tribe</a> was derived from the practice, though nose piercing was not common within the tribe.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36">36</a> The Aztecs, Mayans and <a href="/facts/Incas/GjNowI6t">Incas</a> wore gold septum rings for adornment, with the practice continued to this day by the <a href="/facts/Kuna_(people)/ak83Tq7I">Kuna</a> of Panama.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37">37</a> Nose piercing also remains popular in Pakistan and Bangladesh and is practiced in a number of Middle Eastern and Arab countries.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38">38</a>

<h3>Piercings of the lip and tongue</h3>
Main articles: <a href="/facts/Lip_piercing/cwPpDSFP">Lip piercing</a> and <a href="/facts/Tongue_piercing/ISzfpk53">Tongue piercing</a>

Lip piercing and <a href="/facts/Stretching_(body_piercing)/MpIAB5aR">lip stretching</a> were historically found in certain tribal cultures in Africa and the Americas. Pierced adornments of the lip, or <a href="/facts/Labret/Fmvw3AEk">labrets</a>, were sported by the <a href="/facts/Tlingit_people/gBEdklwR">Tlingit</a> as well as peoples of <a href="/facts/Papua_New_Guinea/RLaVlhFC">Papua New Guinea</a> and the <a href="/facts/Amazon_basin/kVk5XeHA">Amazon basin</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39">39</a> Aztecs and Mayans also wore labrets, while the <a href="/facts/Dogon_people/VlTazl69">Dogon people</a> of Mali and the <a href="/facts/Nuba/6ud1R5VU">Nuba</a> of the Nile Valley wore rings.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40">40</a> The practice of stretching the lips by piercing them and inserting <a href="/facts/Lip_plate/qKlSb6Cu">plates or plugs</a> was found throughout <a href="/facts/Pre-Columbian_era/0Ntjleee">Pre-Columbian</a> Mesoamerica and South America as well as among some of the tribes of the Pacific Northwest and Africa.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41">41</a> In some parts of Malawi, it was quite common for women to adorn their lips with a lip disc called a "pelele" that by means of gradual enlargement from childhood could reach several inches of diameter and would eventually alter the occlusion of the jaw.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42">42</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43">43</a> Such lip stretching is still practiced in some places. Women of the <a href="/facts/Nilotic_peoples/UC1WQcyA">Nilotic</a> <a href="/facts/Mursi_people/I99AboqG">Mursi</a> tribe in the Nile Valley wear lip rings on occasion that may reach 15 centimetres (5.9 in) in diameter.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44">44</a>
In some Pre-Columbian and North American cultures, labrets were seen as a status symbol.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45">45</a> They were the oldest form of high status symbol among the <a href="/facts/Haida_people/RDm5Dox6">Haida</a> women, though the practice of wearing them died out due to Western influence.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46">46</a>
Tongue piercing was practiced by the Aztec, <a href="/facts/Olmec/5saF7yjT">Olmec</a> and Mayan cultures as a ritual symbol.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47">47</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48">48</a> Wall paintings highlight a ritual of the Mayans during which nobility would pierce their tongues with thorns. The blood would be collected on bark, which would be burned in honor of the <a href="/facts/Mayan_gods/1vfEGX23">Mayan gods</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49">49</a> It was also practiced by the Haida, <a href="/facts/Kwakiutl/f3hSMUfA">Kwakiutl</a> and Tlingit, as well as the <a href="/facts/Fakir/tsPTVKdj">Fakirs</a> and <a href="/facts/Sufi/NFcCu5gP">Sufis</a> of the <a href="/facts/Middle_East/8CD6pLWv">Middle East</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50">50</a>

<h3>Nipple, navel and genital piercing</h3>
Main articles: <a href="/facts/Nipple_piercing/6dTC2Hvl">Nipple piercing</a>, <a href="/facts/Navel_piercing/TMEmSM3e">Navel piercing</a>, and <a href="/facts/Genital_piercing/2uTuhaVG">Genital piercing</a>
The history of <a href="/facts/Nipple_piercing/6dTC2Hvl">nipple piercing</a>, <a href="/facts/Navel_piercing/TMEmSM3e">navel piercing</a>, and <a href="/facts/Genital_piercing/2uTuhaVG">genital piercing</a> has been particularly misrepresented by printed works continuing to repeat myths that were originally promulgated by Malloy in the pamphlet Body & Genital Piercing in Brief.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51">51</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52">52</a> For example, according to Malloy's colleague <a href="/facts/Jim_Ward_(body_piercer)/l08A8rFP">Jim Ward</a>, Malloy claimed navel piercing was popular among ancient Egyptian aristocrats and was depicted in Egyptian statuary,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53">53</a> a claim that is widely repeated.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54">54</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55">55</a> Other sources say there are no records to support a historical practice for navel piercing.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56">56</a>
However, records do exist that refer to practices of nipple and genital piercing in various cultures prior to the 20th century. <a href="/facts/Kama_Sutra/FURRCFqD">Kama Sutra</a>, dated to the <a href="/facts/Gupta_Empire/KbMVInGv">Gupta Empire</a> of Ancient India, describes genital piercing to permit sexual enhancement by inserting pins and other objects into the <a href="/facts/Foreskin/kfa9pYJq">foreskin</a> of the penis.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57">57</a> The <a href="/facts/Dayak_people/XqHVknuo">Dayak</a> tribesmen of <a href="/facts/Borneo/1aIGfyvV">Borneo</a> passed a shard of bone through their <a href="/facts/Glans_penis/Fw1W4sQc">glans</a> for the opposite reason, to diminish their sexual activity.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58">58</a> In the Talmud (<a href="/facts/Shabbat_(Talmud)/BQrHrrEv">Tractate Shabbat 64a</a>), there may be mention of a genital piercing in the prohibition against the kumaz, which medieval French <a href="/facts/Talmud/8416nnBV">Talmudic</a> commenter <a href="/facts/Rashi/yRPFhQvc">Rashi</a> interpreted as a <a href="/facts/Chastity_piercing/twdKIARl">chastity piercing</a> for women.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59">59</a> Other interpreters have, however, suggested that the kumaz was rather a pendant shaped like a vulva or a girdle.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60">60</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61">61</a>
Nipple piercing may have been a sign of masculinity for the soldiers of Rome.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62">62</a> Nipple piercing has also been connected to rites of passage for both British and American sailors who had traveled beyond a significant latitude and longitude.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63">63</a> It is widely reported that in the 1890s, nipple rings called "bosom rings" resurfaced as a fashion statement among women of the West, who would wear them on one or both sides, but if such a trend existed, it was short-lived.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64">64</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65">65</a>

<h3>Growing popularity in the West</h3>

By the early part of the 20th century, piercing of any body part other than the ear lobe had become uncommon in the West.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66">66</a> After World War II, it began increasing in popularity among the <a href="/facts/Homosexuality/gNy8Nvl0">gay male</a> <a href="/facts/Subculture/xUYDM25I">subculture</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67">67</a> Clip-on earrings were primarily the preferred fashion in the 1920s; however, the physical piercing of lobes began growing in popularity from the 1960s.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68">68</a> In the 1970s, piercing began to expand, as the <a href="/facts/Punk_subculture/9uvx1TVB">punk</a> movement embraced it, featuring nontraditional adornment such as <a href="/facts/Safety_pin/u81R2mqG">safety pins</a>; and <a href="/facts/Fakir_Musafar/IqqqapGC">Fakir Musafar</a> began popularizing it as a form of <a href="/facts/Modern_Primitivism/w0kkTcKL">Modern Primitivism</a>, which incorporated piercing elements from other cultures, such as <a href="/facts/Stretching_(body_piercing)/MpIAB5aR">stretching</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69">69</a>
Body piercing was also heavily popularized in the United States by a group of Californians, including <a href="/facts/Doug_Malloy/GIn6jd9n">Doug Malloy</a> and <a href="/facts/Jim_Ward_(body_piercer)/l08A8rFP">Jim Ward</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70">70</a> Ward (inspired by and with money from Malloy) opened <a href="/facts/Gauntlet_(body_piercing_studio)/x2LhpbWB">The Gauntlet</a> as a home business in November 1975 and then as a commercial storefront operation in <a href="/facts/West_Hollywood/30eWx4L5">West Hollywood</a> on 17 November 1978. The establishment of this business – considered the first of its type in the United States<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71">71</a> – was the beginning of the body piercing industry.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72">72</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73">73</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74">74</a> As word of body piercing spread to the wider community, Ward began to publish the first publication dedicated to the subject, <a href="/facts/PFIQ/D7f3DT03">PFIQ</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75">75</a>
A table in <a href="/facts/Larry_Townsend/7fajsYYT">Larry Townsend</a>'s The Leatherman's Handbook II (the 1983 second edition; the 1972 first edition did not include this list) which is generally considered authoritative states that a purple handkerchief is a symbol for body piercing in the <a href="/facts/Handkerchief_code/gyDcbaXK">handkerchief code</a>, which is employed usually among gay male casual-sex seekers or <a href="/facts/BDSM/htzW8TxT">BDSM</a> practitioners in the United States, Canada, Australia and Europe. Wearing the handkerchief on the left indicates the top, dominant, or active partner; right the bottom, submissive, or passive partner. However, negotiation with a prospective partner remains important because, as Townsend noted, people may wear hankies of any color "only because the idea of the hankie turns them on" or "may not even know what it means".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76">76</a>
A significant development in body piercing in England occurred in 1987, when during <a href="/facts/Operation_Spanner/J7pW87wK">Operation Spanner</a>, a group of homosexuals—including well known body piercer <a href="/facts/Alan_Oversby/1C3kmPcr">Alan Oversby</a>—were convicted of <a href="/facts/Assault_occasioning_actual_bodily_harm/NwqAhXh8">assault</a> for their involvement in <a href="/facts/Consent_(criminal_law)/ezRS5CJL">consensual</a> <a href="/facts/Sadomasochism/7qLnTWWC">sadomasochism</a> over a 10-year period, including acts of body piercing.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77">77</a> The courts declared that decorative body piercing was not illegal, but that erotic body piercing was.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78">78</a> Subsequently, the group Countdown on Spanner formed in 1992 in protest. The group appealed the decision before the <a href="/facts/High_Court_of_Justice/TmjKkjUX">High Court of Justice</a>, the <a href="/facts/House_of_Lords/ycQphmgj">House of Lords</a> and finally the <a href="/facts/European_Commission_of_Human_Rights/TkQ3QlDH">European Commission of Human Rights</a>, attempting to overturn the verdict which ruled consent immaterial in acts of sadomasochism, without success.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79">79</a> In spite of their repeated failures, the situation publicized the issue, with <a href="/facts/The_Times/5BwkodnX">The Times</a> editorializing the court's decision as "illiberal nonsense" in 1993.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80">80</a> In 1996 Countdown on Spanner received the Large Nonprofit Organization of the Year award as part of the Pantheon of Leather Awards.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81">81</a>

Body modification in general became more popular in the United States in the 1990s, as piercing also became more widespread, with growing availability and access to piercings of the navel, nose, eyebrows, lips, tongue, nipples, and genitals.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82">82</a> In 1993, a navel piercing was depicted in <a href="/facts/MTV_Video_Music_Awards/F9H94We9">MTV Video Music Awards</a>' "Music Video of the Year", "<a href="/facts/Cryin%27/MsWua4j7">Cryin'</a>", which inspired a plethora of young female fans to follow suit.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83">83</a> According to 2009's The Piercing Bible, it was this consumer drive that "essentially inspired the creation of body-piercing as a full-fledged industry."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84">84</a> Body piercing was given another media-related boost in 2004, when during a <a href="/facts/Super_Bowl_halftime_show/Xnxt74FD">halftime performance</a> at <a href="/facts/Super_Bowl_XXXVIII/Nva3hDpR">Super Bowl XXXVIII</a>, singer <a href="/facts/Janet_Jackson/J4ACIKyy">Janet Jackson</a> experienced a "<a href="/facts/Wardrobe_malfunction/SA1Spe9b">wardrobe malfunction</a>" that left exposed Jackson's pierced nipple.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85">85</a> Some professional body piercers reported considerable increases in business following <a href="/facts/Super_Bowl_XXXVIII_halftime_show_controversy/qQGICEFD">the heavily publicized event</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86">86</a>

Alongside traditional piercing techniques, modern body adornment includes variant techniques such as pocketing and flesh stapling, although as of 2007<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Body_piercing&action=edit">[update]</a> these were still not widely made available by piercers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87">87</a> In the first of these, a scalpel opens the skin or <a href="/facts/Mucous_membrane/oIw0vyel">mucous membranes</a>, into which the larger end of a piece of jewelry or—if using a bar—two ends are inserted.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88">88</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89">89</a> These kinds of piercings may be difficult to remove, as <a href="/facts/Fibrosis/VVSmVgr3">fibrous tissue</a> can form around the end or ends of the jewelry or the implanted tube into which the jewelry is placed. When a bar is used, pocketing looks quite similar to flesh stapling.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90">90</a> The latter technique is frequently done in the form of a ladder.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91">91</a> Modern body piercing practices also include dermal anchoring or dermal piercing, which combines piercing and implantation to create a single point of opening in the body (whereas pocketing creates two) to permit one end of the jewelry to show above the surface of the skin.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92">92</a> While this technique can be performed almost anywhere on the body, as of 2007<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Body_piercing&action=edit">[update]</a> it was popularly done between the eyes, on the chest, or on the finger, to simulate a ring.

<h3>21st century</h3>

The practice of body piercing is subject to trends and fashions. Belly button and eyebrow piercings were popular during the 1990s when the piercing trend entered the mainstream. In 2015, the <a href="/facts/Septum_piercing/o8WUKURB">septum piercing</a> and <a href="/facts/Nipple_piercing/6dTC2Hvl">nipple piercing</a> were considered highly fashionable.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93">93</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94">94</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95">95</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96">96</a> Additionally, the practice of ear lobe <a href="/facts/Stretching_(body_piercing)/MpIAB5aR">gauging or stretching</a> has become popular with the turn of the century.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97">97</a>
A 2005 survey of 10,503 people in England over the age of 16 found that approximately 10% (1,049) had body piercings in sites other than the earlobe, with a heavy representation of women aged 16–24 (46.2% piercing in that demographic).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98">98</a> Among the most common body sites, the navel was top at 33%, with the nose and ear (other than lobe) following at 19% and 13%. The tongue and nipple tied at 9%. The eyebrow, lip and genitals were 8%, 4% and 2%, respectively.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99">99</a> Preference among women followed closely on that ranking, though eyebrow piercings were more common than nipple piercings. Among male responders, the order was significantly different, descending in popularity from nipple, eyebrow, ear, tongue, nose, lip and genitals.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100">100</a>
A cross-cultural study published in 2011 found that individuals with piercings were likely to be involved in other forms of <a href="/facts/Counterculture/8vyVeL92">countercultural</a> expression as well.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101">101</a>

<h2 id="reasons-for-piercing">Reasons for piercing</h2>

Reasons for piercing vary greatly. A 2001 survey in Clinical Nursing Research, an international publication, found that 62% of people who have had piercings have done so in an effort "to express their individuality."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102">102</a> People also pierce to commemorate landmark events or to overcome traumatic ones.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103">103</a> According to the assistant director of the Frankfurt University Teaching Hospital for Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, some sexual abuse survivors choose body piercing as a means of "reclaiming body parts from memories of abuse".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104">104</a> Piercing can also be chosen for simple aesthetic value, to highlight particular areas of the body, as a navel piercing may reflect a woman's satisfaction with the shape and condition of her stomach.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105">105</a> Some people pierce, permanently or temporarily, to enhance sexual pleasure. Genital and nipple piercings may increase sexual satisfaction.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106">106</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107">107</a> Some people participate in a form of body play known as <a href="/facts/Play_piercing/eTolcwX9">play piercing</a>, in which piercings may be done temporarily on the genitals or elsewhere on the body for sexual gratification.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108">108</a>
Piercing combined with <a href="/facts/Suspension_(body_modification)/QRF8T170">suspension</a> was historically important in the religious ceremonies of some <a href="/facts/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas/LG2r6wXm">Native Americans</a>, featuring in many variants of the <a href="/facts/Sun_Dance/wCQ6YG05">Sun Dance</a> ceremony,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109">109</a> including that practiced by the <a href="/facts/Crow_Nation/fp6KctEH">Crow Nation</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:110" href="#fn:110">110</a> During the Crow ceremony, men who wished to obtain visions were pierced in the shoulders or chest by men who had undergone the ceremony in the past and then suspended by these piercings from poles in or outside of the Sun Dance Lodge. Some contemporary Southeast Asian rituals also practice body piercing, as a form of spiritual <a href="/facts/Mortification_of_the_flesh/NKAoEFeo">self-mortification</a>. Generally, the subject attempts to enter an analgesic <a href="/facts/Trance/sUDcsJCp">trance</a> prior to the piercing.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:111" href="#fn:111">111</a>

Bridging the gap between self-expressive piercing and spiritual piercing, modern indigenous people may use piercing and other forms of body modification as a way of ritually reconnecting with themselves and society, which according to Musafar once used piercing as a culturally binding ritual.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:112" href="#fn:112">112</a> But at the same time that piercing can be culturally binding, it may also be a means of rebellion, particularly for adolescents in Western cultures.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:113" href="#fn:113">113</a>
A fifteen-year analysis published in 2011, Body Piercing and Identity Construction, found that public piercing served as a mechanism of both accelerated camaraderie and political communication, while private piercings served to enhance sexuality and contest <a href="/facts/Heteronormativity/0Fmphyve">heteronormativity</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:114" href="#fn:114">114</a> 

<h2 id="piercing-prohibitions-and-taboos">Piercing prohibitions and taboos</h2>
See also: <a href="/facts/Consent/49VpqNsH">Consent</a>
While body piercing has grown more widespread, it remains controversial. Some countries impose age of consent laws requiring <a href="/facts/Parental/Y6tuK7qz">parental</a> permission for minors to receive body piercings.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:115" href="#fn:115">115</a> Scotland requires parental consent for youths below 16, while in 2011 Wales began considering a similar law.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:116" href="#fn:116">116</a> In addition to imposing parental consent requirements, <a href="/facts/Western_Australia/1ouCbwNh">Western Australia</a> prohibits piercing private areas of minors, including genitals and nipples, on penalty of fine and imprisonment for the piercer.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:117" href="#fn:117">117</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:118" href="#fn:118">118</a> Many states in the U.S. also require parental consent to pierce minors, with some also requiring the physical presence of the parents during the act.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:119" href="#fn:119">119</a> The state of Idaho has imposed a minimum age for body piercing at 14.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:120" href="#fn:120">120</a>
In 2004, controversy erupted in <a href="/facts/Crothersville,_Indiana/wNDGBmAB">Crothersville, Indiana</a>, when a local high school featured a spread on "Body Decorations" in its <a href="/facts/Yearbook/45Feznpm">yearbook</a> that featured tattoos and body piercings of teachers and students.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:121" href="#fn:121">121</a> That same year, in <a href="/facts/Henry_County,_Georgia/UYEfwHpp">Henry County, Georgia</a>, a 15-year-old boy remained in <a href="/facts/In-school_suspension/LkFfDEMw">in-school suspension</a> for a full month for violating school policy by wearing eyebrow, nose, labret and tongue piercings to school. His mother subsequently decided to <a href="/facts/Homeschooling/AHETe1Uo">homeschool</a> him.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:122" href="#fn:122">122</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:123" href="#fn:123">123</a> As of 2022, the school district has maintained its policy against body piercing.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:124" href="#fn:124">124</a>
According to 2006's Tattoos and Body Piercing, corporate <a href="/facts/Dress_code/xaJf8tyx">dress codes</a> can also strictly limit piercing displays. At that time, <a href="/facts/Starbucks/tfrTP31s">Starbucks</a> limited piercings to two per ear and jewelry to small, matched earrings.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:125" href="#fn:125">125</a> Employees of <a href="/facts/Walt_Disney_Parks_and_Resorts/aHPMxFYX">Walt Disney Parks and Resorts</a> were not permitted to display piercings at all.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:126" href="#fn:126">126</a> However, also in 2006, amid a series of employment discrimination cases in the United States, it became clear that the legality of these dress codes depended upon broader social acceptance of body piercing.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:127" href="#fn:127">127</a> As early as 2011, some management literature acknowledged that workplace prohibitions on body modification could negatively impact human resources development; one author compared the practice to older prohibitions on long hair.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:128" href="#fn:128">128</a> As of 2020, employment discrimination based on personal appearance including body piercings may be illegal in <a href="/facts/France/CxIeIKM3">France</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:129" href="#fn:129">129</a>
Body piercing in some religions is held to be destructive to the body. Some passages of the <a href="/facts/Bible/SqkRTKCh">Bible</a>, including <a href="/facts/Leviticus/UG2nvrDY">Leviticus</a> 19:28,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:130" href="#fn:130">130</a> have been interpreted as prohibiting body modification because the body is held to be the property of God.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:131" href="#fn:131">131</a> <a href="/facts/The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints/rcgQH9bT">The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints</a> has taken an official position against most piercings unless for medical reasons, although they accept piercings for women as long as there is only one set of piercings in the lower lobe of the ears and no other place on the body.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:132" href="#fn:132">132</a> Wearing of very large nose rings on <a href="/facts/Shabbat/pp5wb0JM">Shabbat</a> is forbidden by the <a href="/facts/Talmud/8416nnBV">Talmud</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:133" href="#fn:133">133</a>
In 2018 the first piercing business in the <a href="/facts/United_Arab_Emirates/o1bEjgbR">UAE</a> was opened in <a href="/facts/Dubai/v44jdkJK">Dubai</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:134" href="#fn:134">134</a> by American piercer, <a href="/facts/Maria_Tash/W6od637C">Maria Tash</a>.

<h2 id="world-records">World records</h2>

Officially titled "Most Pierced Woman", <a href="/facts/Elaine_Davidson/GT1Hel8J">Elaine Davidson</a> of Brazil holds the <a href="/facts/Guinness_World_Record/Az88wVWk">Guinness World Record</a> for most permanent piercings, first setting this record in 2000 upon verification by Guinness judges of 462 body piercings, with 192 at the time being around her head and face.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:135" href="#fn:135">135</a> As of 8 June 2006, her Guinness-certified piercings numbered 4,225.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:136" href="#fn:136">136</a> In February 2009, <a href="/facts/The_Daily_Telegraph/aHa5nNw5">The Daily Telegraph</a> reported that she had 6,005.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:137" href="#fn:137">137</a> The "Most Pierced Man" as of 2009 was Luis Antonio Agüero, who had 230 permanent piercings, with 175 rings adorning his face alone.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:138" href="#fn:138">138</a>
In January 2003, Canadian Brent Moffat set the World Record for most body piercings in one session (700 piercings with 18g surgical needles in 1 session of 7 hours, using play piercing where the skin is pierced and sometimes jewelry is inserted, which is worn temporarily).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:139" href="#fn:139">139</a> In December of the same year, Moffat had 900 piercings in 4½ hours.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:140" href="#fn:140">140</a> On 4 March 2006, the record was overturned by Kam Ma, who had 1,015 temporary metal rings inserted in 7 hours and 55 minutes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:141" href="#fn:141">141</a> The record for most body piercings with surgical needles was set on 29 May 2008, when Robert Jesus Rubio allowed 900 18-gauge, 0.5 centimetres (0.20 in)-long surgical needles to be inserted into his body.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:142" href="#fn:142">142</a>

<h2 id="contemporary-piercing-practices">Contemporary piercing practices</h2>
<h3>Contemporary body piercing jewelry</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Body_piercing_jewellery/pxrXG4qt">Body piercing jewellery</a>
<a href="/facts/Body_piercing_jewellery/pxrXG4qt">Body piercing jewelry</a> should be <a href="/facts/Hypoallergenic/JlHuSvaS">hypoallergenic</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:143" href="#fn:143">143</a> A number of materials are used, with varying strengths and weaknesses. Surgical <a href="/facts/Stainless_steel/IDdo8bEx">stainless steel</a>, <a href="/facts/Niobium/3zNI8AKp">niobium</a> and <a href="/facts/Titanium/53ArnDoy">titanium</a> are commonly used metals, with titanium the least likely to cause allergic reaction of the three.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:144" href="#fn:144">144</a> <a href="/facts/Platinum/qJC6lQf7">Platinum</a> and <a href="/facts/Palladium/AXMwDFxs">palladium</a> are also safe alternatives, even in fresh piercings.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:145" href="#fn:145">145</a> Initial piercings should never be done with <a href="/facts/Gold/1znknojp">gold</a> of any grade, as gold is mixed with other metals, and <a href="/facts/Sterling_silver/fa6mHoon">sterling silver</a> is not a good alternative in a piercing, as it may cause allergies in initial piercings and will <a href="/facts/Tarnish/GCskvFrN">tarnish</a> in piercings of any age.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:146" href="#fn:146">146</a> An additional risk for allergic reaction may arise when the stud or clasp of jewelry is made from a different metal than the primary piece.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:147" href="#fn:147">147</a>
Body piercing jewelry is measured by thickness and diameter/length. Most countries use millimeters. In the US, the <a href="/facts/Brown_%26_Sharpe/h4JGwlpF">Brown & Sharpe</a> AWG gauging system is used, which assigns lower numbers to thicker middles.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:148" href="#fn:148">148</a> 00 gauge is 9.246 millimetres (0.3640 in), while 20 gauge is 0.813 millimetres (0.0320 in).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:149" href="#fn:149">149</a> For discussion of gauges, see: <a href="/facts/Body_jewelry_sizes/WRBX21el">Body jewelry sizes</a>.

<h3>Piercing tools</h3>
Permanent body piercings are performed by creating an opening in the body using a sharp object through the area to be pierced. This can either be done by puncturing an opening using a needle (usually a hollow medical needle) or <a href="/facts/Scalpel/K9JTJMS2">scalpel</a> or by removing tissue, either with a dermal punch or through <a href="/facts/Scalpelling/ku1eoBW7">scalpelling</a>.
Tools used in body piercing include:

The piercing needle
The standard method in the United States involves making an opening using a beveled-tip hollow medical needle, which is available in different lengths, gauges and even shapes.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:150" href="#fn:150">150</a> While straight needles are useful for many body parts, curved needles are manufactured for areas where straight needles are not ideal. The needle selected is typically the same gauge (or sometimes larger as with <a href="/facts/Cartilage/vxy2qzKN">cartilage</a> piercings) as the initial jewelry to be worn, with higher gauges indicating thinner needles. The needle is inserted into the body part being pierced, frequently by hand but sometimes with the aid of a needle holder or pusher. While the needle is still in the body, the initial jewelry to be worn in the piercing is pushed through the opening, following the back of the needle. jewelry is often inserted into the hollow end of a needle, so that as the needle pulls through the jewelry is left behind.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:151" href="#fn:151">151</a>
The indwelling cannula
Many piercers use a needle containing a <a href="/facts/Cannula/Hs3vt7Ax">cannula</a> (or <a href="/facts/Catheter/ehnH1eF5">catheter</a>), a hollow plastic tube placed at the end of the needle.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:152" href="#fn:152">152</a> In some countries, the piercing needle favoured in the United States[which?][relevant?] is regarded as a medical device and is illegal for body piercers.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:153" href="#fn:153">153</a> The procedure is similar to the piercing needle method, but the initial jewelry is inserted into the back of the cannula and the cannula and the jewelry are then pulled through the piercing. More bleeding may follow, as the piercing is larger than the jewelry.
The dermal punch
A dermal punch is used to remove a circular area of tissue, into which jewelry is placed, and may be useful for larger cartilage piercings.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:154" href="#fn:154">154</a> They are popular for use in ears, though not legal for use by nonmedical personnel in some jurisdictions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:155" href="#fn:155">155</a>
The <a href="/facts/Ear_piercing_instrument/3yGSlR0S">piercing gun</a>
The vast majority of women in the West have their ears pierced with a piercing gun.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:156" href="#fn:156">156</a> The safety of piercing guns has been disputed. The Department of Health of <a href="/facts/Western_Australia/1ouCbwNh">Western Australia</a> does not recommend their use for piercing body parts other than the lobes of ears,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:157" href="#fn:157">157</a> and the US <a href="/facts/Association_of_Professional_Piercers/3RwuKDjX">Association of Professional Piercers</a> recommends that piercing guns not be used for any piercing,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:158" href="#fn:158">158</a> requiring members to agree not to use piercing guns in their practice.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:159" href="#fn:159">159</a>
Cork
Cork may be placed on the opposite side of the body part being pierced to receive the needle.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:160" href="#fn:160">160</a>
Forceps
<a href="/facts/Forceps/JQK3rCev">Forceps</a>, or clamps, may be used to hold and stabilize the tissue to be pierced.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:161" href="#fn:161">161</a> Most piercings that are stabilized with forceps use the triangular-headed "Pennington" forcep, while tongues are usually stabilized with an oval-headed forcep. Most forceps have large enough openings in their jaws to permit the needle and jewelry to pass directly through, though some slotted forceps are designed with a removable segment instead for removal after the piercing.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:162" href="#fn:162">162</a> Forceps are not used in the freehand method, in which the piercer supports the tissue by hand.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:163" href="#fn:163">163</a>
Needle receiving tubes
A hollow tube made of metal, shatter-resistant glass or plastic, needle receiving tubes, like forceps, are used to support the tissue at the piercing site and are common in septum and some cartilage piercings.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:164" href="#fn:164">164</a> Not only are these tubes intended to support the tissue, but they also receive the needle once it has passed through the tissue, offering protection from the sharp point. Needle receiving tubes are not used in the freehand piercing method.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:165" href="#fn:165">165</a>
Anaesthesia
<a href="/facts/Anesthesia/b3MKVn8E">Anaesthesia</a> is supplied by some piercers, particularly in the United Kingdom and Europe.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:166" href="#fn:166">166</a> The anaesthesia may be <a href="/facts/Topical_anesthetic/oP4qXYpx">topical</a> or injected. In some other places, piercers and other non-medical personnel are not legally permitted to administer anaesthetics.
<h2 id="risks-associated-with-body-piercing">Risks associated with body piercing</h2>

Body piercing is an invasive procedure with risks. In a 2005 survey of 10,503 persons over the age of 16 in England, complications were reported in 31% of piercings, with professional help being necessary in 15.2%.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:167" href="#fn:167">167</a> 0.9% had complications serious enough to require hospitalization.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:168" href="#fn:168">168</a>
Some risks of note include:

<ul><li>Allergic reaction to the metal in the piercing jewelry, particularly <a href="/facts/Nickel/KwMCHYRP">nickel</a>. This risk can be minimized by using high quality jewelry manufactured from titanium or niobium or similar inert metals.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:169" href="#fn:169">169</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:170" href="#fn:170">170</a> Metal piercing jewelry puts metal in contact with damaged skin, increasing the risk of developing a <a href="/facts/Metal_allergy/GugbSbNC">metal allergy</a>; this is thought to be why such allergies are more common in women.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:171" href="#fn:171">171</a></li>
<li>Infection, <a href="/facts/Bacteria/wC8xSCsU">bacterial</a> or <a href="/facts/Virus/mf88Bcbl">viral</a>, particularly from <a href="/facts/Staphylococcus/maRQMH6E">Staphylococcus aureus</a>, <a href="/facts/Streptococcus/Fx8lJ0nz">group A streptococcus</a> and <a href="/facts/Pseudomonas/FKEX7p7K">Pseudomonas spp.</a> Reports at the 16th European Congress of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases in 2006 indicated that bacterial infections are seldom serious, but that ten to twenty percent of piercings result in local benign bacterial infection.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:172" href="#fn:172">172</a> The <a href="/facts/Mayo_Clinic/QQbLLJza">Mayo Clinic</a> estimates 30%.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:173" href="#fn:173">173</a> Risk of infection is greatest among those with <a href="/facts/Congenital_heart_disease/QsuPPC2Y">congenital heart disease</a>, who have a much higher chance of developing life-threatening <a href="/facts/Infective_endocarditis/vLgg8K1V">infective endocarditis</a>, <a href="/facts/Hemophilia/DzpVBLna">hemophiliacs</a> and <a href="/facts/Diabetic/2xeHXbsI">diabetics</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:174" href="#fn:174">174</a> as well as those taking <a href="/facts/Corticosteroid/jeL2QeIL">corticosteroids</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:175" href="#fn:175">175</a> In 2006, a diabetic woman in <a href="/facts/Indiana/VRnvjXoQ">Indiana</a> lost a breast due to an infection from a nipple piercing.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:176" href="#fn:176">176</a> Viral infections may include <a href="/facts/Hepatitis/FIN87T5e">hepatitis B</a>, <a href="/facts/Hepatitis/FIN87T5e">hepatitis C</a> and, potentially, <a href="/facts/HIV/ulY2rgzu">HIV</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:177" href="#fn:177">177</a> although as of 2009 there had been no documented cases of HIV caused by piercing.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:178" href="#fn:178">178</a> While rare, infection due to piercing of the tongue can be fatal.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:179" href="#fn:179">179</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:180" href="#fn:180">180</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:181" href="#fn:181">181</a> Higher <a href="/facts/Prevalence/6UTuTGTH">prevalence</a> of <a href="/facts/Colonization/mp9GRL94">colonization</a> of <a href="/facts/Candida_albicans/7o27aEFS">Candida albicans</a> was reported in young individuals with <a href="/facts/Tongue_piercing/ISzfpk53">tongue piercing</a>, in comparison to non-tongue-pierced matched individuals.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:182" href="#fn:182">182</a></li>
<li>Excess scar tissue, including <a href="/facts/Hypertrophic_scar/z6lAmmSX">hypertrophic scar</a> and <a href="/facts/Keloid/nY3pACyg">keloid</a> formation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:183" href="#fn:183">183</a> While piercings can be removed, they may leave a hole, mark or scar.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:184" href="#fn:184">184</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Physical_trauma/PJ7CbnMQ">Physical trauma</a> including tearing, friction or bumping of the piercing site, which may cause <a href="/facts/Edema/Q6MI3KdH">edema</a> and delay healing.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:185" href="#fn:185">185</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:186" href="#fn:186">186</a> The risks can be minimized by wearing properly sized jewelry and not changing it unnecessarily, by not touching the piercing more than required for aftercare, and by being conscious of environmental factors (such as clothing) that may impact the piercing.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:187" href="#fn:187">187</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Dental_trauma/H5NMYUYP">Oral trauma</a>, including recession of <a href="/facts/Gingiva/4JhxlckG">gingival</a> tissue and dental fracture and wear. Recession of gingival tissue affects 19% to 68% of subjects with lip and/or intra-oral ornaments.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:188" href="#fn:188">188</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:189" href="#fn:189">189</a> In some cases, the alveolar tooth-bearing bone is also involved, jeopardizing the stability and durability of the teeth in place and requiring a periodontal regeneration surgery.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:190" href="#fn:190">190</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:191" href="#fn:191">191</a> Dental fracture and wear affects 14% to 41% of subjects with lip and/or intra-oral ornaments.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:192" href="#fn:192">192</a></li></ul>
Contemporary body piercing studios generally take numerous precautions to protect the health of the person being pierced and the piercer. Piercers are expected to sanitize the location to be pierced as well as their hands, even though they will often wear gloves during the procedure (and in some areas must, as it is prescribed by law).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:193" href="#fn:193">193</a> Quite frequently, these gloves will be changed multiple times, often one pair for each step of setup to avoid cross contamination. For example, after a piercer wearing gloves has cleaned the area to be pierced on a client, the piercer may change gloves to avoid recontaminating the area. Wearing sterile gloves is required by law for professional piercing procedures in some areas, such as the states of Florida and South Carolina. Tools and jewelry should be sterilized in autoclaves,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:194" href="#fn:194">194</a> and non-autoclavable surfaces should be cleaned with disinfectant agents on a regular basis and between clients.
In addition, the <a href="/facts/Association_of_Professional_Piercers/3RwuKDjX">Association of Professional Piercers</a> recommends classes in <a href="/facts/First_Aid/UomU8Ybm">First Aid</a> in <a href="/facts/Blood-borne_disease/5bVxvvS7">blood-borne pathogens</a> as part of professional training.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:195" href="#fn:195">195</a>

<h3>The healing process and body piercing aftercare</h3>

The aftercare process for body piercing has evolved gradually through practice, and many myths and harmful recommendations persist.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:196" href="#fn:196">196</a> A reputable piercing studio should provide clients with written and verbal aftercare instructions, as is in some areas mandated by law.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:197" href="#fn:197">197</a>
The healing process of piercings is broken down into three stages:<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:198" href="#fn:198">198</a>

<ul><li>The inflammatory phase, during which the wound is open and bleeding, inflammation and tenderness are all to be expected;</li>
<li>The growth or proliferative phase, during which the body produces cells and protein to heal the puncture and the edges contract around the piercing, forming a tunnel of scar tissue called a <a href="/facts/Fistula/xlRcRGCJ">fistula</a>. This phase may last weeks, months, or longer than a year.</li>
<li>The maturation or remodeling phase, as the cells lining the piercing strengthen and stabilize. This stage takes months or years to complete.</li></ul>
It is normal for a white or slightly yellow <a href="/facts/Exudate/rUTezxQy">discharge</a> to be noticeable on the jewelry, as the <a href="/facts/Sebaceous_gland/HKMXmv1Y">sebaceous glands</a> produce an oily substance meant to protect and moisturize the wound.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:199" href="#fn:199">199</a> While these <a href="/facts/Sebum/HKMXmv1Y">sebum</a> deposits may be expected for some time, only a small amount of <a href="/facts/Pus/jzNHzM70">pus</a>, which is a sign of inflammation or infection, should be expected, and only within the initial phase.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:200" href="#fn:200">200</a> While sometimes difficult to distinguish, sebum is "more solid and cheeselike and has a distinctive rotten odour", according to The Piercing Bible.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:201" href="#fn:201">201</a>
The amount of time it typically takes a piercing to heal varies widely according to the placement of the piercing. <a href="/facts/Genital_piercing/2uTuhaVG">Genital piercings</a> can be among the quicker to heal, with piercings of the <a href="/facts/Clitoral_hood/YUXdFGqk">clitoral hood</a> and <a href="/facts/Prince_Albert_(genital_piercing)/QxE5bpyp">Prince Albert piercings</a> healing in as little as a month, though some may take longer.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:202" href="#fn:202">202</a> Navel piercings can be the slowest to heal, with one source reporting a range of six months to two full years.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:203" href="#fn:203">203</a> The prolonged healing of navel piercings may be connected to clothing friction.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:204" href="#fn:204">204</a>

<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>
<ul><li><a href="/facts/Body_jewelry_sizes/WRBX21el">Body jewelry sizes</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Body_piercing_regulation_in_the_UK/V1SAuxzk">Body piercing regulation in the UK</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Corset_piercing/EGuvQlWk">Corset piercing</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Genital_piercing/2uTuhaVG">Genital piercing</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/List_of_body_piercings/pljYmk6A">List of body piercings</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Play_piercing/eTolcwX9">Play piercing</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Suspension_(body_modification)/QRF8T170">Suspension piercing</a></li></ul>
<h2 id="notes">Notes</h2>

<ul><li><a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100606115922/http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_7-9-2004_pg9_4">"3,000 Piercings as 9/11 Tributes"</a>. <a href="/facts/Daily_Times_(Pakistan)/tgelQkel">Daily Times</a>. 7 September 2004. Archived from <a href="http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_7-9-2004_pg9_4">the original</a> on 6 June 2010. Retrieved 6 December 2009.</li>
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<li><a href="/facts/Manny_Alvarez/jTRchkt2">Alvarez, Manny</a> (17 November 2006). <a href="https://www.foxnews.com/story/dr-mannys-health-beat-dos-donts-for-safe-body-piercing">"Dr. Manny's Health Beat: Do's & Don'ts for Safe Body Piercing"</a>. FOX News. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090325175433/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,230101,00.html">Archived</a> from the original on 25 March 2009. Retrieved 6 December 2009.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/American_Museum_of_Natural_History/q5tYv7px">American Museum of Natural History</a> (1921). Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History. Vol. 16.</li>
<li><a href="/facts/Elayne_Angel/xoCa1Fzr">Angel, Elayne</a> (2009). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC">The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing</a>. The Crossing Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-58091-193-1.</li>
<li>Arata, Emily (30 September 2015). <a href="http://elitedaily.com/women/questions-afraid-ask-piercing/1228827/">"A Pro Piercer Answers All The Questions You're Way Too Nervous To Ask"</a>. Elite Daily.</li>
<li>Bone, Angie; Fortune Ncube; Tom Nichols; Norman D Noah (21 June 2008). <a href="http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/336/7658/1426#REF5">"Body Piercing in England: a Survey of Piercing at Sites Other than Earlobe"</a>. British Medical Journal. 336 (7658): 1426–1428. <a href="/facts/Doi_(identifier)/muM9Etpq">doi</a>:<a href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.39580.497176.25">10.1136/bmj.39580.497176.25</a>. <a href="/facts/PMC_(identifier)/dX1zMt71">PMC</a> <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2432173">2432173</a>. <a href="/facts/PMID_(identifier)/JlHAvMHt">PMID</a> <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18556275">18556275</a>. Retrieved 6 January 2010.</li>
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<li>Porterfield, Amanda (2003). Gary Laderman; Luis D. Leon (eds.). Religion and American Cultures: an Encyclopedia of Traditions, Diversity, and Popular Expressions. Vol. 2. ABC-CLIO. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 1-57607-238-X.</li>
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<li>Spencer, Hayley (10 August 2015). <a href="http://www.graziadaily.co.uk/fashion/trends/septum-piercing-20150849885">"Why Septum Piercings Are Trending (And There's No Age Cap)"</a>. Grazia Daily. Retrieved 11 October 2015.</li>
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<h2 id="external-links">External links</h2>
<ul><li>Amelia Guimarin (14 May 2005). <a href="http://www.conceptlab.com/amelia/2005may16-guimarin-urop.html">"In the Flesh: Body Piercing as a Form of Commodity-Based Identity"</a> (slides). Mentor: Teresa Caldiera.</li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">(Angel 2009, p. 2) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">(Angel 2009, p. 2) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">(Angel 2009, p. 2) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">(Smith 2002, p. 171) - Smith, R. J. (2002). "The Many Faces of Korla Pandit". In Lethem, Jonathan; Bresnick, Paul (eds.). Da Capo Best Music Writing 2002: The Year's Finest Writing on Rock, Pop, Jazz, Country, and More. Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-81166-9. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5WIJAQAAMAAJ&q=The+Many+Faces+of+Korla+Pandit" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=5WIJAQAAMAAJ&q=The+Many+Faces+of+Korla+Pandit</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">(Woods 2006) - Woods, Stacey Grenrock (1 February 2006). "Why is the Prince Albert Piercing Named after Prince Albert?". Esquire. Archived from the original on 4 December 2009. Retrieved 5 December 2009. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091204134837/http://www.esquire.com/women/sex/ESQ020602SEX_50" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20091204134837/http://www.esquire.com/women/sex/ESQ020602SEX_50</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">(Ward 2004) - Ward, Jim (23 January 2004). "Who was Doug Malloy". BMEzine. Archived from the original on 22 May 2016. Retrieved 7 May 2010. <a href="http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522191651/http://www.gauntletenterprises.com/BME/jimward/20040315.html" target="_blank">http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522191651/http://www.gauntletenterprises.com/BME/jimward/20040315.html</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">(Angel 2009, p. 2) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">(Hesse 2007, p. xvii) - Hesse, Rayner W. (2007). Jewelrymaking through History: an Encyclopedia. Handicrafts Through World History. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-33507-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IVgU0icm948C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=IVgU0icm948C</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">(Hesse 2007, p. xvii) - Hesse, Rayner W. (2007). Jewelrymaking through History: an Encyclopedia. Handicrafts Through World History. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-33507-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IVgU0icm948C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=IVgU0icm948C</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">(Hesse 2007, p. 78) - Hesse, Rayner W. (2007). Jewelrymaking through History: an Encyclopedia. Handicrafts Through World History. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-33507-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IVgU0icm948C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=IVgU0icm948C</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">Genesis 35:4 <a href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Genesis%2035:4&version=nrsv" target="_blank">https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Genesis%2035:4&version=nrsv</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">Exodus 32 <a href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Exodus%2032&version=nrsv" target="_blank">https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Exodus%2032&version=nrsv</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">Deuteronomy 15:12–17 <a href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Deuteronomy%2015:12–17&version=nrsv" target="_blank">https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Deuteronomy%2015:12–17&version=nrsv</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">(Ullman 2008) - Ullman, Yirmiyahu (15 March 2008). "Hoops on Studs". Ask the Rabbi. Ohr Somayach. Retrieved 4 April 2010. <a href="http://ohr.edu/yhiy/article.php/3430" target="_blank">http://ohr.edu/yhiy/article.php/3430</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">(Angel 2009, p. 2) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">(Angel 2009, p. 12) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">(Gay & Whittington 2002, p. 53) - Gay, Kathlyn; Whittington, Christine (2002). Body Marks: Tattooing, Piercing, and Scarification. Women at War. Twenty-First Century Books. ISBN 0-7613-2352-X. <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">(White 1970, p. 116) - White, Jon Ewbank Manchip (1970). Ancient Egypt; Its Culture and History. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-22548-8. <a href="https://archive.org/details/ancientegyptitsc00whit" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/ancientegyptitsc00whit</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">(Wilkinson 1837, pp. 370–371) - Wilkinson, Sir John Gardner (1837). Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians. Vol. 3. J. Murray. <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:20">(Wilkinson 1837, p. 79) - Wilkinson, Sir John Gardner (1837). Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians. Vol. 3. J. Murray. <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:21">(Wilkinson 1837, pp. 79–80) - Wilkinson, Sir John Gardner (1837). Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians. Vol. 3. J. Murray. <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:22">(Smith 1908, p. 233) - Smith, Harold Clifford (1908). Davenport, C. (ed.). Jewellery. Connoisseur's library. Vol. 16 (2nd ed.). Methuen and co. <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:23">(Prisant 2003, p. 406) - Prisant, Carol (18 January 2003). Antiques Roadshow Collectibles: the Complete Guide to Collecting 20th-century Toys, Glassware, Costume Jewelry, Memorabilia, Ceramics & More. Workman Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7611-2822-9. <a href="https://archive.org/details/antiquesroadshow00caro" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/antiquesroadshow00caro</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:24">(Smith 1908, pp. 234–235) - Smith, Harold Clifford (1908). Davenport, C. (ed.). Jewellery. Connoisseur's library. Vol. 16 (2nd ed.). Methuen and co. <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:25">(Smith 1908, pp. 234–235) - Smith, Harold Clifford (1908). Davenport, C. (ed.). Jewellery. Connoisseur's library. Vol. 16 (2nd ed.). Methuen and co. <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:26">(Hesse 2007, p. 26) - Hesse, Rayner W. (2007). Jewelrymaking through History: an Encyclopedia. Handicrafts Through World History. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-33507-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IVgU0icm948C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=IVgU0icm948C</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:27">(Angel 2009, p. 13) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:28">(Angel 2009, p. 2) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:29">(DeMello 2007, p. 204) - DeMello, Margo (2007). Encyclopedia of Body Adornment. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-33695-9. <a href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofbo0000deme" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofbo0000deme</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:30">(Pitts-Taylor 2008, p. 365) - Pitts-Taylor, Victoria (2008). Cultural Encyclopedia of the Body: M-Z. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-34147-2. <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:31">(DeMello 2012, pp. 239–240) - DeMello, Margo (2012). Faces Around the World. ABC-Clio. ISBN 978-1-59884-617-1. <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:32">Genesis 24:22 <a href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Genesis%2024:22&version=nrsv" target="_blank">https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Genesis%2024:22&version=nrsv</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:33">(DeMello 2007, p. 205) - DeMello, Margo (2007). Encyclopedia of Body Adornment. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-33695-9. <a href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofbo0000deme" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofbo0000deme</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:34">(Hastings 2003, p. 397) - Hastings, James (2003). "Nose-ornaments". In Selbie, John A. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, Part 17. Kessinger Publishing. p. 397. ISBN 0-7661-3694-9. <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:35">(Hesse 2007, p. 26) - Hesse, Rayner W. (2007). Jewelrymaking through History: an Encyclopedia. Handicrafts Through World History. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-33507-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IVgU0icm948C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=IVgU0icm948C</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:36">(King 2007, p. 5) - King, David C. (2007). The Nez Perce. First Americans – Group 3. Marshall Cavendish. ISBN 978-0-7614-2680-6. <a href="https://archive.org/details/nezperce0000king" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/nezperce0000king</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:37">(DeMello 2007, p. 205) - DeMello, Margo (2007). Encyclopedia of Body Adornment. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-33695-9. <a href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofbo0000deme" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofbo0000deme</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:38">(DeMello 2007, p. 205) - DeMello, Margo (2007). Encyclopedia of Body Adornment. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-33695-9. <a href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofbo0000deme" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofbo0000deme</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:39">(Angel 2009, p. 12) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:40">(DeMello 2007, p. 209) - DeMello, Margo (2007). Encyclopedia of Body Adornment. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-33695-9. <a href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofbo0000deme" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofbo0000deme</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:41">(DeMello 2007, p. 248) - DeMello, Margo (2007). Encyclopedia of Body Adornment. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-33695-9. <a href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofbo0000deme" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofbo0000deme</a> <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:42">(Weule & Werner 1909, pp. 55–56) - Weule, Karl; Werner, Alice (1909). Native Life in East Africa: the Results of an Ethnological Research Expedition. Sir I. Pitman & Sons. <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:43">(Wood 1874, pp. 395–396) - Wood, John George (1874). The Natural History of Man. Vol. 1. Routledge. <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:44">(Phillips & Carillet 2006, p. 207) - Phillips, Matt; Carillet, Jean-Bernard (2006). Ethiopia & Eritrea. Lonely Planet guidebooks (3rd ed.). Lonely Planet. ISBN 1-74104-436-7. <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:45">(Lawman 2004, p. 92) - Lawman, Denise, ed. (2004). "Labrets". Illustrated Dictionary of Anthropology. Lotus Press. ISBN 81-89093-10-X. <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:46">(van den Brink 1974, p. 71) - van den Brink, Jacob Herman (1974). The Haida Indians: Cultural Change Mainly between 1876–1970. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 90-04-03991-0. <a href="https://archive.org/details/haidaindianscult0000brin" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/haidaindianscult0000brin</a> <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:47">(Angel 2009, p. 12) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:48">(Hesse 2007, p. 26) - Hesse, Rayner W. (2007). Jewelrymaking through History: an Encyclopedia. Handicrafts Through World History. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-33507-5. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IVgU0icm948C" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=IVgU0icm948C</a> <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:49">(McRae & Davies 2006, p. 36) - McRae, Anne; Davies, Gill (2006). 365 Awesome Facts & Records about Everything. Struik. ISBN 1-77007-428-7. <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:50">(DeMello 2007, p. 209) - DeMello, Margo (2007). Encyclopedia of Body Adornment. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-33695-9. <a href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofbo0000deme" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofbo0000deme</a> <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:51">(Angel 2009, p. 2) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:52">(Ward 2004) - Ward, Jim (23 January 2004). "Who was Doug Malloy". BMEzine. Archived from the original on 22 May 2016. Retrieved 7 May 2010. <a href="http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522191651/http://www.gauntletenterprises.com/BME/jimward/20040315.html" target="_blank">http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522191651/http://www.gauntletenterprises.com/BME/jimward/20040315.html</a> <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:53">(Ward 2004) - Ward, Jim (23 January 2004). "Who was Doug Malloy". BMEzine. Archived from the original on 22 May 2016. Retrieved 7 May 2010. <a href="http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522191651/http://www.gauntletenterprises.com/BME/jimward/20040315.html" target="_blank">http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160522191651/http://www.gauntletenterprises.com/BME/jimward/20040315.html</a> <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:54">(Miller 2004, p. 17) - Miller, Jean-Chris (2004). The Body Art Book. Penguin. ISBN 0-425-19726-3. <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:55">(Vale & Juno 1989, p. 104) - Vale, V.; Juno, Andrea (1989). Modern Primitives: an Investigation of Contemporary Adornment & Ritual. Re/Search Publications. ISBN 978-0-940642-14-0. <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:56">(Parents 2007, p. 151) "Navel piercing. Unlike the other body piercings, this one has not been recorded in history." - Parents. Stellan Consult Ltd. 2007. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KF8nAQAAIAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=KF8nAQAAIAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:57">(Angel 2009, p. 12) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:58">(Rutty 2004, p. 163) - Rutty, Guy N. (31 January 2004). Essentials of Autopsy Practice. Springer. ISBN 978-1-85233-541-0. <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:59">(Brodsky 2006, p. 55) "Kumaz is the chastity belt of the vagina that they would make for their daughters. They would pierce the walls of the vagina like they would pierce the ears. They would insert it [...] so that the men could not have sex with them." - Brodsky, David (2006). A Bride Without a Blessing: a Study in the Redaction and Content of Massekhet Kallah and its Gemara. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 978-3-16-149019-4. <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:60">(Wagner 2006, p. 248) - Wagner, Stanley M. (2006). Onkelos on the Torah: Understanding the Bible Text. Gefen Publishing House Ltd. ISBN 978-965-229-341-1. <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:61">(Adler 1998, p. 144) - Adler, Rachel (January 1998). Engendering Judaism: an inclusive theology and ethics. Jewish Publication Society. ISBN 978-0-8276-0584-8. <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:62">(Graves 2000, p. 13) - Graves, Bonnie B. (2000). Tattooing and Body Piercing: Perspectives on Physical Health. Capstone Press. ISBN 0-7368-0417-X. <a href="https://archive.org/details/tattooingbodypie00bonn" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/tattooingbodypie00bonn</a> <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:63">(DeMello 2007, p. 204) - DeMello, Margo (2007). Encyclopedia of Body Adornment. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-33695-9. <a href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofbo0000deme" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofbo0000deme</a> <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:64">(DeMello 2007, p. 204) - DeMello, Margo (2007). Encyclopedia of Body Adornment. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-33695-9. <a href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofbo0000deme" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofbo0000deme</a> <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:65">(Kern 1975, p. 95) "In the late 1890s the "bosom ring" came into fashion briefly and sold in expensive Parisian jewellery shops. These anneaux de sein were inserted through the nipple, and some women wore one on either side." - Kern, Stephen (1975). Anatomy and Destiny: a Cultural History of the Human Body. Bobbs-Merrill. ISBN 0-672-52091-5. <a href="https://archive.org/details/anatomydestiny0000unse" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/anatomydestiny0000unse</a> <a href="#fnref:65" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:66">(Porterfield 2003, p. 356) - Porterfield, Amanda (2003). Gary Laderman; Luis D. Leon (eds.). Religion and American Cultures: an Encyclopedia of Traditions, Diversity, and Popular Expressions. Vol. 2. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-57607-238-X. <a href="#fnref:66" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:67">(Porterfield 2003, p. 356) - Porterfield, Amanda (2003). Gary Laderman; Luis D. Leon (eds.). Religion and American Cultures: an Encyclopedia of Traditions, Diversity, and Popular Expressions. Vol. 2. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-57607-238-X. <a href="#fnref:67" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:68">(Porterfield 2003, p. 356) - Porterfield, Amanda (2003). Gary Laderman; Luis D. Leon (eds.). Religion and American Cultures: an Encyclopedia of Traditions, Diversity, and Popular Expressions. Vol. 2. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-57607-238-X. <a href="#fnref:68" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:69">(Porterfield 2003, p. 356) - Porterfield, Amanda (2003). Gary Laderman; Luis D. Leon (eds.). Religion and American Cultures: an Encyclopedia of Traditions, Diversity, and Popular Expressions. Vol. 2. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-57607-238-X. <a href="#fnref:69" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:70">(Angel 2009, p. 16) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:70" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:71">(Voss 2007) - Voss, Brandon (9 October 2007). "Father Knows Best". The Advocate. Retrieved 25 November 2007. <a href="http://www.advocate.com/issue_story_ektid49068.asp" target="_blank">http://www.advocate.com/issue_story_ektid49068.asp</a> <a href="#fnref:71" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:72">(Voss 2007) - Voss, Brandon (9 October 2007). "Father Knows Best". The Advocate. Retrieved 25 November 2007. <a href="http://www.advocate.com/issue_story_ektid49068.asp" target="_blank">http://www.advocate.com/issue_story_ektid49068.asp</a> <a href="#fnref:72" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:73">(Ward n.d.) - Ward, Jim (n.d.). "Running the Gauntlet". Archived from the original on 9 July 2012. <a href="https://archive.today/20120709060034/http://gauntletenterprises.com/BME/jimward-all.html" target="_blank">https://archive.today/20120709060034/http://gauntletenterprises.com/BME/jimward-all.html</a> <a href="#fnref:73" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:74">(Ferguson 2000) - Ferguson, Henry (January 2000). "Body piercing". BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.). 319 (7225). Student BMJ: 1627–1629. doi:10.1136/bmj.319.7225.1627. PMC 1127091. PMID 10600973. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1127091" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1127091</a> <a href="#fnref:74" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:75">(Angel 2009, p. 15) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:75" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:76">Townsend, Larry (1983). The Leatherman's Handbook II. New York: Modernismo Publications. p. 26. ISBN 0-89237-010-6. <a href="0-89237-010-6" target="_blank">0-89237-010-6</a> <a href="#fnref:76" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:77">(Angel 2009, p. 15) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:77" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:78">(Pitts 2003, p. 95) - Pitts, Victoria (2003). In the Flesh: the Cultural Politics of Body Modification. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-312-29311-9. <a href="https://archive.org/details/infleshculturalp2003pitt" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/infleshculturalp2003pitt</a> <a href="#fnref:78" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:79">(Camp 2007) - "Past Out—What was Operation Spanner?". Camp. Kansas City Anti-Violence Project. 24 December 2007. Archived from the original on 6 June 2010. Retrieved 6 December 2009. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100606055328/http://www.campkc.com/campkc-content.php?Page_ID=748" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20100606055328/http://www.campkc.com/campkc-content.php?Page_ID=748</a> <a href="#fnref:79" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:80">(Camp 2007) - "Past Out—What was Operation Spanner?". Camp. Kansas City Anti-Violence Project. 24 December 2007. Archived from the original on 6 June 2010. Retrieved 6 December 2009. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100606055328/http://www.campkc.com/campkc-content.php?Page_ID=748" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20100606055328/http://www.campkc.com/campkc-content.php?Page_ID=748</a> <a href="#fnref:80" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:81">"Pantheon of Leather Awards All Time Recipients - The Leather Journal". www.theleatherjournal.com. Archived from the original on 28 December 2020. Retrieved 9 January 2021. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201228055005/https://www.theleatherjournal.com/pantheon-awards/recipients" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20201228055005/https://www.theleatherjournal.com/pantheon-awards/recipients</a> <a href="#fnref:81" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:82">(Porterfield 2003, p. 356) - Porterfield, Amanda (2003). Gary Laderman; Luis D. Leon (eds.). Religion and American Cultures: an Encyclopedia of Traditions, Diversity, and Popular Expressions. Vol. 2. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-57607-238-X. <a href="#fnref:82" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:83">(Angel 2009, p. 16) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:83" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:84">(Angel 2009, pp. 15–16) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:84" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:85">(Currie-McGhee 2006, p. 11) - Currie-McGhee, Leanne K. (2006). Tattoos and Body Piercing. Lucent Overview Series. Lucent Books. p. 11. ISBN 1-59018-749-0. <a href="https://archive.org/details/tattoosbodypierc00curr/page/11" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/tattoosbodypierc00curr/page/11</a> <a href="#fnref:85" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:86">(Currie-McGhee 2006, p. 11) - Currie-McGhee, Leanne K. (2006). Tattoos and Body Piercing. Lucent Overview Series. Lucent Books. p. 11. ISBN 1-59018-749-0. <a href="https://archive.org/details/tattoosbodypierc00curr/page/11" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/tattoosbodypierc00curr/page/11</a> <a href="#fnref:86" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:87">(DeMello 2007, p. 219) - DeMello, Margo (2007). Encyclopedia of Body Adornment. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-33695-9. <a href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofbo0000deme" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofbo0000deme</a> <a href="#fnref:87" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:88">(DeMello 2007, pp. 218–219) - DeMello, Margo (2007). Encyclopedia of Body Adornment. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-33695-9. <a href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofbo0000deme" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofbo0000deme</a> <a href="#fnref:88" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:89">(De Cuyper, Pérez-Cotopos & Cossio 2010, p. 44) - De Cuyper, Christa; Pérez-Cotopos, Maria Luisa; Cossio, Laura (2010). "Piercings: Techniques and Complications". In De Cuyper, Christa; Pérez-Cotopos, Maria Luisa (eds.). Dermatologic Complications with Body Art: Tattoos, Piercings and Permanent Make-Up. Springer Books. pp. 43–52. ISBN 978-3-642-03291-2. <a href="https://archive.org/details/dermatologiccomp00cuyp_021" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/dermatologiccomp00cuyp_021</a> <a href="#fnref:89" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:90">(DeMello 2007, pp. 218–219) - DeMello, Margo (2007). Encyclopedia of Body Adornment. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-33695-9. <a href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofbo0000deme" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofbo0000deme</a> <a href="#fnref:90" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:91">(De Cuyper, Pérez-Cotopos & Cossio 2010, p. 44) - De Cuyper, Christa; Pérez-Cotopos, Maria Luisa; Cossio, Laura (2010). "Piercings: Techniques and Complications". In De Cuyper, Christa; Pérez-Cotopos, Maria Luisa (eds.). Dermatologic Complications with Body Art: Tattoos, Piercings and Permanent Make-Up. Springer Books. pp. 43–52. ISBN 978-3-642-03291-2. <a href="https://archive.org/details/dermatologiccomp00cuyp_021" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/dermatologiccomp00cuyp_021</a> <a href="#fnref:91" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:92">(DeMello 2007, p. 92) - DeMello, Margo (2007). Encyclopedia of Body Adornment. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-33695-9. <a href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofbo0000deme" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofbo0000deme</a> <a href="#fnref:92" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:93">(Spencer 2015) - Spencer, Hayley (10 August 2015). "Why Septum Piercings Are Trending (And There's No Age Cap)". Grazia Daily. Retrieved 11 October 2015. <a href="http://www.graziadaily.co.uk/fashion/trends/septum-piercing-20150849885" target="_blank">http://www.graziadaily.co.uk/fashion/trends/septum-piercing-20150849885</a> <a href="#fnref:93" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:94">(Hull Daily 2015) - "A Nose for Fashion. Septum Piercings are the Latest Trend". Hull Daily Mail. 13 September 2015. Archived from the original on 26 September 2015. Retrieved 11 October 2015. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150926155247/http://www.hulldailymail.co.uk/nose-fashion-Septum-piercings-latest-trend/story-27774592-detail/story.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20150926155247/http://www.hulldailymail.co.uk/nose-fashion-Septum-piercings-latest-trend/story-27774592-detail/story.html</a> <a href="#fnref:94" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:95">(Duff 2015) - Duff, Anna (5 October 2015). "There's a New 'It' Piercing that Celebrities Love". Look. <a href="#fnref:95" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:96">(Lough 2015) - Lough, Kate (7 October 2015). "It's official, the nipple piercing is the new 'it' piercing - just ask Kendall Jenner and Bella Hadid". Evening Standard. Retrieved 11 October 2015. <a href="https://www.standard.co.uk/lifestyle/london-life/it-s-official-the-nipple-piercing-is-the-new-it-piercing-just-ask-kendall-jenner-and-bella-hadid-a3084161.html" target="_blank">https://www.standard.co.uk/lifestyle/london-life/it-s-official-the-nipple-piercing-is-the-new-it-piercing-just-ask-kendall-jenner-and-bella-hadid-a3084161.html</a> <a href="#fnref:96" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:97">(McClatchey 2015) - McClatchey, Carolina (21 November 2011). "Ear stretching: Why is lobe 'gauging' growing in popularity?". BBC News Magazine. Retrieved 11 October 2015. <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-15771237" target="_blank">https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-15771237</a> <a href="#fnref:97" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:98">(Bone et al. 2008, pp. 1426–1428) - Bone, Angie; Fortune Ncube; Tom Nichols; Norman D Noah (21 June 2008). "Body Piercing in England: a Survey of Piercing at Sites Other than Earlobe". British Medical Journal. 336 (7658): 1426–1428. doi:10.1136/bmj.39580.497176.25. PMC 2432173. PMID 18556275. Retrieved 6 January 2010. <a href="http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/336/7658/1426#REF5" target="_blank">http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/336/7658/1426#REF5</a> <a href="#fnref:98" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:99">(Bone et al. 2008, pp. 1426–1428) - Bone, Angie; Fortune Ncube; Tom Nichols; Norman D Noah (21 June 2008). "Body Piercing in England: a Survey of Piercing at Sites Other than Earlobe". British Medical Journal. 336 (7658): 1426–1428. doi:10.1136/bmj.39580.497176.25. PMC 2432173. PMID 18556275. Retrieved 6 January 2010. <a href="http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/336/7658/1426#REF5" target="_blank">http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/336/7658/1426#REF5</a> <a href="#fnref:99" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:101">(Romanienko 2011, pp. 33–50, 131–139) - Romanienko, Lisiunia (2011). Body Piercing and Identity Construction. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-11032-8. <a href="#fnref:101" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:102">(Currie-McGhee 2006, p. 29) - Currie-McGhee, Leanne K. (2006). Tattoos and Body Piercing. Lucent Overview Series. Lucent Books. p. 11. ISBN 1-59018-749-0. <a href="https://archive.org/details/tattoosbodypierc00curr/page/11" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/tattoosbodypierc00curr/page/11</a> <a href="#fnref:102" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:103">(Currie-McGhee 2006, pp. 30, 34) - Currie-McGhee, Leanne K. (2006). Tattoos and Body Piercing. Lucent Overview Series. Lucent Books. p. 11. ISBN 1-59018-749-0. <a href="https://archive.org/details/tattoosbodypierc00curr/page/11" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/tattoosbodypierc00curr/page/11</a> <a href="#fnref:103" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:107">(Meltzer 2005) - Meltzer, Donna I. (15 November 2005). "Complications of Body Piercing". American Family Physician. 72 (10): 2029–2034. PMID 16342832. Retrieved 14 December 2009. <a href="http://www.aafp.org/afp/2005/1115/p2029.html" target="_blank">http://www.aafp.org/afp/2005/1115/p2029.html</a> <a href="#fnref:107" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:114">(Romanienko 2011, pp. 33–50, 131–139) - Romanienko, Lisiunia (2011). Body Piercing and Identity Construction. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-11032-8. <a href="#fnref:114" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:115">"Body Piercing Client Consent Form" (PDF). Stockton-on-Tees Council. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 April 2020. Retrieved 30 January 2019. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200420005432/https://www.stockton.gov.uk/media/2117/tab-body-piercing-client-consent-form.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20200420005432/https://www.stockton.gov.uk/media/2117/tab-body-piercing-client-consent-form.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:115" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:116">(BBC News 2011) - "Parents 'should approve skin piercings for under-16s'". BBC News. 18 October 2011. <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-politics-15335707" target="_blank">https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-politics-15335707</a> <a href="#fnref:116" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:117">"Children and Community Services Act 2004 - Sect 104A". Western Australian Consolidated Acts. 2004. Retrieved 3 January 2013. <a href="http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/wa/consol_act/cacsa2004318/s104a.html" target="_blank">http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/wa/consol_act/cacsa2004318/s104a.html</a> <a href="#fnref:117" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:118">"Written consent form for body piercing of a child under 18 years of age in the CEO's care" (PDF). Government of Western Australia, Department for Child Protection and Family Support. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 April 2013. Retrieved 3 January 2013. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130419203855/http://www.dcp.wa.gov.au/ChildProtection/Documents/Piercing/PiercingConsentForm.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20130419203855/http://www.dcp.wa.gov.au/ChildProtection/Documents/Piercing/PiercingConsentForm.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:118" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:119">"Tattooing and Body Piercing | State Laws, Statutes and Regulations". National Conference of State Legislatures. 13 March 2019. Archived from the original on 7 October 2013. Retrieved 19 November 2020. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131007110154/http://www.ncsl.org/issues-research/health/tattooing-and-body-piercing.aspx" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20131007110154/http://www.ncsl.org/issues-research/health/tattooing-and-body-piercing.aspx</a> <a href="#fnref:119" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:120">"Tattooing and Body Piercing | State Laws, Statutes and Regulations". National Conference of State Legislatures. 13 March 2019. Archived from the original on 7 October 2013. Retrieved 19 November 2020. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131007110154/http://www.ncsl.org/issues-research/health/tattooing-and-body-piercing.aspx" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20131007110154/http://www.ncsl.org/issues-research/health/tattooing-and-body-piercing.aspx</a> <a href="#fnref:120" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:121">(Miller 2004, pp. 17–18) - Miller, Jean-Chris (2004). The Body Art Book. Penguin. ISBN 0-425-19726-3. <a href="#fnref:121" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:122">(Miller 2004, p. 19) - Miller, Jean-Chris (2004). The Body Art Book. Penguin. ISBN 0-425-19726-3. <a href="#fnref:122" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:123">Reid, S. A. (24 September 2004). "Student fights to sport metal". The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. ProQuest 337133263. <a href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/337133263" target="_blank">https://www.proquest.com/docview/337133263</a> <a href="#fnref:123" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:125">(Currie-McGhee 2006, pp. 76–77) - Currie-McGhee, Leanne K. (2006). Tattoos and Body Piercing. Lucent Overview Series. Lucent Books. p. 11. ISBN 1-59018-749-0. <a href="https://archive.org/details/tattoosbodypierc00curr/page/11" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/tattoosbodypierc00curr/page/11</a> <a href="#fnref:125" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:126">(Currie-McGhee 2006, p. 77) - Currie-McGhee, Leanne K. (2006). Tattoos and Body Piercing. Lucent Overview Series. Lucent Books. p. 11. ISBN 1-59018-749-0. <a href="https://archive.org/details/tattoosbodypierc00curr/page/11" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/tattoosbodypierc00curr/page/11</a> <a href="#fnref:126" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:127">Fox, Michael W (June 2006). "The changing face of discrimination law". Texas Bar Journal. 69: 564–569 – via Hein Online. <a href="#fnref:127" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:128">Elzweig, Brian; Peeples, Donna K. (2011). "Tattoos and piercings: Issues of body modification and the workplace". SAM Advanced Management Journal. 76 (1): 13–23. ISSN 0749-7075 – via Business Source Complete. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:128" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:129">Le Roux, Marion (20 July 2020). "Tackling discrimination based on looks: guidance from France". Lexology. Retrieved 30 January 2022. <a href="https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=eb667520-ab2c-43b8-bd43-2ec2290941bd" target="_blank">https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=eb667520-ab2c-43b8-bd43-2ec2290941bd</a> <a href="#fnref:129" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:130">(Currie-McGhee 2006, p. 77) - Currie-McGhee, Leanne K. (2006). Tattoos and Body Piercing. Lucent Overview Series. Lucent Books. p. 11. ISBN 1-59018-749-0. <a href="https://archive.org/details/tattoosbodypierc00curr/page/11" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/tattoosbodypierc00curr/page/11</a> <a href="#fnref:130" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:131">(Angel 2009, p. 13) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:131" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:132">"Body Piercing". The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Retrieved 14 December 2009. <a href="https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/true-to-the-faith/body-piercing" target="_blank">https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/true-to-the-faith/body-piercing</a> <a href="#fnref:132" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:133">(Hastings 2003, p. 397) - Hastings, James (2003). "Nose-ornaments". In Selbie, John A. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, Part 17. Kessinger Publishing. p. 397. ISBN 0-7661-3694-9. <a href="#fnref:133" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:135">(Daily Telegraph 2009) - "World's Most Pierced Woman Adds to Her Collection". The Daily Telegraph. 23 February 2009. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 15 December 2009. <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/4786930/Worlds-most-pierced-woman-adds-to-her-collection.html" target="_blank">https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/4786930/Worlds-most-pierced-woman-adds-to-her-collection.html</a> <a href="#fnref:135" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:136">(Glenday 2009, p. 105) - Glenday, Craig (2009). Guinness World Records. Random House, Inc. ISBN 978-0-553-59256-6. <a href="https://archive.org/details/guinnessworldrec0000unse" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/guinnessworldrec0000unse</a> <a href="#fnref:136" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:137">(Daily Telegraph 2009) - "World's Most Pierced Woman Adds to Her Collection". The Daily Telegraph. 23 February 2009. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 15 December 2009. <a href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/4786930/Worlds-most-pierced-woman-adds-to-her-collection.html" target="_blank">https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/4786930/Worlds-most-pierced-woman-adds-to-her-collection.html</a> <a href="#fnref:137" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:138">(Glenday 2009, p. 105) - Glenday, Craig (2009). Guinness World Records. Random House, Inc. ISBN 978-0-553-59256-6. <a href="https://archive.org/details/guinnessworldrec0000unse" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/guinnessworldrec0000unse</a> <a href="#fnref:138" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:139">(Folkard 2004, p. 50) - Folkard, Claire (2004). Guinness World Records (50 ed.). Guinness World Records. ISBN 1-892051-22-2. <a href="#fnref:139" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:140">(Daily Times 2004) - "3,000 Piercings as 9/11 Tributes". Daily Times. 7 September 2004. Archived from the original on 6 June 2010. Retrieved 6 December 2009. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100606115922/http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_7-9-2004_pg9_4" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20100606115922/http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_7-9-2004_pg9_4</a> <a href="#fnref:140" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:141">(Glenday 2009, p. 105) - Glenday, Craig (2009). Guinness World Records. Random House, Inc. ISBN 978-0-553-59256-6. <a href="https://archive.org/details/guinnessworldrec0000unse" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/guinnessworldrec0000unse</a> <a href="#fnref:141" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:142">(Guinness World Records 2009) - "Most Body Piercings (surgical needles)". Guinness World Records. Archived from the original on 2 January 2010. Retrieved 15 December 2009. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100102055955/http://guinnessworldrecords.com/records/human_body/body_beautiful/most_body_piercings_surgical_needles.aspx" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20100102055955/http://guinnessworldrecords.com/records/human_body/body_beautiful/most_body_piercings_surgical_needles.aspx</a> <a href="#fnref:142" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:143">(Miller 2004, p. 21) - Miller, Jean-Chris (2004). The Body Art Book. Penguin. ISBN 0-425-19726-3. <a href="#fnref:143" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:144">(Miller 2004, p. 25) - Miller, Jean-Chris (2004). The Body Art Book. Penguin. ISBN 0-425-19726-3. <a href="#fnref:144" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:145">(Miller 2004, p. 26) - Miller, Jean-Chris (2004). The Body Art Book. Penguin. ISBN 0-425-19726-3. <a href="#fnref:145" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:146">(Miller 2004, p. 25) - Miller, Jean-Chris (2004). The Body Art Book. Penguin. ISBN 0-425-19726-3. <a href="#fnref:146" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:147">(Meltzer 2005) - Meltzer, Donna I. (15 November 2005). "Complications of Body Piercing". American Family Physician. 72 (10): 2029–2034. PMID 16342832. Retrieved 14 December 2009. <a href="http://www.aafp.org/afp/2005/1115/p2029.html" target="_blank">http://www.aafp.org/afp/2005/1115/p2029.html</a> <a href="#fnref:147" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:148">(Miller 2004, p. 26) - Miller, Jean-Chris (2004). The Body Art Book. Penguin. ISBN 0-425-19726-3. <a href="#fnref:148" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:150">(Angel 2009, p. 57) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:150" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:152">(Angel 2009, p. 58) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:152" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:153">(Angel 2009, p. 58) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:153" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:154">(Angel 2009, p. 241) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:154" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:155">(Angel 2009, p. 241) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:155" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:156">(Currie-McGhee 2006, p. 56) - Currie-McGhee, Leanne K. (2006). Tattoos and Body Piercing. Lucent Overview Series. Lucent Books. p. 11. ISBN 1-59018-749-0. <a href="https://archive.org/details/tattoosbodypierc00curr/page/11" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/tattoosbodypierc00curr/page/11</a> <a href="#fnref:156" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:157">"The Use of Ear Piercing Guns/Nose Piercing Guns" (PDF). Department of Health, Western Australia. 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 March 2011. Retrieved 3 January 2013. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110313010127/http://www.public.health.wa.gov.au/cproot/1469/2/Use_of_Ear_Piercing_Guns.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20110313010127/http://www.public.health.wa.gov.au/cproot/1469/2/Use_of_Ear_Piercing_Guns.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:157" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:158">(Currie-McGhee 2006, p. 56) - Currie-McGhee, Leanne K. (2006). Tattoos and Body Piercing. Lucent Overview Series. Lucent Books. p. 11. ISBN 1-59018-749-0. <a href="https://archive.org/details/tattoosbodypierc00curr/page/11" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/tattoosbodypierc00curr/page/11</a> <a href="#fnref:158" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:159">"FAQ". Association of Professional Piercers. Archived from the original on 14 January 2012. Retrieved 18 May 2012. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120114195410/http://www.safepiercing.org/piercing/faq/#guns" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20120114195410/http://www.safepiercing.org/piercing/faq/#guns</a> <a href="#fnref:159" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:160">(Angel 2009, p. 58) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:160" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:161">(Angel 2009, p. 58) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:161" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:162">(Angel 2009, pp. 58–59) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:162" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:163">(Angel 2009, p. 60) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:163" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:164">(Angel 2009, p. 59) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:164" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:165">(Angel 2009, p. 60) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:165" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:166">(Angel 2009, p. 61) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:166" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:167">(Bone et al. 2008, pp. 1426–1428) - Bone, Angie; Fortune Ncube; Tom Nichols; Norman D Noah (21 June 2008). "Body Piercing in England: a Survey of Piercing at Sites Other than Earlobe". British Medical Journal. 336 (7658): 1426–1428. doi:10.1136/bmj.39580.497176.25. PMC 2432173. PMID 18556275. Retrieved 6 January 2010. <a href="http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/336/7658/1426#REF5" target="_blank">http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/336/7658/1426#REF5</a> <a href="#fnref:167" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:168">(Bone et al. 2008, pp. 1426–1428) - Bone, Angie; Fortune Ncube; Tom Nichols; Norman D Noah (21 June 2008). "Body Piercing in England: a Survey of Piercing at Sites Other than Earlobe". British Medical Journal. 336 (7658): 1426–1428. doi:10.1136/bmj.39580.497176.25. PMC 2432173. PMID 18556275. Retrieved 6 January 2010. <a href="http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/336/7658/1426#REF5" target="_blank">http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/336/7658/1426#REF5</a> <a href="#fnref:168" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:169">(Koenig & Carnes 1999, pp. 379–385) - Koenig, Laura M.; Carnes, M (1999). "Body Piercing: Medical Concerns with Cutting-Edge Fashion". Journal of General Internal Medicine. 14 (6): 379–85. doi:10.1046/j.1525-1497.1999.00357.x. PMC 1496593. PMID 10354260. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1496593" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1496593</a> <a href="#fnref:169" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:170">(Brody 2000) - Brody, Jane E. (4 April 2000). "Fresh Warnings on the Perils of Piercing". The New York Times. Retrieved 6 December 2009. <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2000/04/04/health/personal-health-fresh-warnings-on-the-perils-of-piercing.html?pagewanted=all" target="_blank">https://www.nytimes.com/2000/04/04/health/personal-health-fresh-warnings-on-the-perils-of-piercing.html?pagewanted=all</a> <a href="#fnref:170" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:171">Riedel, F; Aparicio-Soto, M; Curato, C; Thierse, HJ; Siewert, K; Luch, A (15 October 2021). "Immunological Mechanisms of Metal Allergies and the Nickel-Specific TCR-pMHC Interface". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 18 (20): 10867. doi:10.3390/ijerph182010867. PMC 8535423. PMID 34682608. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8535423" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8535423</a> <a href="#fnref:171" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:172">(Medical News Today 2006) - "Tattoo, Piercing and Breast Implantation Infections". Medical News Today. 8 April 2006. Archived from the original on 29 November 2008. Retrieved 27 November 2008. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081129134741/http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/41238.php" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20081129134741/http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/41238.php</a> <a href="#fnref:172" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:173">(Currie-McGhee 2006, p. 46) - Currie-McGhee, Leanne K. (2006). Tattoos and Body Piercing. Lucent Overview Series. Lucent Books. p. 11. ISBN 1-59018-749-0. <a href="https://archive.org/details/tattoosbodypierc00curr/page/11" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/tattoosbodypierc00curr/page/11</a> <a href="#fnref:173" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:174">(Currie-McGhee 2006, pp. 46–48) - Currie-McGhee, Leanne K. (2006). Tattoos and Body Piercing. Lucent Overview Series. Lucent Books. p. 11. ISBN 1-59018-749-0. <a href="https://archive.org/details/tattoosbodypierc00curr/page/11" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/tattoosbodypierc00curr/page/11</a> <a href="#fnref:174" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:175">(Meltzer 2005) - Meltzer, Donna I. (15 November 2005). "Complications of Body Piercing". American Family Physician. 72 (10): 2029–2034. PMID 16342832. Retrieved 14 December 2009. <a href="http://www.aafp.org/afp/2005/1115/p2029.html" target="_blank">http://www.aafp.org/afp/2005/1115/p2029.html</a> <a href="#fnref:175" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:176">(Alvarez 2006) - Alvarez, Manny (17 November 2006). "Dr. Manny's Health Beat: Do's & Don'ts for Safe Body Piercing". FOX News. Archived from the original on 25 March 2009. Retrieved 6 December 2009. <a href="https://www.foxnews.com/story/dr-mannys-health-beat-dos-donts-for-safe-body-piercing" target="_blank">https://www.foxnews.com/story/dr-mannys-health-beat-dos-donts-for-safe-body-piercing</a> <a href="#fnref:176" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:177">(Koenig & Carnes 1999, pp. 379–385) - Koenig, Laura M.; Carnes, M (1999). "Body Piercing: Medical Concerns with Cutting-Edge Fashion". Journal of General Internal Medicine. 14 (6): 379–85. doi:10.1046/j.1525-1497.1999.00357.x. PMC 1496593. PMID 10354260. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1496593" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1496593</a> <a href="#fnref:177" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:178">(Angel 2009, p. 22) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:178" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:179">(BBC News 1999) - "Tongue Piercing 'Can Be Fatal'". BBC News. 21 July 1999. Retrieved 6 April 2010. <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/399218.stm" target="_blank">http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/399218.stm</a> <a href="#fnref:179" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:180">(Siegel 2008) - Siegel, Judy (23 September 2008). "Soldier's Tongue Piercing Causes Fatal Infection". The Jerusalem Post. Archived from the original on 5 November 2012. Retrieved 6 April 2010. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121105220441/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-156541113.html" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20121105220441/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-156541113.html</a> <a href="#fnref:180" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:181">(Mason 2009) - Mason, Jennifer (18 October 2009). "Tongue Piercing Infection Death Prompts Warning". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 6 April 2010. <a href="http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2009/10/18/2717129.htm" target="_blank">http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2009/10/18/2717129.htm</a> <a href="#fnref:181" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:182">(Zadik et al. 2010) - Zadik, Yehuda; Burnstein, Saar; Derazne, Estella; Sandler, Vadim; Ianculovici, Clariel; Halperin, Tamar (March 2010). "Colonization of Candida: prevalence among tongue-pierced and non-pierced immunocompetent adults". Oral Dis. 16 (2): 172–5. doi:10.1111/j.1601-0825.2009.01618.x. PMID 19732353. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1601-0825.2009.01618.x" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1601-0825.2009.01618.x</a> <a href="#fnref:182" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:183">(Koenig & Carnes 1999, pp. 379–385) - Koenig, Laura M.; Carnes, M (1999). "Body Piercing: Medical Concerns with Cutting-Edge Fashion". Journal of General Internal Medicine. 14 (6): 379–85. doi:10.1046/j.1525-1497.1999.00357.x. PMC 1496593. PMID 10354260. <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1496593" target="_blank">https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1496593</a> <a href="#fnref:183" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:184">(Mayo Clinic staff 2008) - Mayo Clinic staff (16 February 2008). "Piercings: How to Prevent Complications". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 6 December 2009. <a href="http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/piercings/SN00049" target="_blank">http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/piercings/SN00049</a> <a href="#fnref:184" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:185">(Mayo Clinic staff 2008) - Mayo Clinic staff (16 February 2008). "Piercings: How to Prevent Complications". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 6 December 2009. <a href="http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/piercings/SN00049" target="_blank">http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/piercings/SN00049</a> <a href="#fnref:185" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:186">(Angel 2009, p. 186) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:186" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:187">(Angel 2009, p. 186) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:187" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:188">(Levin, Zadik & Becker 2005) - Levin, Liran; Zadik, Yehuda; Becker, Tal (December 2005). "Oral and Dental Complications of Intra-oral Piercing". Dent Traumatol. 21 (6): 341–343. doi:10.1111/j.1600-9657.2005.00395.x. PMID 16262620. Archived from the original on 18 December 2012. Retrieved 18 July 2008. <a href="https://archive.today/20121218001707/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118672805/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0" target="_blank">https://archive.today/20121218001707/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118672805/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0</a> <a href="#fnref:188" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:189">(Levin & Zadik 2007) - Levin, Liran; Zadik, Yehuda (October 2007). "Oral Piercing: Complications and Side Effects". Am J Dent. 20 (5): 340–344. PMID 17993034. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17993034" target="_blank">https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17993034</a> <a href="#fnref:189" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:190">(Zadik & Sandler 2007) - Zadik, Yehuda; Sandler, Vadim (August 2007). "Periodontal Attachment Loss Due to Applying Force by Tongue Piercing" (PDF). J Calif Dent Assoc. 35 (8): 550–553. PMID 17941300. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 September 2008. Retrieved 16 July 2008. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080910170125/http://www.cda.org/page/Library/cda_member/pubs/journal/jour0807/zadik.pdf" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20080910170125/http://www.cda.org/page/Library/cda_member/pubs/journal/jour0807/zadik.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:190" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:191">(Levin 2007) - Levin, Liran (June 2007). "Alveolar Bone Loss and Gingival Recession Due to Lip and Tongue Piercing". N Y State Dent J. 73 (4): 48–50. PMID 17891882. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17891882" target="_blank">https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17891882</a> <a href="#fnref:191" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:192">(Levin & Zadik 2007) - Levin, Liran; Zadik, Yehuda (October 2007). "Oral Piercing: Complications and Side Effects". Am J Dent. 20 (5): 340–344. PMID 17993034. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17993034" target="_blank">https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17993034</a> <a href="#fnref:192" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:193">(Angel 2009, p. 56) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:193" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:194">(Angel 2009, p. 37) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:194" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:195">(Currie-McGhee 2006, p. 56) - Currie-McGhee, Leanne K. (2006). Tattoos and Body Piercing. Lucent Overview Series. Lucent Books. p. 11. ISBN 1-59018-749-0. <a href="https://archive.org/details/tattoosbodypierc00curr/page/11" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/tattoosbodypierc00curr/page/11</a> <a href="#fnref:195" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:196">(Angel 2009, pp. 180–181) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:196" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:197">(Angel 2009, p. 181) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:197" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:198">(Angel 2009, pp. 181–182) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:198" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:199">(Angel 2009, p. 182) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:199" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:200">(Angel 2009, p. 182) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:200" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:201">(Angel 2009, p. 182) - Angel, Elayne (2009). The Piercing Bible: The Definitive Guide to Safe Body Piercing. The Crossing Press. ISBN 978-1-58091-193-1. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=uz-84gxdYAgC</a> <a href="#fnref:201" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:202">(Miller 2004, p. 106) - Miller, Jean-Chris (2004). The Body Art Book. Penguin. ISBN 0-425-19726-3. <a href="#fnref:202" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:203">(Miller 2004, p. 106) - Miller, Jean-Chris (2004). The Body Art Book. Penguin. ISBN 0-425-19726-3. <a href="#fnref:203" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:204">(Meltzer 2005) - Meltzer, Donna I. (15 November 2005). "Complications of Body Piercing". American Family Physician. 72 (10): 2029–2034. PMID 16342832. Retrieved 14 December 2009. <a href="http://www.aafp.org/afp/2005/1115/p2029.html" target="_blank">http://www.aafp.org/afp/2005/1115/p2029.html</a> <a href="#fnref:204" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
</ol>

Body piercing open-in-new

Body piercing