Vedas - Reference.org

The Sanskrit word véda "knowledge, wisdom" is derived from the root vid- "to know". This is reconstructed as being derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *weyd-, meaning "see" or "know".²⁹ ³⁰

The noun is from Proto-Indo-European *weydos, cognate to Greek (ϝ)εἶδος "aspect", "form" . This is not to be confused with the homonymous 1st and 3rd person singular perfect tense véda, cognate to Greek (ϝ)οἶδα ((w)oida) "I know". Root cognates are Greek ἰδέα, English wit, Latin videō "I see", Russian ве́дать (védat') "to know", etc.³¹

The Sanskrit term veda as a common noun means "knowledge".³² The term in some contexts, such as hymn 10.93.11 of the Rigveda, means "obtaining or finding wealth, property",³³ while in some others it means "a bunch of grass together" as in a broom or for ritual fire.³⁴

Vedic texts

Vedic Sanskrit corpus

The term "Vedic texts" is used in two distinct meanings:

Texts composed in Vedic Sanskrit during the Vedic period (Iron Age India)
Any text considered as "connected to the Vedas" or a "corollary of the Vedas"³⁵

The corpus of Vedic Sanskrit texts includes:

The Samhitas (Sanskrit saṃhitā, "collection"), are collections of metric texts ("mantras"). There are four "Vedic" Samhitas: the Rig-Veda, Yajur-Veda, Sama-Veda and Atharva-Veda, most of which are available in several recensions (śākhā). In some contexts, the term Veda is used to refer only to these Samhitas, the collection of mantras. This is the oldest layer of Vedic texts, which were composed between c. 1500–1200 BCE (Rig Veda book 2–9),³⁶ and 1200–900 BCE for the other Samhitas. The Samhitas contain invocations to deities like Indra and Agni, "to secure their benediction for success in battles or for welfare of the clan."³⁷ The complete corpus of Vedic mantras as collected in Bloomfield's Vedic Concordance (1907) consists of some 89,000 padas (metrical feet), of which 72,000 occur in the four Samhitas.³⁸
The Brahmanas are prose texts that comment on and explain the solemn rituals as well as expound on their meaning and many connected themes. Each of the Brahmanas is associated with one of the Samhitas or its recensions.³⁹ ⁴⁰ The oldest dated to about 900 BCE, while the youngest Brahmanas (such as the Shatapatha Brahmana), were complete by about 700 BCE.⁴¹ ⁴² The Brahmanas may either form separate texts or can be partly integrated into the text of the Samhitas. They may also include the Aranyakas and Upanishads.
The Aranyakas, "wilderness texts" or "forest treaties", were composed by people who meditated in the woods as recluses and are the third part of the Vedas. The texts contain discussions and interpretations of ceremonies, from ritualistic to symbolic meta-ritualistic points of view.⁴³ It is frequently read in secondary literature.
Older Principal Upanishads (Bṛhadāraṇyaka, Chandogya, Kaṭha, Kena, Aitareya, and others),⁴⁴ ⁴⁵ composed between 800 BCE and the end of the Vedic period.⁴⁶ The Upanishads are largely philosophical works, some in dialogue form. They are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions.⁴⁷ ⁴⁸ Of the Vedic corpus, they alone are widely known, and the central ideas of the Upanishads are still influential in Hinduism.⁴⁹ ⁵⁰
The texts considered "Vedic" in the sense of "corollaries of the Vedas" are less clearly defined, and may include numerous post-Vedic texts such as the later Upanishads and the Sutra literature, such as Shrauta Sutras and Gryha Sutras, which are smriti texts. Together, the Vedas and these Sutras form part of the Vedic Sanskrit corpus.⁵¹ ⁵² ⁵³

While production of Brahmanas and Aranyakas ceased with the end of the Vedic period, additional Upanishads were composed after the end of the Vedic period.⁵⁴ The Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads, among other things, interpret and discuss the Samhitas in philosophical and metaphorical ways to explore abstract concepts such as the Absolute (Brahman), and the soul or the self (Atman), introducing Vedanta philosophy, one of the major trends of later Hinduism. In other parts, they show evolution of ideas, such as from actual sacrifice to symbolic sacrifice, and of spirituality in the Upanishads. This has inspired later Hindu scholars such as Adi Shankara to classify each Veda into karma-kanda (कर्म खण्ड, action/sacrificial ritual-related sections, the Samhitas and Brahmanas); and jnana-kanda (ज्ञान खण्ड, knowledge/spirituality-related sections, mainly the Upanishads').⁵⁵ ⁵⁶ ⁵⁷ ⁵⁸ ⁵⁹ ⁶⁰

Śruti and smṛti

Vedas are śruti ("what is heard"),⁶¹ distinguishing them from other religious texts, which are called smṛti ("what is remembered"). This indigenous system of categorization was adopted by Max Müller and, while it is subject to some debate, it is still widely used. As Axel Michaels explains:

These classifications are often not tenable for linguistic and formal reasons: There is not only one collection at any one time, but rather several handed down in separate Vedic schools; Upanişads [...] are sometimes not to be distinguished from Āraṇyakas [...]; Brāhmaṇas contain older strata of language attributed to the Saṃhitās; there are various dialects and locally prominent traditions of the Vedic schools. Nevertheless, it is advisable to stick to the division adopted by Max Müller because it follows the Indian tradition, conveys the historical sequence fairly accurately, and underlies the current editions, translations, and monographs on Vedic literature."⁶²

Among the widely known śrutis include the Vedas and their embedded texts – the Samhitas, the Upanishads, the Brahmanas and the Aranyakas. The well-known smṛtis include Bhagavad Gita, Bhagavata Purana and the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata, amongst others.

Authorship

Hindus consider the Vedas to be apauruṣeyā, which means "not of a man, superhuman"⁶³ and "impersonal, authorless".⁶⁴ ⁶⁵ ⁶⁶ The Vedas, for orthodox Indian theologians, are considered revelations seen by ancient sages after intense meditation, and texts that have been more carefully preserved since ancient times.⁶⁷ ⁶⁸ In the Hindu Epic Mahabharata, the creation of Vedas is credited to Brahma.⁶⁹ The Vedic hymns themselves assert that they were skillfully created by Rishis (sages), after inspired creativity, just as a carpenter builds a chariot.⁷⁰ ⁷¹

The oldest part of the Rig Veda Samhita was orally composed in north-western India (Punjab) between c. 1500 and 1200 BCE,⁷² while book 10 of the Rig Veda, and the other Samhitas were composed between 1200 and 900 BCE more eastward, between the Yamuna and the Ganges rivers, the heartland of Aryavarta and the Kuru Kingdom (c. 1200 – c. 900 BCE).⁷³ ⁷⁴ ⁷⁵ ⁷⁶ ⁷⁷ The "circum-Vedic" texts, as well as the redaction of the Samhitas, date to c. 1000–500 BCE.

According to tradition, Vyasa is the compiler of the Vedas, who arranged the four kinds of mantras into four Samhitas (Collections).⁷⁸ ⁷⁹

Chronology, transmission, and interpretation

Chronology

The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts.⁸⁰ The bulk of the Rigveda Samhita was composed in the northwestern region (Punjab) of the Indian subcontinent, most likely between c. 1500 and 1200 BCE,⁸¹ ⁸² ⁸³ although a wider approximation of c. 1700–1100 BCE has also been given.⁸⁴ ⁸⁵ ⁸⁶ The other three Samhitas are considered to date from the time of the Kuru Kingdom, approximately c. 1200–900 BCE.⁸⁷ The "circum-Vedic" texts, as well as the redaction of the Samhitas, date to c. 1000–500 BCE, resulting in a Vedic period, spanning the mid 2nd to mid 1st millennium BCE, or the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age.⁸⁸ The Vedic period reaches its peak only after the composition of the mantra texts, with the establishment of the various shakhas all over Northern India which annotated the mantra samhitas with Brahmana discussions of their meaning, and reaches its end in the age of Buddha and Panini and the rise of the Mahajanapadas (archaeologically, Northern Black Polished Ware). Michael Witzel gives a time span of c. 1500 to c. 500–400 BCE. Witzel makes special reference to the Near Eastern Mitanni material of the 14th century BCE, the only epigraphic record of Indo-Aryan contemporary to the Rigvedic period. He gives 150 BCE (Patañjali) as a terminus ante quem for all Vedic Sanskrit literature, and 1200 BCE (the early Iron Age) as terminus post quem for the Atharvaveda.⁸⁹

Transmission

The Vedas were orally transmitted since their composition in the Vedic period for several millennia.⁹⁰ ⁹¹ ⁹² The authoritative transmission⁹³ of the Vedas is by an oral tradition in a sampradaya from father to son or from teacher (guru) to student (shishya),⁹⁴ ⁹⁵ ⁹⁶ ⁹⁷ ⁹⁸ believed to be initiated by the Vedic rishis who heard the primordial sounds.⁹⁹ Only this tradition, embodied by a living teacher, can teach the correct pronunciation of the sounds and explain hidden meanings, in a way the "dead and entombed manuscript" cannot do.¹⁰⁰ ¹⁰¹ As Leela Prasad states, "According to Shankara, the "correct tradition" (sampradaya) has as much authority as the written Shastra", explaining that the tradition "bears the authority to clarify and provide direction in the application of knowledge".¹⁰²

The emphasis in this transmission¹⁰³ is on the "proper articulation and pronunciation of the Vedic sounds", as prescribed in the Shiksha,¹⁰⁴ the Vedanga (Vedic study) of sound as uttered in a Vedic recitation,¹⁰⁵ ¹⁰⁶ mastering the texts "literally forward and backward in fully acoustic fashion".¹⁰⁷ Houben and Rath note that the Vedic textual tradition cannot simply be characterized as oral, "since it also depends significantly on a memory culture".¹⁰⁸ The Vedas were preserved with precision with the help of elaborate mnemonic techniques,¹⁰⁹ ¹¹⁰ ¹¹¹ such as memorizing the texts in eleven different modes of recitation (pathas),¹¹² using the alphabet as a mnemotechnical device,¹¹³ ¹¹⁴ ¹¹⁵ "matching physical movements (such as nodding the head) with particular sounds and chanting in a group"¹¹⁶ and visualizing sounds by using mudras (hand signs).¹¹⁷ This provided an additional visual confirmation, and also an alternate means to check the reading integrity by the audience, in addition to the audible means.¹¹⁸ Houben and Rath note that a strong "memory culture" existed in ancient India when texts were transmitted orally, before the advent of writing in the early first millennium CE.¹¹⁹ According to Staal, criticising the Goody-Watt hypothesis "according to which literacy is more reliable than orality",¹²⁰ this tradition of oral transmission "is closely related to Indian forms of science" and "by far the more remarkable" than the relatively recent tradition of written transmission.¹²¹

While according to Mookerji, understanding the meaning (vedarthajnana¹²² or artha-bodha¹²³ ¹²⁴) of the words of the Vedas was part of the Vedic learning,¹²⁵ Holdrege and other Indologists¹²⁶ have noted that in the transmission of the Samhitas, the emphasis is on the phonology of the sounds (śabda) and not on the meaning (artha) of the mantras.¹²⁷ ¹²⁸ ¹²⁹ Already at the end of the Vedic period their original meaning had become obscure for "ordinary people",¹³⁰ ¹³¹ and niruktas, etymological compendia, were developed to preserve and clarify the original meaning of many Sanskrit words.¹³² ¹³³ According to Staal, as referenced by Holdrege, though the mantras may have a discursive meaning, when the mantras are recited in the Vedic rituals "they are disengaged from their original context and are employed in ways that have little or nothing to do with their meaning".¹³⁴ ¹³⁵ The words of the mantras are "themselves sacred",¹³⁶ and "do not constitute linguistic utterances".¹³⁷ Instead, as Klostermaier notes, in their application in Vedic rituals they become magical sounds, "means to an end".¹³⁸ Holdrege notes that there are scarce commentaries on the meaning of the mantras, in contrast to the number of commentaries on the Brahmanas and Upanishads, but states that the lack of emphasis on the "discursive meaning does not necessarily imply that they are meaningless".¹³⁹ In the Brahmanical perspective, the sounds have their own meaning, mantras are considered as "primordial rhythms of creation", preceding the forms to which they refer.¹⁴⁰ By reciting them the cosmos is regenerated, "by enlivening and nourishing the forms of creation at their base. As long as the purity of the sounds is preserved, the recitation of the mantras will be efficacious, irrespective of whether their discursive meaning is understood by human beings."¹⁴¹ ¹⁴² Frazier further notes that "later Vedic texts sought deeper understanding of the reasons the rituals worked", which indicates that the Brahmin communities considered study to be a "process of understanding".¹⁴³

A literary tradition is traceable in post-Vedic times, after the rise of Buddhism in the Maurya period,¹⁴⁴ perhaps earliest in the Kanva recension of the Yajurveda about the 1st century BCE; however oral tradition of transmission remained active.¹⁴⁵ Jack Goody has argued for an earlier literary tradition, concluding that the Vedas bear hallmarks of a literate culture along with oral transmission,¹⁴⁶ ¹⁴⁷ but Goody's views have been strongly criticised by Falk, Lopez Jr,. and Staal, though they have also found some support.¹⁴⁸ ¹⁴⁹

The Vedas were written down only after 500 BCE,¹⁵⁰ ¹⁵¹ ¹⁵² but only the orally transmitted texts are regarded as authoritative, given the emphasis on the exact pronunciation of the sounds.¹⁵³ Witzel suggests that attempts to write down the Vedic texts towards the end of 1st millennium BCE were unsuccessful, resulting in smriti rules explicitly forbidding the writing down of the Vedas.¹⁵⁴ Due to the ephemeral nature of the manuscript material (birch bark or palm leaves), surviving manuscripts rarely surpass an age of a few hundred years.¹⁵⁵ The Sampurnanand Sanskrit University has a Rigveda manuscript from the 14th century;¹⁵⁶ however, there are a number of older Veda manuscripts in Nepal that are dated from the 11th century onwards.¹⁵⁷

Vedic learning

Main article: Svādhyāya

The Vedas, Vedic rituals and its ancillary sciences called the Vedangas, were part of the curriculum at ancient universities such as at Taxila, Nalanda and Vikramashila.¹⁵⁸ ¹⁵⁹ ¹⁶⁰ ¹⁶¹ According to Deshpande, "the tradition of the Sanskrit grammarians also contributed significantly to the preservation and interpretation of Vedic texts."¹⁶² Yāska (4th c. BCE¹⁶³) wrote the Nirukta, which reflects the concerns about the loss of meaning of the mantras,¹⁶⁴ while Pāṇinis (4th c. BCE) Aṣṭādhyāyī is the most important surviving text of the Vyākaraṇa traditions. Mimamsa scholar Sayanas (14th c. CE) major Vedartha Prakasha¹⁶⁵ is a rare¹⁶⁶ commentary on the Vedas, which is also referred to by contemporary scholars.¹⁶⁷

Yaska and Sayana, reflecting an ancient understanding, state that the Veda can be interpreted in three ways, giving "the truth about gods, dharma and parabrahman."¹⁶⁸ ¹⁶⁹ ¹⁷⁰ The pūrva-kāņda (or karma-kanda), the part of the Veda dealing with ritual, gives knowledge of dharma, "which brings us satisfaction." The uttara-kanda (or jnana-kanda),¹⁷¹ the part of the Veda dealing with the knowledge of the absolute, gives knowledge of Parabrahma, "which fulfills all of our desires."¹⁷² According to Holdrege, for the exponents of karma-kandha the Veda is to be "inscribed in the minds and hearts of men" by memorization and recitation, while for the exponents of the jnana-kanda and meditation the Vedas express a transcendental reality which can be approached with mystical means.¹⁷³

Holdrege notes that in Vedic learning "priority has been given to recitation over interpretation" of the Samhitas.¹⁷⁴ Galewicz states that Sayana, a Mimamsa scholar,¹⁷⁵ ¹⁷⁶ ¹⁷⁷ "thinks of the Veda as something to be trained and mastered to be put into practical ritual use", noticing that "it is not the meaning of the mantras that is most essential [...] but rather the perfect mastering of their sound form."¹⁷⁸ According to Galewicz, Sayana saw the purpose (artha) of the Veda as the "artha of carrying out sacrifice", giving precedence to the Yajurveda.¹⁷⁹ For Sayana, whether the mantras had meaning depended on the context of their practical usage.¹⁸⁰ This conception of the Veda, as a repertoire to be mastered and performed, takes precedence over the internal meaning or "autonomous message of the hymns."¹⁸¹ Most Śrauta rituals are not performed in the modern era, and those that are, are rare.¹⁸²

Mukherjee notes that the Rigveda, and Sayana's commentary, contain passages criticizing as fruitless mere recitation of the Ŗik (words) without understanding their inner meaning or essence, the knowledge of dharma and Parabrahman.¹⁸³ Mukherjee concludes that in the Rigvedic education of the mantras "the contemplation and comprehension of their meaning was considered as more important and vital to education than their mere mechanical repetition and correct pronunciation."¹⁸⁴ Mookei refers to Sayana as stating that "the mastery of texts, akshara-praptī, is followed by artha-bodha, perception of their meaning."¹⁸⁵ ¹⁸⁶ Mukherjee explains that the Vedic knowledge was first perceived by the rishis and munis. Only the perfect language of the Vedas, as in contrast to ordinary speech, can reveal these truths, which were preserved by committing them to memory.¹⁸⁷ According to Mukherjee, while these truths are imparted to the student by the memorized texts,¹⁸⁸ "the realization of Truth" and the knowledge of paramatman as revealed to the rishis is the real aim of Vedic learning, and not the mere recitation of texts.¹⁸⁹ The supreme knowledge of the Absolute, para Brahman-jnana, the knowledge of rta and satya, can be obtained by taking vows of silence and obedience¹⁹⁰ sense-restraint, dhyana, the practice of tapas (austerities),¹⁹¹ and discussing the Vedanta.¹⁹² ¹⁹³

Vedic schools or recensions

Main article: Shakha

The four Vedas were transmitted in various śākhās (branches, schools).¹⁹⁴ ¹⁹⁵ Each school likely represented an ancient community of a particular area, or kingdom.¹⁹⁶ Each school followed its own canon. Multiple recensions (revisions) are known for each of the Vedas.¹⁹⁷ Thus, states Witzel as well as Renou, in the 2nd millennium BCE, there was likely no canon of one broadly accepted Vedic texts, no Vedic “Scripture”, but only a canon of various texts accepted by each school. Some of these texts have survived, most lost or yet to be found. Rigveda that survives in modern times, for example, is in only one extremely well preserved school of Śåkalya, from a region called Videha, in modern north Bihar, south of Nepal.¹⁹⁸ The Vedic canon in its entirety consists of texts from all the various Vedic schools taken together.¹⁹⁹

There were Vedic schools that believed in polytheism in which numerous gods had different natural functions, henotheistic beliefs where only one god was worshipped but others were thought to exist, monotheistic beliefs in a single god, agnosticism, and monistic beliefs where "there is an absolute reality that goes beyond the gods and that includes or transcends everything that exists."²⁰⁰ Indra, Agni, and Yama were popular subjects of worship by polytheist organizations.²⁰¹

Each of the four Vedas were shared by the numerous schools, but revised, interpolated and adapted locally, in and after the Vedic period, giving rise to various recensions of the text. Some texts were revised into the modern era, raising significant debate on parts of the text which are believed to have been corrupted at a later date.²⁰² ²⁰³ The Vedas each have an Index or Anukramani, the principal work of this kind being the general Index or Sarvānukramaṇī.²⁰⁴ ²⁰⁵

Prodigious energy was expended by ancient Indian culture in ensuring that these texts were transmitted from generation to generation with inordinate fidelity.²⁰⁶ For example, memorization of the sacred Vedas included up to eleven forms of recitation of the same text. The texts were subsequently "proof-read" by comparing the different recited versions. Forms of recitation included the jaṭā-pāṭha (literally "mesh recitation") in which every two adjacent words in the text were first recited in their original order, then repeated in the reverse order, and finally repeated in the original order.²⁰⁷ That these methods have been effective, is attested to by the preservation of the most ancient Indian religious text, the Rigveda, as redacted into a single text during the Brahmana period, without any variant readings within that school.²⁰⁸

The Vedas were orally transmitted by memorization, and were written down only after 500 BCE,²⁰⁹ ²¹⁰ ²¹¹ All printed editions of the Vedas that survive in the modern times are likely the version existing in about the 16th century CE.²¹²

Four Vedas

The canonical division of the Vedas is fourfold (turīya) viz.,²¹³

Rigveda (RV)
Yajurveda (YV, with the main division TS vs. VS)
Samaveda (SV)
Atharvaveda (AV)

Of these, the first three were the principal original division, also called "trayī vidyā"; that is, "the triple science" of reciting hymns (Rigveda), performing sacrifices (Yajurveda), and chanting songs (Samaveda).²¹⁴ ²¹⁵ The Rig Veda most likely was composed between c. 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE.²¹⁶ Witzel notes that it is the Vedic period itself, where incipient lists divide the Vedic texts into three (trayī) or four branches: Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva.²¹⁷

Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the Samhitas (mantras and benedictions), the Aranyakas (text on rituals, ceremonies such as newborn baby's rites of passage, coming of age, marriages, retirement and cremation, sacrifices and symbolic sacrifices), the Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and the Upanishads (text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge).²¹⁸ ²¹⁹ ²²⁰ The Upasanas (short ritual worship-related sections) are considered by some scholars²²¹ ²²² as the fifth part. Witzel notes that the rituals, rites and ceremonies described in these ancient texts reconstruct to a large degree the Indo-European marriage rituals observed in a region spanning the Indian subcontinent, Persia and the European area, and some greater details are found in the Vedic era texts such as the Grhya Sūtras.²²³

Only one version of the Rigveda is known to have survived into the modern era.²²⁴ Several different versions of the Sama Veda and the Atharva Veda are known, and many different versions of the Yajur Veda have been found in different parts of South Asia.²²⁵

The texts of the Upanishads discuss ideas akin to the heterodox sramana-traditions.²²⁶

Rigveda

Main article: Rigveda

The Rigveda Samhita is the oldest extant Indic text.²²⁷ It is a collection of 1,028 Vedic Sanskrit hymns and 10,600 verses in all, organized into ten books (Sanskrit: mandalas).²²⁸ The hymns are dedicated to Rigvedic deities.²²⁹

The books were composed by poets from different priestly groups over a period of several centuries between c. 1500 and 1200 BCE,²³⁰ (the early Vedic period) in the Punjab (Sapta Sindhu) region of the northwest Indian subcontinent. According to Michael Witzel, the initial codification of the Rigveda took place at the end of the Rigvedic period at c. 1200 BCE, in the early Kuru kingdom.²³¹

The Rigveda is structured based on clear principles. The Veda begins with a small book addressed to Agni, Indra, Soma and other gods, all arranged according to decreasing total number of hymns in each deity collection; for each deity series, the hymns progress from longer to shorter ones, but the number of hymns per book increases. Finally, the meter too is systematically arranged from jagati and tristubh to anustubh and gayatri as the text progresses.²³²

The rituals became increasingly complex over time, and the king's association with them strengthened both the position of the Brahmans and the kings.²³³ The Rajasuya rituals, performed with the coronation of a king, "set in motion [...] cyclical regenerations of the universe."²³⁴ In terms of substance, the nature of hymns shift from praise of deities in early books to Nasadiya Sukta with questions such as, "what is the origin of the universe?, do even gods know the answer?",²³⁵ the virtue of Dāna (charity) in society,²³⁶ and other metaphysical issues in its hymns.²³⁷

There are similarities between the mythology, rituals and linguistics in Rigveda and those found in ancient central Asia, Iranian and Hindukush (Afghanistan) regions.²³⁸

Yajurveda

Main article: Yajurveda

The Yajurveda Samhita consists of prose mantras.²³⁹ It is a compilation of ritual offering formulas that were said by a priest while an individual performed ritual actions such as those before the yajna fire.²⁴⁰ The core text of the Yajurveda falls within the classical Mantra period of Vedic Sanskrit at the end of the 2nd millennium BCE – younger than the Rigveda, and roughly contemporary with the Atharvaveda, the Rigvedic Khilani, and the Sāmaveda.²⁴¹ Witzel dates the Yajurveda hymns to the early Indian Iron Age, after c. 1200 and before 800 BCE.²⁴² corresponding to the early Kuru Kingdom.²⁴³

The earliest and most ancient layer of Yajurveda samhita includes about 1,875 verses, that are distinct yet borrow and build upon the foundation of verses in Rigveda.²⁴⁴ Unlike the Samaveda which is almost entirely based on Rigveda mantras and structured as songs, the Yajurveda samhitas are in prose, and they are different from earlier Vedic texts linguistically.²⁴⁵ The Yajur Veda has been the primary source of information about sacrifices during Vedic times and associated rituals.²⁴⁶

There are two major groups of texts in this Veda: the "Black" (Krishna) and the "White" (Shukla). The term "black" implies "the un-arranged, motley collection" of verses in Yajurveda, in contrast to the "white" (well arranged) Yajurveda.²⁴⁷ The White Yajurveda separates the Samhita from its Brahmana (the Shatapatha Brahmana), the Black Yajurveda intersperses the Samhita with Brahmana commentary. Of the Black Yajurveda, texts from four major schools have survived (Maitrayani, Katha, Kapisthala-Katha, Taittiriya), while of the White Yajurveda, two (Kanva and Madhyandina).²⁴⁸ ²⁴⁹ The youngest layer of Yajurveda text is not related to rituals nor sacrifice, it includes the largest collection of primary Upanishads, influential to various schools of Hindu philosophy.²⁵⁰ ²⁵¹

Samaveda

Main article: Samaveda

The Samaveda Samhita ²⁵² consists of 1549 stanzas, taken almost entirely (except for 75 mantras) from the Rigveda.²⁵³ ²⁵⁴ While its earliest parts are believed to date from as early as the Rigvedic period, the existing compilation dates from the post-Rigvedic Mantra period of Vedic Sanskrit, between c. 1200 and 1000 BCE or "slightly later", roughly contemporary with the Atharvaveda and the Yajurveda.²⁵⁵

The Samaveda samhita has two major parts. The first part includes four melody collections (gāna, गान) and the second part three verse “books” (ārcika, आर्चिक).²⁵⁶ A melody in the song books corresponds to a verse in the arcika books. Just as in the Rigveda, the early sections of Samaveda typically begin with hymns to Agni and Indra but shift to the abstract. Their meters shift also in a descending order. The songs in the later sections of the Samaveda have the least deviation from the hymns derived from the Rigveda.²⁵⁷

In the Samaveda, some of the Rigvedic verses are repeated.²⁵⁸ Including repetitions, there are a total of 1875 verses numbered in the Samaveda recension translated by Griffith.²⁵⁹ Two major recensions have survived, the Kauthuma/Ranayaniya and the Jaiminiya. Its purpose was liturgical, and they were the repertoire of the udgātṛ or "singer" priests.²⁶⁰

Atharvaveda

Main article: Atharvaveda

The Artharvaveda Samhita is the text 'belonging to the Atharvan and Angirasa poets. It has about 760 hymns, and about 160 of the hymns are in common with the Rigveda.²⁶¹ Most of the verses are metrical, but some sections are in prose.²⁶² Two different versions of the text – the Paippalāda and the Śaunakīya – have survived into the modern times.²⁶³ ²⁶⁴ The Atharvaveda was not considered as a Veda in the Vedic era, and was accepted as a Veda in late 1st millennium BCE.²⁶⁵ ²⁶⁶ It was compiled last,²⁶⁷ probably around 900 BCE, although some of its material may go back to the time of the Rigveda,²⁶⁸ or earlier.²⁶⁹

The Atharvaveda is sometimes called the "Veda of magical formulas",²⁷⁰ an epithet declared to be incorrect by other scholars.²⁷¹ The Samhita layer of the text likely represents a developing 2nd millennium BCE tradition of magico-religious rites to address superstitious anxiety, spells to remove maladies believed to be caused by demons, and herbs- and nature-derived potions as medicine.²⁷² ²⁷³ The text, states Kenneth Zysk, is one of oldest surviving record of the evolutionary practices in religious medicine and reveals the "earliest forms of folk healing of Indo-European antiquity".²⁷⁴ Many books of the Atharvaveda Samhita are dedicated to rituals without magic, such as to philosophical speculations and to theosophy.²⁷⁵

The Atharva veda has been a primary source for information about Vedic culture, the customs and beliefs, the aspirations and frustrations of everyday Vedic life, as well as those associated with kings and governance. The text also includes hymns dealing with the two major rituals of passage – marriage and cremation. The Atharva Veda also dedicates significant portion of the text asking the meaning of a ritual.²⁷⁶

Embedded Vedic texts

Brahmanas

Further information: Brahmana

The Brahmanas are commentaries, explanation of proper methods and meaning of Vedic Samhita rituals in the four Vedas.²⁷⁷ They also incorporate myths, legends and in some cases philosophy.²⁷⁸ ²⁷⁹ Each regional Vedic shakha (school) has its own operating manual-like Brahmana text, most of which have been lost.²⁸⁰ A total of 19 Brahmana texts have survived into modern times: two associated with the Rigveda, six with the Yajurveda, ten with the Samaveda and one with the Atharvaveda. The oldest dated to about 900 BCE, while the youngest Brahmanas (such as the Shatapatha Brahmana), were complete by about 700 BCE.²⁸¹ ²⁸² According to Jan Gonda, the final codification of the Brahmanas took place in pre-Buddhist times (ca. 600 BCE).²⁸³

The substance of the Brahmana text varies with each Veda. For example, the first chapter of the Chandogya Brahmana, one of the oldest Brahmanas, includes eight ritual suktas (hymns) for the ceremony of marriage and rituals at the birth of a child.²⁸⁴ ²⁸⁵ The first hymn is a recitation that accompanies offering a Yajna oblation to Agni (fire) on the occasion of a marriage, and the hymn prays for prosperity of the couple getting married.²⁸⁶ ²⁸⁷ The second hymn wishes for their long life, kind relatives, and a numerous progeny.²⁸⁸ The third hymn is a mutual marriage pledge, between the bride and groom, by which the two bind themselves to each other. The sixth through last hymns of the first chapter in Chandogya Brahmana are ritual celebrations on the birth of a child and wishes for health, wealth, and prosperity with a profusion of cows and artha.²⁸⁹ However, these verses are incomplete expositions, and their complete context emerges only with the Samhita layer of text.²⁹⁰

Aranyakas and Upanishads

Further information: Vedanta, Upanishads, and Aranyaka

The Aranyakas layer of the Vedas include rituals, discussion of symbolic meta-rituals, as well as philosophical speculations.²⁹¹ ²⁹²

Aranyakas, however, neither are homogeneous in content nor in structure.²⁹³ They are a medley of instructions and ideas, and some include chapters of Upanishads within them. Two theories have been proposed on the origin of the word Aranyakas. One theory holds that these texts were meant to be studied in a forest, while the other holds that the name came from these being the manuals of allegorical interpretation of sacrifices, for those in Vanaprastha (retired, forest-dwelling) stage of their life, according to the historic age-based Ashrama system of human life.²⁹⁴

The Upanishads reflect the last composed layer of texts in the Vedas. They are commonly referred to as Vedānta, variously interpreted to mean either the "last chapters, parts of the Vedas" or "the object, the highest purpose of the Veda".²⁹⁵ The central concern of the Upanishads are the connections "between parts of the human organism and cosmic realities."²⁹⁶ The Upanishads intend to create a hierarchy of connected and dependent realities, evoking a sense of unity of "the separate elements of the world and of human experience [compressing] them into a single form."²⁹⁷ The concepts of Brahman, the Ultimate Reality from which everything arises, and Ātman, the essence of the individual, are central ideas in the Upanishads,²⁹⁸ ²⁹⁹ and knowing the correspondence between Ātman and Brahman as "the fundamental principle which shapes the world" permits the creation of an integrative vision of the whole.³⁰⁰ ³⁰¹ The Upanishads are the foundation of Hindu philosophical thought and its diverse traditions,³⁰² ³⁰³ and of the Vedic corpus, they alone are widely known, and the central ideas of the Upanishads have influenced the diverse traditions of Hinduism.³⁰⁴ ³⁰⁵

Aranyakas are sometimes identified as karma-kanda (ritualistic section), while the Upanishads are identified as jnana-kanda (spirituality section).³⁰⁶ ³⁰⁷ ³⁰⁸ ³⁰⁹ In an alternate classification, the early part of Vedas are called Samhitas and the commentary are called the Brahmanas which together are identified as the ceremonial karma-kanda, while Aranyakas and Upanishads are referred to as the jnana-kanda.³¹⁰

Post-Vedic literature

Vedanga

Main article: Vedanga

The Vedangas developed towards the end of the vedic period, around or after the middle of the 1st millennium BCE. These auxiliary fields of Vedic studies emerged because the language of the Vedas,³¹¹ composed centuries earlier, became too archaic to the people of that time.³¹² The Vedangas were sciences that focused on helping understand and interpret the Vedas that had been composed many centuries earlier.³¹³

The six subjects of Vedanga are phonetics (Śikṣā), poetic meter (Chandas), grammar (Vyākaraṇa), etymology and linguistics (Nirukta), rituals and rites of passage (Kalpa), time keeping and astronomy (Jyotiṣa).³¹⁴ ³¹⁵ ³¹⁶

Vedangas developed as ancillary studies for the Vedas, but its insights into meters, structure of sound and language, grammar, linguistic analysis and other subjects influenced post-Vedic studies, arts, culture and various schools of Hindu philosophy.³¹⁷ ³¹⁸ ³¹⁹ The Kalpa Vedanga studies, for example, gave rise to the Dharma-sutras, which later expanded into Dharma-shastras.³²⁰ ³²¹

Parisista

Main article: Pariśiṣṭa

Pariśiṣṭa "supplement, appendix" is the term applied to various ancillary works of Vedic literature, dealing mainly with details of ritual and elaborations of the texts logically and chronologically prior to them: the Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Sutras. Naturally classified with the Veda to which each pertains, Parisista works exist for each of the four Vedas. However, only the literature associated with the Atharvaveda is extensive.

The Āśvalāyana Gṛhya Pariśiṣṭa is a very late text associated with the Rigveda canon.
The Gobhila Gṛhya Pariśiṣṭa is a short metrical text of two chapters, with 113 and 95 verses respectively.
The Kātiya Pariśiṣṭas, ascribed to Kātyāyana, consist of 18 works enumerated self-referentially in the fifth of the series (the Caraṇavyūha) and the Kātyāyana Śrauta Sūtra Pariśiṣṭa.
The Kṛṣṇa Yajurveda has 3 parisistas The Āpastamba Hautra Pariśiṣṭa, which is also found as the second praśna of the Satyasāḍha Śrauta Sūtra', the Vārāha Śrauta Sūtra Pariśiṣṭa
For the Atharvaveda, there are 79 works, collected as 72 distinctly named parisistas.³²²

Upaveda

The term upaveda ("applied knowledge") is used in traditional literature to designate the subjects of certain technical works.³²³ ³²⁴ Lists of what subjects are included in this class differ among sources. The Charanavyuha mentions four Upavedas:³²⁵

Archery (Dhanurveda), associated with the Yajurveda
Architecture (Sthapatyaveda), associated with the Rigveda.
Music and sacred dance (Gāndharvaveda), associated with the Samaveda
Medicine (Āyurveda), associated with the Atharvaveda.³²⁶ ³²⁷

"Fifth" and other Vedas

Some post-Vedic texts, including the Mahabharata, the Natyasastra ³²⁸ and certain Puranas, refer to themselves as the "fifth Veda".³²⁹ The earliest reference to such a "fifth Veda" is found in the Chandogya Upanishad in hymn 7.1.2.³³⁰

Let drama and dance (Nātya, नाट्य) be the fifth vedic scripture. Combined with an epic story, tending to virtue, wealth, joy and spiritual freedom, it must contain the significance of every scripture, and forward every art. Thus, from all the Vedas, Brahma framed the Nātya Veda. From the Rig Veda he drew forth the words, from the Sama Veda the melody, from the Yajur Veda gesture, and from the Atharva Veda the sentiment.
— First chapter of Nātyaśāstra, Abhinaya Darpana³³¹ ³³²

"Divya Prabandha", for example Tiruvaymoli, is a term for canonical Tamil texts considered as Vernacular Veda by some South Indian Hindus.³³³ ³³⁴

Other texts such as the Bhagavad Gita or the Vedanta Sutras are considered shruti or "Vedic" by some Hindu denominations but not universally within Hinduism. The Bhakti movement, and Gaudiya Vaishnavism in particular extended the term veda to include the Sanskrit Epics and Vaishnavite devotional texts such as the Pancharatra.³³⁵

Puranas

Main article: Puranas

The Puranas is a vast genre of encyclopedic Indian literature about a wide range of topics particularly myths, legends and other traditional lore.³³⁶ Several of these texts are named after major Hindu deities such as Vishnu, Shiva and Devi.³³⁷ ³³⁸ There are 18 Maha Puranas (Great Puranas) and 18 Upa Puranas (Minor Puranas), with over 400,000 verses.³³⁹

The Puranas have been influential in the Hindu culture.³⁴⁰ ³⁴¹ They are considered Vaidika (congruent with Vedic literature).³⁴² The Bhagavata Purana has been among the most celebrated and popular text in the Puranic genre, and is of non-dualistic tenor.³⁴³ ³⁴⁴ The Puranic literature wove with the Bhakti movement in India, and both Dvaita and Advaita scholars have commented on the underlying Vedanta themes in the Maha Puranas.³⁴⁵

Vedas in Sangam literature

Vedas finds its earliest literary mention in the Sangam literature dated to the 5th century BCE. The Vedas were read by almost every caste in ancient Tamil Nadu. An Indian historian, archaeologist and epigraphist named Ramachandran Nagaswamy mentions that Tamil Nadu was a land of Vedas and a place where everyone knew the Vedas.³⁴⁶ The Vedas are also considered as a text filled with deep meaning which can be understood only by scholars.³⁴⁷ The Purananuru mentions that the ancestors of Velir kings where born from the Sacred fire of a Northern sage³⁴⁸ and the Paṭṭiṉappālai mentions that the four Vedas were chanted by the priests of Ancient Tamilakam,³⁴⁹ this shows chanting of Vedas and growing sacred fires are part of the Tamil culture. Vedas are called Maṛai or Vaymoli in parts of South India. Marai literally means "hidden, a secret, mystery". Perumpāṇāṟṟuppaṭai mentions a yupa post (a form of Vedic altar) in the Brahmin village.³⁵⁰ Vedas are recited by these Brahmins, and even their parrots are mentioned in the poem as those who sing the Vedic hymns. People in these Vedic villages did not eat meat, nor raise fowls. They ate rice, salad leaves boiled in ghee, pickles and vegetables.³⁵¹ ³⁵² Apart from the Sanskrit Vedas there are other texts like Naalayira Divya Prabandham and Tevaram called as Tamil Veda and Dravida Veda.³⁵³ ³⁵⁴

Authority of the Vedas

The various Hindu sects and Indian philosophies have taken differing positions on the authority of the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy which acknowledge the authority of the Vedas are classified as "orthodox" (āstika).³⁵⁵ Other śramaṇa traditions, such as Charvaka, Ajivika, Buddhism and Jainism, which do not regard the Vedas as authorities, are referred to as "heterodox" or "non-orthodox" (nāstika) schools.³⁵⁶ ³⁵⁷

Certain traditions which are often seen as being part of Hinduism also rejected the Vedas. For example, authors of the tantric Vaishnava Sahajiya tradition, like Siddha Mukundadeva, rejected the Vedas' authority.³⁵⁸ Likewise, some tantric Shaiva Agamas reject the Vedas. The Anandabhairava-tantra for example, states that "the wise man should not elect as his authority the word of the Vedas, which is full of impurity, produces but scanty and transitory fruits and is limited."³⁵⁹

Though many religious Hindus implicitly acknowledge the authority of the Vedas, this acknowledgment is often "no more than a declaration that someone considers himself [or herself] a Hindu",³⁶⁰ ³⁶¹ and "most Indians today pay lip service to the Veda and have no regard for the contents of the text."³⁶² Some Hindus challenge the authority of the Vedas, thereby implicitly acknowledging its importance to the history of Hinduism, states Lipner.³⁶³

While Hindu reform movement such as Arya Samaj and Brahmo Samaj accept the authority of Vedas,³⁶⁴ Hindu modernists like Debendranath Tagore and Keshub Chandra Sen;³⁶⁵ and social reformers like B. R. Ambedkar reject its authority.³⁶⁶

Western Indology

Further information: Sanskrit studies

The study of Sanskrit in the West began in the 17th century. In the early 19th century, Arthur Schopenhauer drew attention to Vedic texts, specifically the Upanishads. The importance of Vedic Sanskrit for Indo-European studies was also recognized in the early 19th century. English translations of the Samhitas were published in the later 19th century, in the Sacred Books of the East series edited by Müller between 1879 and 1910.³⁶⁷ Ralph T. H. Griffith also presented English translations of the four Samhitas, published 1889 to 1899.

Rigveda manuscripts were selected for inscription in UNESCO's Memory of the World Register in 2007.³⁶⁸

Notes

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External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Vedas. Look up Veda or Vedic in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikiquote has quotations related to Vedas.

"GRETIL etexts", Goettingen.

References

"Veda". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary. http://www.dictionary.com/browse/veda ↩
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Dwyer 2013. - Dwyer, Rachel (2013), What Do Hindus Believe?, Granta Books, ISBN 978-1-84708-940-3 ↩
Holdrege 1996, p. 347. - Holdrege, Barbara A. (1996), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1639-6 ↩
Holdrege 1996, p. 347. - Holdrege, Barbara A. (1996), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1639-6 ↩
Elisa Freschi (2012): "The Vedas are not deontic authorities in absolute sense and may be disobeyed, but are recognized as a deontological epistemic authority by a Hindu orthodox school."Freschi 2012, p. 62 This differentiation between epistemic and deontic authority is true for all Indian religions. /wiki/Deontic ↩
Flood 1996, p. 82. - Flood, Gavin (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0 https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo ↩
"astika" and "nastika". Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 20 April 2016. http://www.britannica.com/topic/astika ↩
Monier-Williams 1899, p. 1015. - Monier-Williams, Monier (1899). A Sanskrit-English Dictionary: Etymologically and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European Languages. Oxford: Clarendon Press. OCLC 685239912. http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/2020/web/index.php ↩
Apte 1965, p. 856. - Apte, Vaman Shivaram (1965), The Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary (4th revised & enlarged ed.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0567-5 ↩
see e.g. Pokorny's 1959 Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch s.v. u̯(e)id-²; Rix' Lexikon der indogermanischen Verben, u̯ei̯d-. /wiki/Indogermanisches_etymologisches_W%C3%B6rterbuch ↩
Monier-Williams 1899, p. 1015. - Monier-Williams, Monier (1899). A Sanskrit-English Dictionary: Etymologically and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European Languages. Oxford: Clarendon Press. OCLC 685239912. http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/2020/web/index.php ↩
Monier-Williams 1899, p. 1017 (2nd Column). - Monier-Williams, Monier (1899). A Sanskrit-English Dictionary: Etymologically and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European Languages. Oxford: Clarendon Press. OCLC 685239912. http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/2020/web/index.php ↩
Monier-Williams 1899, p. 1017 (3rd Column). - Monier-Williams, Monier (1899). A Sanskrit-English Dictionary: Etymologically and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European Languages. Oxford: Clarendon Press. OCLC 685239912. http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/2020/web/index.php ↩
according to ISKCON, Hindu Sacred Texts Archived 26 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine, "Hindus themselves often use the term to describe anything connected to the Vedas and their corollaries (e.g. Vedic culture)." /wiki/ISKCON ↩
It is certain that the hymns of the Rig Veda post-date Indo-Iranian separation of ca. 2000 BCE and probably that of the relevant Mitanni documents of c. 1400 BCE. The oldest available text is estimated to be from 1200 BCE. Philological estimates tend to date the bulk of the text to the second half of the second millennium: Max Müller: "the hymns of the Rig-Veda are said to date from 1500 B.C."[246] The EIEC (s.v. Indo-Iranian languages, p. 306) gives 1500–1000 BCE. Flood and Witzel both mention c. 1500–1200 BCE.[2][54] Anthony mentions c. 1500–1300 BCE.[61] Thomas Oberlies (Die Religion des Rgveda, 1998, p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets a wide range of 1700–1100 BCE.[62] Oberlies 1998, p. 155 gives an estimate of 1100 BCE for the youngest hymns in book 10.[247] Witzel 1995, p. 4 mentions c. 1500–1200 BCE. According to Witzel 1997, p. 263, the whole Rig Vedic period may have lasted from c. 1900 BCE – c. 1200 BCE: "the bulk of the RV represents only 5 or 6 generations of kings (and of the contemporary poets)24 of the Pūru and Bharata tribes. It contains little else before and after this “snapshot” view of contemporary Rgvedic history, as reported by these contemporary “tape recordings.” On the other hand, the whole Rgvedic period may have lasted even up to 700 years, from the infiltration of the Indo-Aryans into the subcontinent, c. 1900 B.C. (at the utmost, the time of collapse of the Indus civilization), up to c. 1200 B.C., the time of the introduction of iron which is first mentioned in the clearly post-vedic hymns of the Atharvaveda." /wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian ↩
Prasad 2020, p. 150. - Prasad, R.U.S. (2020), The Rig-Vedic and Post-Rig-Vedic Polity (1500 BCE-500 BCE), Vernon Press ↩
37,575 are Rigvedic. Of the remaining, 34,857 appear in the other three Samhitas, and 16,405 are known only from Brahmanas, Upanishads or Sutras ↩
Klostermaier 1994, pp. 67–69. - Klostermaier, Klaus (1994), A Survey of Hinduism (second ed.), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-2109-3 ↩
Brahmana Encyclopædia Britannica (2013) http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/77126/Brahmana ↩
Michael Witzel, "Tracing the Vedic dialects" in Dialectes dans les litteratures Indo-Aryennes ed. Caillat, Paris, 1989, 97–265. /wiki/Michael_Witzel ↩
Biswas et al (1989), Cosmic Perspectives, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-34354-1, pp. 42–43 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩
Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3-447-01603-2, pp. 424–426 /wiki/Jan_Gonda ↩
Witzel 2003, p. 69. ↩
Michaels 2004, p. 51. - Michaels, Axel (2004), Hinduism: Past and Present, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-08953-9 ↩
William K. Mahony (1998). The Artful Universe: An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Imagination. State University of New York Press. p. 271. ISBN 978-0-7914-3579-3. 978-0-7914-3579-3 ↩
Wendy Doniger (1990), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-61847-0, pp. 2–3; Quote: "The Upanishads supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy; they alone of the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus." /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩
Wiman Dissanayake (1993), Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice (Editors: Thomas P. Kasulis et al.), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1080-6, p. 39; Quote: "The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu philosophical thought and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman, or the inner self and the cosmic self.";Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009), World Religions, Penguin, ISBN 978-1-59257-846-7, pp. 208–210 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩
Wendy Doniger (1990), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-61847-0, pp. 2–3; Quote: "The Upanishads supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy; they alone of the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus." /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩
Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanisads, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-535242-9, p. 3; Quote: "Even though theoretically the whole of vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth [shruti], in reality it is the Upanishads that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism". /wiki/Patrick_Olivelle ↩
Witzel 2003, p. 69. ↩
For a table of all Vedic texts see Witzel 2003, pp. 100–101. ↩
The Vedic Sanskrit corpus is incorporated in A Vedic Word Concordance (Vaidika-Padānukrama-Koṣa) prepared from 1930 under Vishva Bandhu, and published in five volumes in 1935–1965. Its scope extends to about 400 texts, including the entire Vedic Sanskrit corpus besides some "sub-Vedic" texts. Volume I: Samhitas, Volume II: Brahmanas and Aranyakas, Volume III: Upanishads, Volume IV: Vedangas; A revised edition, extending to about 1800 pages, was published in 1973–1976. /wiki/A_Vedic_Word_Concordance ↩
Witzel 2003, pp. 100–101. ↩
Bartley 2001, p. 490. - Bartley, Christ (2001), "Shankara", in Leaman, Oliver (ed.), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-4151-7281-3 ↩
Holdrege 1996, p. 30. - Holdrege, Barbara A. (1996), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1639-6 ↩
Nakamura 1983, p. 409. - Nakamura, Hajime (1983), A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy, part 2, Motilal Banarsidass Publ. ↩
Bhattacharya 2006, p. 9. - Bhattacharya, Ashim (2006), Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology, iUniverse, ISBN 978-0-595-38455-6 ↩
Knapp 2005, pp. 10–11. - Knapp, Stephen (2005), The Heart of Hinduism: The Eastern Path to Freedom, Empowerment and Illumination, iUniverse, ISBN 978-0-595-35075-9 ↩
Edward Roer (Translator), Shankara's Introduction at Google Books to Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad at pp. 1–5: "The Vedas are divided in two parts, the first is the karma-kanda, the ceremonial part, also (called) purva-kanda, and treats on ceremonies; the second part is the jnana kanda, the part which contains knowledge, also named uttara-kanda or posterior part, and unfolds the knowledge of Brahma or the universal soul." https://books.google.com/books?id=3uwDAAAAMAAJ ↩
Apte 1965, p. 887. - Apte, Vaman Shivaram (1965), The Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary (4th revised & enlarged ed.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0567-5 ↩
Michaels 2004, p. 51. - Michaels, Axel (2004), Hinduism: Past and Present, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-08953-9 ↩
Apte 1965, "apauruSeya". - Apte, Vaman Shivaram (1965), The Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary (4th revised & enlarged ed.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0567-5 ↩
Sharma 2011, pp. 196–197. - Sharma, D. (2011), Classical Indian Philosophy: A Reader, Columbia University Press ↩
Westerhoff 2009, p. 290. - Westerhoff, Jan (2009), Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka: A Philosophical Introduction, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-538496-3 ↩
Todd 2013, p. 128. - Todd, Warren Lee (2013), The Ethics of Śaṅkara and Śāntideva: A Selfless Response to an Illusory World, Ashgate, ISBN 978-1-4094-6681-9 ↩
Pollock 2011, pp. 41–58. - Pollock, Sheldon (2011), Squarcini, Federico (ed.), Boundaries, Dynamics and Construction of Traditions in South Asia, Anthem, ISBN 978-0-85728-430-3 ↩
Scharfe 2002, pp. 13–14. - Scharfe, Hartmut (2002), Handbook of Oriental Studies, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-90-04-12556-8 ↩
Seer of the Fifth Veda: Kr̥ṣṇa Dvaipāyana Vyāsa in the Mahābhārata Bruce M. Sullivan, Motilal Banarsidass, pp. 85–86 https://books.google.com/books?id=8XO3Im3OMi8C&dq=brahma+created+vedas&pg=PA86 ↩
Scharfe 2002, pp. 13–14. - Scharfe, Hartmut (2002), Handbook of Oriental Studies, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-90-04-12556-8 ↩
"As a skilled craftsman makes a car, a singer I, Mighty One! this hymn for thee have fashioned. If thou, O Agni, God, accept it gladly, may we obtain thereby the heavenly Waters". – Rigveda 5.2.11, Translated by Ralph T.H. Griffith[53] ↩
It is certain that the hymns of the Rig Veda post-date Indo-Iranian separation of ca. 2000 BCE and probably that of the relevant Mitanni documents of c. 1400 BCE. The oldest available text is estimated to be from 1200 BCE. Philological estimates tend to date the bulk of the text to the second half of the second millennium: Max Müller: "the hymns of the Rig-Veda are said to date from 1500 B.C."[246] The EIEC (s.v. Indo-Iranian languages, p. 306) gives 1500–1000 BCE. Flood and Witzel both mention c. 1500–1200 BCE.[2][54] Anthony mentions c. 1500–1300 BCE.[61] Thomas Oberlies (Die Religion des Rgveda, 1998, p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets a wide range of 1700–1100 BCE.[62] Oberlies 1998, p. 155 gives an estimate of 1100 BCE for the youngest hymns in book 10.[247] Witzel 1995, p. 4 mentions c. 1500–1200 BCE. According to Witzel 1997, p. 263, the whole Rig Vedic period may have lasted from c. 1900 BCE – c. 1200 BCE: "the bulk of the RV represents only 5 or 6 generations of kings (and of the contemporary poets)24 of the Pūru and Bharata tribes. It contains little else before and after this “snapshot” view of contemporary Rgvedic history, as reported by these contemporary “tape recordings.” On the other hand, the whole Rgvedic period may have lasted even up to 700 years, from the infiltration of the Indo-Aryans into the subcontinent, c. 1900 B.C. (at the utmost, the time of collapse of the Indus civilization), up to c. 1200 B.C., the time of the introduction of iron which is first mentioned in the clearly post-vedic hymns of the Atharvaveda." /wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian ↩
Flood 1996, p. 37. - Flood, Gavin (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0 https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo ↩
Witzel 1995, p. 4. - Witzel, Michael (1995), "Early Sanskritization: Origin and Development of the Kuru state" (PDF), EJVS, 1 (4), archived from the original (PDF) on 20 February 2012 https://web.archive.org/web/20120220153727/http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0104/ejvs0104article.pdf ↩
Anthony 2007, p. 49. - Anthony, David W. (2007), The Horse The Wheel And Language. How Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian Steppes Shaped The Modern World, Princeton University Press ↩
Witzel 2008, p. 68. ↩
Frazier 2011, p. 344. - Frazier, Jessica, ed. (2011), The Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies, London: Continuum, ISBN 978-0-8264-9966-0 https://archive.org/details/continuumcompani00fraz ↩
Holdrege 2012, pp. 249, 250. - Holdrege, Barbara A. (2012), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-1-4384-0695-4 ↩
Dalal 2014, p. 16. - Dalal, Roshen (2014), The Vedas: An Introduction to Hinduism's Sacred Texts, Penguin UK, ISBN 978-81-8475-763-7 https://books.google.com/books?id=UCEoAwAAQBAJ ↩
Dutt 2006, p. 36. - Dutt, Sagarika (2006), India in a Globalized World, Manchester University Press, ISBN 978-1-84779-607-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=I4zaCQAAQBAJ ↩
Flood 1996, p. 37. - Flood, Gavin (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0 https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo ↩
Witzel 1995, p. 4. - Witzel, Michael (1995), "Early Sanskritization: Origin and Development of the Kuru state" (PDF), EJVS, 1 (4), archived from the original (PDF) on 20 February 2012 https://web.archive.org/web/20120220153727/http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0104/ejvs0104article.pdf ↩
Anthony 2007, p. 454. - Anthony, David W. (2007), The Horse The Wheel And Language. How Bronze-Age Riders From the Eurasian Steppes Shaped The Modern World, Princeton University Press ↩
Oberlies 1998, p. 158. - Oberlies, Thomas (1998), Die Religion des Rgveda: Kompositionsanalyse der Soma-Hymnen des R̥gveda, Wien: Institut für Indologie der Universität Wien ↩
Kumar 2014, p. 179. - Kumar, Jay (2014), "Ayurveda and Early Indian Medicine", in Johnston, Lucas F.; Bauman, Whitney (eds.), Science and Religion: One Planet, Many Possibilities, Routledge ↩
It is certain that the hymns of the Rig Veda post-date Indo-Iranian separation of ca. 2000 BCE and probably that of the relevant Mitanni documents of c. 1400 BCE. The oldest available text is estimated to be from 1200 BCE. Philological estimates tend to date the bulk of the text to the second half of the second millennium: Max Müller: "the hymns of the Rig-Veda are said to date from 1500 B.C."[246] The EIEC (s.v. Indo-Iranian languages, p. 306) gives 1500–1000 BCE. Flood and Witzel both mention c. 1500–1200 BCE.[2][54] Anthony mentions c. 1500–1300 BCE.[61] Thomas Oberlies (Die Religion des Rgveda, 1998, p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets a wide range of 1700–1100 BCE.[62] Oberlies 1998, p. 155 gives an estimate of 1100 BCE for the youngest hymns in book 10.[247] Witzel 1995, p. 4 mentions c. 1500–1200 BCE. According to Witzel 1997, p. 263, the whole Rig Vedic period may have lasted from c. 1900 BCE – c. 1200 BCE: "the bulk of the RV represents only 5 or 6 generations of kings (and of the contemporary poets)24 of the Pūru and Bharata tribes. It contains little else before and after this “snapshot” view of contemporary Rgvedic history, as reported by these contemporary “tape recordings.” On the other hand, the whole Rgvedic period may have lasted even up to 700 years, from the infiltration of the Indo-Aryans into the subcontinent, c. 1900 B.C. (at the utmost, the time of collapse of the Indus civilization), up to c. 1200 B.C., the time of the introduction of iron which is first mentioned in the clearly post-vedic hymns of the Atharvaveda." /wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian ↩
Witzel 2003, p. 69. ↩
Gavin Flood sums up mainstream estimates, according to which the Rigveda was compiled from as early as 1500 BCE over a period of several centuries.[2] /wiki/Gavin_Flood ↩
Witzel 2003, p. 68. ↩
Wood 2007. - Wood, Michael (2007), The Story of India Hardcover, BBC Worldwide, ISBN 978-0-563-53915-5 ↩
Witzel 2003, p. 69; For oral composition and oral transmission for "many hundreds of years" before being written down, see: Avari 2007, p. 76. ↩
Holdrege 1995, p. 344. - Holdrege, Barbara A. (1995), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1640-2 ↩
Holdrege 1996, p. 345. - Holdrege, Barbara A. (1996), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1639-6 ↩
Wood 2007. - Wood, Michael (2007), The Story of India Hardcover, BBC Worldwide, ISBN 978-0-563-53915-5 ↩
Hexam 2011, p. chapter 8. - Hexam, Irving (2011), Understanding World Religions: An Interdisciplinary Approach, Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press, ISBN 978-0-310-31448-6 ↩
Holdrege 1995, p. 344. - Holdrege, Barbara A. (1995), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1640-2 ↩
Broo 2016, p. 92. - Broo, Mans (2016), "Rites of Burial and Immersion: Hindu Ritual practices on Disposing of Sacred Texts in Vrindavan", in Myrvold, Kristina (ed.), The Death of Sacred Texts: Ritual Disposal and Renovation of Texts in World Religions, Routledge ↩
Pruthi 2004, p. 286. - Pruthi, R.K (2004), Vedic Civilisation, Discovery Publishing, ISBN 81-7141-875-9 ↩
Holdrege 2012, p. 165. - Holdrege, Barbara A. (2012), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-1-4384-0695-4 ↩
Broo 2016, p. 92. - Broo, Mans (2016), "Rites of Burial and Immersion: Hindu Ritual practices on Disposing of Sacred Texts in Vrindavan", in Myrvold, Kristina (ed.), The Death of Sacred Texts: Ritual Disposal and Renovation of Texts in World Religions, Routledge ↩
Broo 2016, p. 92 quotes Harold G. Coward and K. Kunjunni Raja. - Broo, Mans (2016), "Rites of Burial and Immersion: Hindu Ritual practices on Disposing of Sacred Texts in Vrindavan", in Myrvold, Kristina (ed.), The Death of Sacred Texts: Ritual Disposal and Renovation of Texts in World Religions, Routledge ↩
Prasad 2007, p. 125. - Prasad, Leela (2007), Poetics of conduct : oral narrative and moral being in a South Indian town, New York: Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0-231-13921-2 ↩
Of the complete Veda, by pāțha-śālā (priestly schools), as distinguished from the transmission in the pūjā, the daily services.[72] ↩
Wilke & Moebus 2011, p. 345. - Wilke, Annette; Moebus, Oliver (2011), Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-018159-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=KZCMe67IGPkC ↩
Banerji 1989, pp. 323–324. - Banerji, Sures Chandra (1989), A Companion to Sanskrit Literature, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0063-2 https://books.google.com/books?id=JkOAEdIsdUsC ↩
Wilke & Moebus 2011, pp. 477–495. - Wilke, Annette; Moebus, Oliver (2011), Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-018159-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=KZCMe67IGPkC ↩
Holdrege 1996, p. 345. - Holdrege, Barbara A. (1996), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1639-6 ↩
Rath 2012, p. 22. - Rath, Saraju (2012), Aspects of Manuscript Culture in South India, Leiden: Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-21900-7 ↩
Wood 2007. - Wood, Michael (2007), The Story of India Hardcover, BBC Worldwide, ISBN 978-0-563-53915-5 ↩
Hexam 2011, p. chapter 8. - Hexam, Irving (2011), Understanding World Religions: An Interdisciplinary Approach, Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press, ISBN 978-0-310-31448-6 ↩
Dwyer 2013. - Dwyer, Rachel (2013), What Do Hindus Believe?, Granta Books, ISBN 978-1-84708-940-3 ↩
Holdrege 1996, p. 345. - Holdrege, Barbara A. (1996), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1639-6 ↩
Griffiths 1999, p. 122. - Griffiths, Paul J. (1999), Religious Reading: The Place of Reading in the Practice of Religion, Oxford University Press ↩
Rath 2012, p. 19. - Rath, Saraju (2012), Aspects of Manuscript Culture in South India, Leiden: Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-21900-7 ↩
Several authors refer to the Chinese Buddhist Monk I-Tsing, who visited India in the 7th century to retrieve Buddhist texts and gave examples of mnemonic techniques used in India:[77] "In India there are two traditional ways in which one can attain great intellectual power. Firstly by repeatedly committing to memory the intellect is developed; secondly the alphabet fixes (to) one's ideas. By this way, after a practice of ten days or a month, a student feels his thoughts rise like a fountain, and can commit to memory whatever he has heard once."[78][77] ↩
Doniger 2010, p. 106. - Doniger, Wendy (2010), The Hindus: An Alternative History, Oxford University Press ↩
Wilke & Moebus 2011, p. 479. - Wilke, Annette; Moebus, Oliver (2011), Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-018159-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=KZCMe67IGPkC ↩
Wilke & Moebus 2011, p. 479. - Wilke, Annette; Moebus, Oliver (2011), Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-018159-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=KZCMe67IGPkC ↩
Rath 2012, p. 19. - Rath, Saraju (2012), Aspects of Manuscript Culture in South India, Leiden: Brill, ISBN 978-90-04-21900-7 ↩
Schiffman 2012, p. 171. - Schiffman, Harold (2012), Linguistic Culture and Language Policy, Routledge ↩
Staal: [this tradition of oral transmission is] "by far the more remarkable [than the relatively recent tradition of written transmission], not merely because it is characteristically Indian and unlike anything we find elsewhere, but also because it has led to scientific discoveries that are of enduring interest and from which the contemporary West still has much to learn." Schiffman (2012, p. 171), quoting Staal (1986, p. 27)Staal argued that the ancient Indian grammarians, especially Pāṇini, had completely mastered methods of linguistic theory not rediscovered again until the 1950s and the applications of modern mathematical logic to linguistics by Noam Chomsky. (Chomsky himself has said that the first generative grammar in the modern sense was Panini's grammar).[82] These early Indian methods allowed the construction of discrete, potentially infinite generative systems. Remarkably, these early linguistic systems were codified orally, though writing was then used to develop them in some way. The formal basis for Panini's methods involved the use of "auxiliary" markers, rediscovered in the 1930s by the logician Emil Post.[83] - Schiffman, Harold (2012), Linguistic Culture and Language Policy, Routledge ↩
Galewicz 2004, p. 328. - Galewicz, Cezary (2004), "Changing Canons: What did Sayana think he commented upon", in Balcerowicz, Piotr; Mejor, Marek (eds.), Essays in Indian Philosophy, Religion and Literature, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers ↩
Mookerji 2011, p. 35. - Mookerji, R. (2011) [1947], Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, ISBN 978-81-208-0423-4 ↩
Artha may also mean "goal, purpose or essence," depending on the context.[122] ↩
Mookerji 2011, p. 35. - Mookerji, R. (2011) [1947], Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, ISBN 978-81-208-0423-4 ↩
Holdrege 1996, p. 346. - Holdrege, Barbara A. (1996), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1639-6 ↩
Holdrege 1996, p. 346. - Holdrege, Barbara A. (1996), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1639-6 ↩
Klostermaier 2007, p. 55. - Klostermaier, Klaus (2007), A Survey of Hinduism (third ed.), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-7082-4 ↩
Broo 2016, p. 92. - Broo, Mans (2016), "Rites of Burial and Immersion: Hindu Ritual practices on Disposing of Sacred Texts in Vrindavan", in Myrvold, Kristina (ed.), The Death of Sacred Texts: Ritual Disposal and Renovation of Texts in World Religions, Routledge ↩
Klostermaier 2007, p. 55. - Klostermaier, Klaus (2007), A Survey of Hinduism (third ed.), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-7082-4 ↩
Klostermaier 2007, p. 55: "Kautas, a teacher mentioned in the Nirukta by Yāska (ca. 500 BCE), a work devoted to an etymology of Vedic words that were no longer understood by ordinary people, held that the word of the Veda was no longer perceived as meaningful "normal" speech but as a fixed sequence of sounds, whose meaning was obscure beyond recovery."The tenth through twelfth volumes of the first Prapathaka of the Chandogya Upanishad (800-600 BCE) describe a legend about priests and it criticizes how they go about reciting verses and singing hymns without any idea what they mean or the divine principle they signify.[88] - Klostermaier, Klaus (2007), A Survey of Hinduism (third ed.), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-7082-4 ↩
Klostermaier 2007, p. 55. - Klostermaier, Klaus (2007), A Survey of Hinduism (third ed.), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-7082-4 ↩
Jackson 2016, p. "Sayana, Vidyaranya’s brother". - Jackson, W.J (2016), Vijayanagara Voices: Exploring South Indian History and Hindu Literature, Routledge ↩
Holdrege 1996, p. 346. - Holdrege, Barbara A. (1996), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1639-6 ↩
According to Holdrege, srotriyas (a group of male Brahmin reciters who are masters of sruti[67]) "frequently do not understand what they recite" when reciting the Samhitas, merely preserving the sound of the text.[86] ↩
Holdrege 1996, pp. 346–347. - Holdrege, Barbara A. (1996), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1639-6 ↩
Holdrege 1996, p. 347. - Holdrege, Barbara A. (1996), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1639-6 ↩
Klostermaier: "Brahman, derived from the root bŗh = to grow, to become great, was originally identical with the Vedic word, that makes people prosper: words were the pricipan means to approach the gods who dwelled in a different sphere. It was not a big step from this notion of "reified speech-act" to that "of the speech-act being looked at implicitly and explicitly as a means to an end." Klostermaier 2007, p. 55 quotes Deshpande 1990, p. 4. /wiki/Speech-act ↩
Holdrege 1996, pp. 346, 347. - Holdrege, Barbara A. (1996), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1639-6 ↩
Holdrege 1996, p. 347. - Holdrege, Barbara A. (1996), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1639-6 ↩
Holdrege 1996, p. 347. - Holdrege, Barbara A. (1996), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1639-6 ↩
Coward 2008, p. 114: "For the Mimamsa the ultimate reality is nothing other than the eternal words of the Vedas. They did not accept the existence of a single supreme creator god, who might have composed the Veda. According to the Mimamsa, gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the mantras that speak their names. The power of the gods, then, is nothing other than the power of the mantras that name them." - Coward, Harold (2008). The perfectibility of human nature in eastern and western thought. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-7336-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=LkE_8uch5P0C ↩
Frazier 2011, p. 34. - Frazier, Jessica, ed. (2011), The Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies, London: Continuum, ISBN 978-0-8264-9966-0 https://archive.org/details/continuumcompani00fraz ↩
The early Buddhist texts are also generally believed to be of oral tradition, with the first Pali Canon written many centuries after the death of the Buddha.[93] ↩
Witzel 2003, p. 69; For oral composition and oral transmission for "many hundreds of years" before being written down, see: Avari 2007, p. 76. ↩
Wilke & Moebus 2011, p. 192. - Wilke, Annette; Moebus, Oliver (2011), Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-018159-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=KZCMe67IGPkC ↩
Goody 1987. - Goody (1987), The interface between the written and the oral, Cambridge University Press ↩
Lopez 2016, pp. 35–36. - Lopez, Donald S. Jr. (2016), Elaborations on Emptiness: Uses of the Heart Sūtra, Princeton University Press ↩
Olson & Cole 2013, p. 15. - Olson, David R.; Cole, Michael (2013), Technology, Literacy, and the Evolution of Society: Implications of the Work of Jack Goody, Psychology Press ↩
Wood 2007. - Wood, Michael (2007), The Story of India Hardcover, BBC Worldwide, ISBN 978-0-563-53915-5 ↩
Witzel 2003, p. 69; For oral composition and oral transmission for "many hundreds of years" before being written down, see: Avari 2007, p. 76. ↩
Avari 2007, pp. 69–70, 76 - Avari, Burjor (2007), India: The Ancient Past, London: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-35616-9 ↩
Holdrege 1996, p. 345. - Holdrege, Barbara A. (1996), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1639-6 ↩
Witzel 2003, p. 69; For oral composition and oral transmission for "many hundreds of years" before being written down, see: Avari 2007, p. 76. ↩
Brodd, Jeffrey (2003), World Religions, Winona, MN: Saint Mary's Press, ISBN 978-0-88489-725-5 978-0-88489-725-5 ↩
Jamison, Stephanie W.; Brereton, Joel P. (2014). The Rigveda – The Earliest Religious Poetry of India, Volume 1. Oxford University Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-19-972078-1. 978-0-19-972078-1 ↩
"Cultural Heritage of Nepal". Nepal-German Manuscript Preservation Project. University of Hamburg. Archived from the original on 18 September 2014. Retrieved 4 November 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140918022828/http://www.uni-hamburg.de/ngmcp/about_ngmpp_e.html ↩
Buswell & Lopez 2013. - Buswell, Robert E.; Lopez, Donald S. Jr., eds. (2013), "Nālandā", The Princeton dictionary of Buddhism, Princeton: Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-1-4008-4805-8 ↩
Frazier 2011, p. 34. - Frazier, Jessica, ed. (2011), The Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies, London: Continuum, ISBN 978-0-8264-9966-0 https://archive.org/details/continuumcompani00fraz ↩
Walton, Linda (2015). "Educational institutions" in The Cambridge World History Vol. 5. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 122. ISBN 978-0-521-19074-9. 978-0-521-19074-9 ↩
Sukumar Dutt (1988) [1962]. Buddhist Monks And Monasteries of India: Their History And Contribution To Indian Culture. George Allen and Unwin Ltd, London. ISBN 81-208-0498-8. pp. 332–333 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩
Deshpande 1990, p. 33. - Deshpande, Madhav M. (1990), "Changing Conceptions of the Veda: From Speech-Acts to Magical Sounds", The Adyar Library Bulleting, archived from the original on 1 August 2020, retrieved 7 June 2020 https://web.archive.org/web/20200801162442/https://www.scribd.com/document/378011865/Madhav-Deshpande-Changing-Conceptions-of-the-Veda-From-Speech-Acts-to-Magical-Sounds ↩
Misra 2000, p. 49. - Misra, Kamal K. (2000), Textbook of Anthropological Linguistics, Concept Publishing Company ↩
Klostermaier 2007, p. 55: "Kautas, a teacher mentioned in the Nirukta by Yāska (ca. 500 BCE), a work devoted to an etymology of Vedic words that were no longer understood by ordinary people, held that the word of the Veda was no longer perceived as meaningful "normal" speech but as a fixed sequence of sounds, whose meaning was obscure beyond recovery."The tenth through twelfth volumes of the first Prapathaka of the Chandogya Upanishad (800-600 BCE) describe a legend about priests and it criticizes how they go about reciting verses and singing hymns without any idea what they mean or the divine principle they signify.[88] - Klostermaier, Klaus (2007), A Survey of Hinduism (third ed.), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-7082-4 ↩
Literally, "the meaning of the Vedas made manifest." ↩
Holdrege 1996, p. 354. - Holdrege, Barbara A. (1996), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1639-6 ↩
Jackson 2016, ch.3. - Jackson, W.J (2016), Vijayanagara Voices: Exploring South Indian History and Hindu Literature, Routledge ↩
Coward, Raja & Potter 1990, p. 106. - Coward, Harold G.; Raja, K. Kunjunni; Potter, Karl, eds. (1990). Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 5: The Philosophy of the Grammarians. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-81-208-0426-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=2CEj6wRqeRAC ↩
Mookerji 2011, p. 34. - Mookerji, R. (2011) [1947], Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, ISBN 978-81-208-0423-4 ↩
Sayana repeats Yaska; see interpretation of the Vedas. /wiki/Nirukta#Ancient ↩
The Upanishads.[49] ↩
Mookerji 2011, p. 30. - Mookerji, R. (2011) [1947], Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, ISBN 978-81-208-0423-4 ↩
Holdrege 1996, pp. 355, 356–357. - Holdrege, Barbara A. (1996), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1639-6 ↩
Holdrege 1996, p. 354. - Holdrege, Barbara A. (1996), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1639-6 ↩
Galewicz 2004, p. 40. - Galewicz, Cezary (2004), "Changing Canons: What did Sayana think he commented upon", in Balcerowicz, Piotr; Mejor, Marek (eds.), Essays in Indian Philosophy, Religion and Literature, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers ↩
Galewicz 2011, p. 338. - Galewicz, Cezary (2011), "Why Should the Flower of Dharma be Invisible? Sayana's Vision of the Unity of the Veda", in Squarcini, Federico (ed.), Boundaries, Dynamics and Construction of Traditions in South Asia, Anthem Press ↩
Collins 2009, "237 Sayana". - Collins, Randall (2009), The Sociology of Philosophies, Harvard University Press ↩
Galewicz 2004, p. 41. - Galewicz, Cezary (2004), "Changing Canons: What did Sayana think he commented upon", in Balcerowicz, Piotr; Mejor, Marek (eds.), Essays in Indian Philosophy, Religion and Literature, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers ↩
Galewicz 2004, p. 40. - Galewicz, Cezary (2004), "Changing Canons: What did Sayana think he commented upon", in Balcerowicz, Piotr; Mejor, Marek (eds.), Essays in Indian Philosophy, Religion and Literature, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers ↩
Galewicz 2004, p. 41. - Galewicz, Cezary (2004), "Changing Canons: What did Sayana think he commented upon", in Balcerowicz, Piotr; Mejor, Marek (eds.), Essays in Indian Philosophy, Religion and Literature, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers ↩
Galewicz 2004, pp. 41–42. - Galewicz, Cezary (2004), "Changing Canons: What did Sayana think he commented upon", in Balcerowicz, Piotr; Mejor, Marek (eds.), Essays in Indian Philosophy, Religion and Literature, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers ↩
Michaels 2016, pp. 237–238. - Michaels, Axel (2016). Homo Ritualis: Hindu Ritual and Its Significance for Ritual Theory. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-026263-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=DSaxCgAAQBAJ ↩
Mookerji 2011, pp. 29–31. - Mookerji, R. (2011) [1947], Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, ISBN 978-81-208-0423-4 ↩
Mookerji 2011, pp. 29, 34. - Mookerji, R. (2011) [1947], Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, ISBN 978-81-208-0423-4 ↩
Mookerji 2011, p. 35. - Mookerji, R. (2011) [1947], Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, ISBN 978-81-208-0423-4 ↩
Artha may also mean "goal, purpose or essence," depending on the context.[122] ↩
Mookerji 2011, pp. 34–35. - Mookerji, R. (2011) [1947], Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, ISBN 978-81-208-0423-4 ↩
Mookerji 2011, pp. 35–36. - Mookerji, R. (2011) [1947], Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, ISBN 978-81-208-0423-4 ↩
Mookerji 2011, p. 36. - Mookerji, R. (2011) [1947], Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, ISBN 978-81-208-0423-4 ↩
Mookerji 2011, p. 196. - Mookerji, R. (2011) [1947], Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, ISBN 978-81-208-0423-4 ↩
Mookerji 2011, p. 34. - Mookerji, R. (2011) [1947], Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, ISBN 978-81-208-0423-4 ↩
Mookerji 2011, p. 196. - Mookerji, R. (2011) [1947], Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, ISBN 978-81-208-0423-4 ↩
Mookerji also refers to the Uśanā smriti (81-2), which "states that mastery of mere text of Veda is to be followed up by its meaning" by discussing the Vedanta.[126] where-after they were able to engage in doscourses on the Vedas.[127][92] ↩
Flood 1996, p. 39. - Flood, Gavin (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0 https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo ↩
Witzel, M., "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu", Harvard University, in Witzel 1997, pp. 261–264 http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf ↩
Witzel, M., "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu", Harvard University, in Witzel 1997, pp. 261–264 http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf ↩
Flood 1996, p. 39. - Flood, Gavin (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0 https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo ↩
Jamison and Witzel (1992), Vedic Hinduism, Harvard University, p. 6 http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/vedica.pdf ↩
Witzel, M., "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu", Harvard University, in Witzel 1997, pp. 261–264 http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf ↩
Stevenson, Jay (2000). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Eastern Philosophy. Indianapolis: Alpha Books. p. 46. ISBN 9780028638201. 9780028638201 ↩
Stevenson, Jay (2000). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Eastern Philosophy. Indianapolis: Alpha Books. p. 46. ISBN 9780028638201. 9780028638201 ↩
J. Muir (1872), Original Sanskrit Texts on the Origin and History of the People of India, their religion and institutions, Vol. 1 at Google Books, 2nd Edition, p. 12 https://books.google.com/books?id=HRYAAAAAYAAJ ↩
Albert Friedrich Weber, Indische Studien, herausg. von at Google Books, Vol. 10, pp. 1–9 with footnotes (in German); For a translation, Original Sanskrit Texts at Google Books, p. 14 https://books.google.com/books?id=Bi8JAAAAQAAJ ↩
For an example, see Sarvānukramaṇī Vivaraṇa Univ of Pennsylvania rare texts collection http://hdl.library.upenn.edu/1017/d/medren/3178027 ↩
R̥gveda-sarvānukramaṇī Śaunakakr̥tāʼnuvākānukramaṇī ca, Maharṣi-Kātyayāna-viracitā, OCLC 11549595 /wiki/OCLC_(identifier) ↩
Staal 1986 - Staal, Frits (1986), The Fidelity of Oral Tradition and the Origins of Science, Mededelingen der Koninklijke Nederlandse Academie voor Wetenschappen, North Holland Publishing Company ↩
Filliozat 2004, p. 139 - Filliozat, Pierre-Sylvain (2004), "Ancient Sanskrit Mathematics: An Oral Tradition and a Written Literature", in Chemla, Karine; Cohen, Robert S.; Renn, Jürgen; et al. (eds.), History of Science, History of Text (Boston Series in the Philosophy of Science), Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 137–157, doi:10.1007/1-4020-2321-9_7, ISBN 978-1-4020-2320-0 https://doi.org/10.1007%2F1-4020-2321-9_7 ↩
Filliozat 2004, p. 139 - Filliozat, Pierre-Sylvain (2004), "Ancient Sanskrit Mathematics: An Oral Tradition and a Written Literature", in Chemla, Karine; Cohen, Robert S.; Renn, Jürgen; et al. (eds.), History of Science, History of Text (Boston Series in the Philosophy of Science), Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 137–157, doi:10.1007/1-4020-2321-9_7, ISBN 978-1-4020-2320-0 https://doi.org/10.1007%2F1-4020-2321-9_7 ↩
Wood 2007. - Wood, Michael (2007), The Story of India Hardcover, BBC Worldwide, ISBN 978-0-563-53915-5 ↩
Witzel 2003, p. 69; For oral composition and oral transmission for "many hundreds of years" before being written down, see: Avari 2007, p. 76. ↩
Avari 2007, pp. 69–70, 76 - Avari, Burjor (2007), India: The Ancient Past, London: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-35616-9 ↩
Witzel 2003, p. 69, "... almost all printed editions depend on the late manuscripts that are hardly older than 500 years" ↩
Radhakrishnan & Moore 1957, p. 3; Witzel 2003, p. 68 - Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli; Moore, Charles A., eds. (1957), A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy (12th Princeton Paperback ed.), Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-01958-1 https://archive.org/details/sourcebookinindi00radh ↩
Witzel, M., "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu" in Witzel 1997, pp. 257–348 http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf ↩
MacDonell 2004, pp. 29–39. - MacDonell, Arthur Anthony (2004). A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-2000-5. ↩
It is certain that the hymns of the Rig Veda post-date Indo-Iranian separation of ca. 2000 BCE and probably that of the relevant Mitanni documents of c. 1400 BCE. The oldest available text is estimated to be from 1200 BCE. Philological estimates tend to date the bulk of the text to the second half of the second millennium: Max Müller: "the hymns of the Rig-Veda are said to date from 1500 B.C."[246] The EIEC (s.v. Indo-Iranian languages, p. 306) gives 1500–1000 BCE. Flood and Witzel both mention c. 1500–1200 BCE.[2][54] Anthony mentions c. 1500–1300 BCE.[61] Thomas Oberlies (Die Religion des Rgveda, 1998, p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets a wide range of 1700–1100 BCE.[62] Oberlies 1998, p. 155 gives an estimate of 1100 BCE for the youngest hymns in book 10.[247] Witzel 1995, p. 4 mentions c. 1500–1200 BCE. According to Witzel 1997, p. 263, the whole Rig Vedic period may have lasted from c. 1900 BCE – c. 1200 BCE: "the bulk of the RV represents only 5 or 6 generations of kings (and of the contemporary poets)24 of the Pūru and Bharata tribes. It contains little else before and after this “snapshot” view of contemporary Rgvedic history, as reported by these contemporary “tape recordings.” On the other hand, the whole Rgvedic period may have lasted even up to 700 years, from the infiltration of the Indo-Aryans into the subcontinent, c. 1900 B.C. (at the utmost, the time of collapse of the Indus civilization), up to c. 1200 B.C., the time of the introduction of iron which is first mentioned in the clearly post-vedic hymns of the Atharvaveda." /wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian ↩
Witzel, M., "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu", Harvard University, in Witzel 1997, pp. 261–264 http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf ↩
Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0, pp. 35–39 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩
A Bhattacharya (2006), Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology, ISBN 978-0-595-38455-6, pp. 8–14; George M. Williams (2003), Handbook of Hindu Mythology, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-533261-2, p. 285 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩
Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3-447-01603-2 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩
Bhattacharya 2006, pp. 8–14. - Bhattacharya, Ashim (2006), Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology, iUniverse, ISBN 978-0-595-38455-6 ↩
Holdrege 1995, pp. 351–357. - Holdrege, Barbara A. (1995), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1640-2 ↩
Jamison and Witzel (1992), Vedic Hinduism, Harvard University, p. 21 http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/vedica.pdf ↩
Jamison and Witzel (1992), Vedic Hinduism, Harvard University, p. 6 http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/vedica.pdf ↩
Witzel, M., "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu" in Witzel 1997, p. 286 http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf ↩
Flood 1996, p. 82. - Flood, Gavin (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0 https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo ↩
see e.g. Avari 2007, p. 77. - Avari, Burjor (2007), India: The Ancient Past, London: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-35616-9 ↩
For 1,028 hymns and 10,600 verses and division into ten mandalas, see: Avari 2007, p. 77. - Avari, Burjor (2007), India: The Ancient Past, London: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-35616-9 ↩
For characterization of content and mentions of deities including Agni, Indra, Varuna, Soma, Surya, etc. see: Avari 2007, p. 77. - Avari, Burjor (2007), India: The Ancient Past, London: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-35616-9 ↩
It is certain that the hymns of the Rig Veda post-date Indo-Iranian separation of ca. 2000 BCE and probably that of the relevant Mitanni documents of c. 1400 BCE. The oldest available text is estimated to be from 1200 BCE. Philological estimates tend to date the bulk of the text to the second half of the second millennium: Max Müller: "the hymns of the Rig-Veda are said to date from 1500 B.C."[246] The EIEC (s.v. Indo-Iranian languages, p. 306) gives 1500–1000 BCE. Flood and Witzel both mention c. 1500–1200 BCE.[2][54] Anthony mentions c. 1500–1300 BCE.[61] Thomas Oberlies (Die Religion des Rgveda, 1998, p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets a wide range of 1700–1100 BCE.[62] Oberlies 1998, p. 155 gives an estimate of 1100 BCE for the youngest hymns in book 10.[247] Witzel 1995, p. 4 mentions c. 1500–1200 BCE. According to Witzel 1997, p. 263, the whole Rig Vedic period may have lasted from c. 1900 BCE – c. 1200 BCE: "the bulk of the RV represents only 5 or 6 generations of kings (and of the contemporary poets)24 of the Pūru and Bharata tribes. It contains little else before and after this “snapshot” view of contemporary Rgvedic history, as reported by these contemporary “tape recordings.” On the other hand, the whole Rgvedic period may have lasted even up to 700 years, from the infiltration of the Indo-Aryans into the subcontinent, c. 1900 B.C. (at the utmost, the time of collapse of the Indus civilization), up to c. 1200 B.C., the time of the introduction of iron which is first mentioned in the clearly post-vedic hymns of the Atharvaveda." /wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian ↩
Witzel 1997, p. 261. - Witzel, Michael (1997), "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools: The Social and Political Milieu" (PDF), in Witzel, Michael (ed.), Inside the Texts, Beyond the Texts: New Approaches to the Study of the Vedas, Harvard Oriental Series, Opera Minora; vol. 2, Cambridge: Harvard University Press https://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf ↩
Witzel, M., "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu", Harvard University, in Witzel 1997, pp. 261–264 http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf ↩
Prasad 2020, pp. 150–151. - Prasad, R.U.S. (2020), The Rig-Vedic and Post-Rig-Vedic Polity (1500 BCE-500 BCE), Vernon Press ↩
Prasad 2020, p. 151. - Prasad, R.U.S. (2020), The Rig-Vedic and Post-Rig-Vedic Polity (1500 BCE-500 BCE), Vernon Press ↩
Original Sanskrit: Rigveda 10.129 Wikisource; • Translation 1: Max Müller (1859). A History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature. Williams and Norgate, London. pp. 559–565. • Translation 2: Kenneth Kramer (1986). World Scriptures: An Introduction to Comparative Religions. Paulist Press. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-8091-2781-8. • Translation 3: David Christian (2011). Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History. University of California Press. pp. 17–18. ISBN 978-0-520-95067-2. 978-0-8091-2781-8978-0-520-95067-2 ↩
Original text translated in English: The Rig Veda, Mandala 10, Hymn 117, Ralph T.H. Griffith (Translator);C Chatterjee (1995), Values in the Indian Ethos: An Overview, Journal of Human Values, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 3–12 https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Rig_Veda/Mandala_10/Hymn_117 ↩
For example,Hymn 1.164.34, "What is the ultimate limit of the earth?", "What is the center of the universe?", "What is the semen of the cosmic horse?", "What is the ultimate source of human speech?"Hymn 1.164.34, "Who gave blood, soul, spirit to the earth?", "How could the unstructured universe give origin to this structured world?"Hymn 1.164.5, "Where does the sun hide in the night?", "Where do gods live?"Hymn 1.164.6, "What, where is the unborn support for the born universe?";Hymn 1.164.20 (a hymn that is widely cited in the Upanishads as the parable of the Body and the Soul): "Two birds with fair wings, inseparable companions; Have found refuge in the same sheltering tree. One incessantly eats from the fig tree; the other, not eating, just looks on.";Sources: (a) Antonio de Nicholas (2003), Meditations Through the Rig Veda: Four-Dimensional Man, ISBN 978-0-595-26925-9, pp. 64–69;Jan Gonda, A History of Indian Literature: Veda and Upanishads, Volume 1, Part 1, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3-447-01603-2, pp. 134–135;Rigveda Book 1, Hymn 164 Wikisource /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩
Michael Witzel, The Rigvedic religious system and its central Asian and Hindukush antecedents, in The Vedas – Texts, Language and Ritual, Editors: Griffiths and Houben (2004), Brill Academic, ISBN 978-90-6980-149-0, pp. 581–627 http://www.ling.upenn.edu/~rnoyer/courses/51/Witzel2002.pdf ↩
Witzel 2003, pp. 76–77. ↩
Witzel 2003, pp. 76–77. ↩
The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools, Michael Witzel, Harvard University http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf ↩
Autochthonous Aryans? Michael Witzel, Harvard University http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/%7Ewitzel/EJVS-7-3.pdf ↩
Early Sanskritization Archived 20 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Michael Witzel, Harvard University http://www.ejvs.laurasianacademy.com/ejvs0104/ejvs0104article.pdf ↩
Antonio de Nicholas (2003), Meditations Through the Rig Veda: Four-Dimensional Man, ISBN 978-0-595-26925-9, pp. 273–274 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩
Witzel, M., "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu" in Witzel 1997, pp. 270–271 http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf ↩
Witzel, M., "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu" in Witzel 1997, pp. 272–274 http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf ↩
Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1468-4, pp. 217–219 /wiki/Paul_Deussen ↩
Michaels 2004, p. 52 Table 3. - Michaels, Axel (2004), Hinduism: Past and Present, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-08953-9 ↩
CL Prabhakar (1972), The Recensions of the Sukla Yajurveda, Archiv Orientální, Volume 40, Issue 1, pp. 347–353 ↩
Paul Deussen, The Philosophy of the Upanishads, Motilal Banarsidass (2011 Edition), ISBN 978-81-208-1620-6, p. 23 /wiki/Paul_Deussen ↩
Patrick Olivelle (1998), Upaniṣhads, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-282292-6, pp. 1–17 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩
From sāman, the term for a melody applied to a metrical hymn or a song of praise, Apte 1965, p. 981. - Apte, Vaman Shivaram (1965), The Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary (4th revised & enlarged ed.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0567-5 ↩
Michaels 2004, p. 51. - Michaels, Axel (2004), Hinduism: Past and Present, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-08953-9 ↩
Witzel, M., "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu" in Witzel 1997, pp. 269–270 http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf ↩
Witzel, M., "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu" in Witzel 1997, pp. 269–270 http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf ↩
Witzel, M., "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu" in Witzel 1997, pp. 269–270 http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf ↩
Witzel, M., "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu" in Witzel 1997, pp. 269–270 http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf ↩
M Bloomfield, Rig-veda Repetitions, p. 402, at Google Books, pp. 402–464 https://books.google.com/books?id=DigYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA402 ↩
For 1875 total verses, see the numbering given in Ralph T. H. Griffith. Griffith's introduction mentions the recension history for his text. Repetitions may be found by consulting the cross-index in Griffith pp. 491–499. ↩
Wilke & Moebus 2011, p. 381. - Wilke, Annette; Moebus, Oliver (2011), Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-018159-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=KZCMe67IGPkC ↩
Michaels 2004, p. 56. - Michaels, Axel (2004), Hinduism: Past and Present, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-08953-9 ↩
Michaels 2004, p. 56. - Michaels, Axel (2004), Hinduism: Past and Present, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-08953-9 ↩
Michaels 2004, p. 56. - Michaels, Axel (2004), Hinduism: Past and Present, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-08953-9 ↩
Frits Staal (2009), Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights, Penguin, ISBN 978-0-14-309986-4, pp. 136–137 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩
Frits Staal (2009), Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights, Penguin, ISBN 978-0-14-309986-4, p. 135 /wiki/Frits_Staal ↩
Alex Wayman (1997), Untying the Knots in Buddhism, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1321-2, pp. 52–53 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩
"The latest of the four Vedas, the Atharva-Veda, is, as we have seen, largely composed of magical texts and charms, but here and there we find cosmological hymns which anticipate the Upanishads, – hymns to Skambha, the 'Support', who is seen as the first principle which is both the material and efficient cause of the universe, to Prāna, the 'Breath of Life', to Vāc, the 'Word', and so on." Zaehner 1966, p. vii. - Zaehner, R. C. (1966), Hindu Scriptures, Everyman's Library, London: J. M. Dent ↩
Flood 1996, p. 37. - Flood, Gavin (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0 https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo ↩
Michaels 2004, p. 56. - Michaels, Axel (2004), Hinduism: Past and Present, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-08953-9 ↩
Laurie Patton (2004), Veda and Upanishad, in The Hindu World (Editors: Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby), Routledge, ISBN 0-415-21527-7, p. 38 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩
Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic Literature: Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas, Vol 1, Fasc. 1, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3-447-01603-2, pp. 277–280, Quote: "It would be incorrect to describe the Atharvaveda Samhita as a collection of magical formulas". /wiki/Jan_Gonda ↩
Kenneth Zysk (2012), Understanding Mantras (Editor: Harvey Alper), Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0746-4, pp. 123–129 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩
On magic spells and charms, such as those to gain better health: Atharva Veda 2.32 Bhaishagykni, Charm to secure perfect health Maurice Bloomfield (Translator), Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 42, Oxford University Press; see also chapters 3.11, 3.31, 4.10, 5.30, 19.26; On finding a good husband: Atharva Veda 4.2.36 Strijaratani Maurice Bloomfield (Translator), Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 42, Oxford University Press; Atharvaveda dedicates over 30 chapters to love relationships, sexuality and for conceiving a child, see e.g. chapters 1.14, 2.30, 3.25, 6.60, 6.78, 6.82, 6.130–6.132; On peaceful social and family relationships: Atharva Veda 6.3.30 Maurice Bloomfield (Translator), Sacred Books of the East, Vol. 42, Oxford University Press; http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe42/av064.htm ↩
Kenneth Zysk (1993), Religious Medicine: The History and Evolution of Indian Medicine, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-56000-076-1, pp. x–xii /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩
Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic Literature: Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas, Vol 1, Fasc. 1, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3-447-01603-2, pp. 277–280, Quote: "It would be incorrect to describe the Atharvaveda Samhita as a collection of magical formulas". /wiki/Jan_Gonda ↩
Witzel, M., "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu" in Witzel 1997, pp. 275–276 http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/canon.pdf ↩
Klostermaier 1994, pp. 67–69. - Klostermaier, Klaus (1994), A Survey of Hinduism (second ed.), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-2109-3 ↩
Klostermaier 1994, pp. 67–69. - Klostermaier, Klaus (1994), A Survey of Hinduism (second ed.), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-2109-3 ↩
Brahmana Encyclopædia Britannica (2013) http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/77126/Brahmana ↩
Moriz Winternitz (2010), A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0264-3, pp. 175–176 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩
Michael Witzel, "Tracing the Vedic dialects" in Dialectes dans les litteratures Indo-Aryennes ed. Caillat, Paris, 1989, 97–265. /wiki/Michael_Witzel ↩
Biswas et al (1989), Cosmic Perspectives, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-34354-1, pp. 42–43 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩
Klostermaier 1994, p. 67. - Klostermaier, Klaus (1994), A Survey of Hinduism (second ed.), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-2109-3 ↩
Max Müller, Chandogya Upanishad, The Upanishads, Part I, Oxford University Press, p. lxxxvii with footnote 2 https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/n93/mode/2up ↩
Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1468-4, p. 63 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩
Max Müller, Chandogya Upanishad, The Upanishads, Part I, Oxford University Press, p. lxxxvii with footnote 2 https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/n93/mode/2up ↩
The Development of the Female Mind in India, p. 27, at Google Books, The Calcutta Review, Volume 60, p. 27 https://books.google.com/books?id=sqqgAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA27 ↩
Max Müller, Chandogya Upanishad, The Upanishads, Part I, Oxford University Press, p. lxxxvii with footnote 2 https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/n93/mode/2up ↩
Max Müller, Chandogya Upanishad, The Upanishads, Part I, Oxford University Press, p. lxxxvii with footnote 2 https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/n93/mode/2up ↩
Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3-447-01603-2, pp. 319–322, 368–383 with footnotes /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩
Holdrege 1995, pp. 351–357. - Holdrege, Barbara A. (1995), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1640-2 ↩
Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3-447-01603-2, pp. 424–426 /wiki/Jan_Gonda ↩
Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic Literature: (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3-447-01603-2, pp. 424–426 /wiki/Jan_Gonda ↩
AB Keith (2007), The Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and Upanishads, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0644-3, pp. 489–490 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩
Max Müller, The Upanishads, Part 1, Oxford University Press, p. lxxxvi footnote 1 https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01ml#page/n93/mode/2up ↩
Olivelle 1998, p. liii. - Olivelle, Patrick (1998) [1996], Upanișads. A New Translation by Patrick Olivelle, Oxford's World Classics, ISBN 978-0-19-954025-9 ↩
Olivelle 1998, p. lv. - Olivelle, Patrick (1998) [1996], Upanișads. A New Translation by Patrick Olivelle, Oxford's World Classics, ISBN 978-0-19-954025-9 ↩
Mahadevan 1952, p. 59. - Mahadevan, T.M.P (1952), Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan; Ardeshir Ruttonji Wadia; Dhirendra Mohan Datta (eds.), History of Philosophy, Eastern and Western, George Allen & Unwin, OCLC 929704391 https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/929704391 ↩
PT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-88706-139-4, pp. 35–36 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩
Olivelle 1998, p. lv. - Olivelle, Patrick (1998) [1996], Upanișads. A New Translation by Patrick Olivelle, Oxford's World Classics, ISBN 978-0-19-954025-9 ↩
PT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-88706-139-4, pp. 35–36 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩
Wendy Doniger (1990), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-61847-0, pp. 2–3; Quote: "The Upanishads supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy; they alone of the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus." /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩
Wiman Dissanayake (1993), Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice (Editors: Thomas P. Kasulis et al), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1080-6, p. 39; Quote: "The Upanishads form the foundations of Hindu philosophical thought and the central theme of the Upanishads is the identity of Atman and Brahman, or the inner self and the cosmic self.";Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009), World Religions, Penguin, ISBN 978-1-59257-846-7, pp. 208–210 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩
Wendy Doniger (1990), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-61847-0, pp. 2–3; Quote: "The Upanishads supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy; they alone of the Vedic corpus are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus." /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩
Patrick Olivelle (2014), The Early Upanisads, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-535242-9, p. 3; Quote: "Even though theoretically the whole of vedic corpus is accepted as revealed truth [shruti], in reality it is the Upanishads that have continued to influence the life and thought of the various religious traditions that we have come to call Hindu. Upanishads are the scriptures par excellence of Hinduism". /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩
Holdrege 1996, p. 30. - Holdrege, Barbara A. (1996), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1639-6 ↩
Nakamura 1983, p. 409. - Nakamura, Hajime (1983), A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy, part 2, Motilal Banarsidass Publ. ↩
Bhattacharya 2006, p. 9. - Bhattacharya, Ashim (2006), Hindu Dharma: Introduction to Scriptures and Theology, iUniverse, ISBN 978-0-595-38455-6 ↩
Edward Roer (Translator), Shankara's Introduction at Google Books to Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad at pp. 1–5: "The Vedas are divided in two parts, the first is the karma-kanda, the ceremonial part, also (called) purva-kanda, and treats on ceremonies; the second part is the jnana kanda, the part which contains knowledge, also named uttara-kanda or posterior part, and unfolds the knowledge of Brahma or the universal soul." https://books.google.com/books?id=3uwDAAAAMAAJ ↩
Knapp 2005, pp. 10–11. - Knapp, Stephen (2005), The Heart of Hinduism: The Eastern Path to Freedom, Empowerment and Illumination, iUniverse, ISBN 978-0-595-35075-9 ↩
"Sound and meaning of Veda". 11 September 2022. https://www.mid-day.com/news/opinion/article/sound-and-meaning-of-veda-23245229 ↩
Olivelle 1999, p. xxiii. - Olivelle, Patrick (1999). Dharmasutras: The Law Codes of Ancient India. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-283882-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=gnVxqvPg9a0C ↩
Olivelle 1999, p. xxiii. - Olivelle, Patrick (1999). Dharmasutras: The Law Codes of Ancient India. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-283882-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=gnVxqvPg9a0C ↩
James Lochtefeld (2002), "Vedanga" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing, ISBN 0-8239-2287-1, pp. 744–745 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩
Wilke & Moebus 2011, pp. 391–394 with footnotes, 416–419. - Wilke, Annette; Moebus, Oliver (2011), Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-018159-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=KZCMe67IGPkC ↩
Coward, Raja & Potter 1990, pp. 105–110. - Coward, Harold G.; Raja, K. Kunjunni; Potter, Karl, eds. (1990). Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 5: The Philosophy of the Grammarians. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-81-208-0426-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=2CEj6wRqeRAC ↩
Eggeling, Hans Julius (1911). "Hinduism" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 13 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 501–513, see page 505. https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Hinduism ↩
Wilke & Moebus 2011, pp. 472–532. - Wilke, Annette; Moebus, Oliver (2011), Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-018159-3 https://books.google.com/books?id=KZCMe67IGPkC ↩
Coward, Raja & Potter 1990, p. 18. - Coward, Harold G.; Raja, K. Kunjunni; Potter, Karl, eds. (1990). Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 5: The Philosophy of the Grammarians. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-81-208-0426-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=2CEj6wRqeRAC ↩
Olivelle 1999, p. xxiii. - Olivelle, Patrick (1999). Dharmasutras: The Law Codes of Ancient India. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-283882-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=gnVxqvPg9a0C ↩
Rajendra Prasad (2009). A Historical-developmental Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals. Concept. p. 147. ISBN 978-81-8069-595-7. 978-81-8069-595-7 ↩
BR Modak, The Ancillary Literature of the Atharva-Veda, New Delhi, Rashtriya Veda Vidya Pratishthan, 1993, ISBN 81-215-0607-7 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩
Monier-Williams 1899, p. 207. - Monier-Williams, Monier (1899). A Sanskrit-English Dictionary: Etymologically and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European Languages. Oxford: Clarendon Press. OCLC 685239912. http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/2020/web/index.php ↩
Apte 1965, p. 293. - Apte, Vaman Shivaram (1965), The Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary (4th revised & enlarged ed.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0567-5 ↩
"Upaveda". Oxford University Press. Retrieved 7 December 2014. http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803114818711 ↩
Narayanaswamy, V. (1981). "Origin and Development of Ayurveda: A Brief History". Ancient Science of Life. 1 (1): 1–7. PMC 3336651. PMID 22556454. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3336651 ↩
Frawley, David; Ranade, Subhash (2001). Ayurveda, Nature's Medicine. Lotus Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-914955-95-5. Retrieved 6 January 2015. 978-0-914955-95-5 ↩
Paul Kuritz (1988), The Making of Theatre History, Prentice Hall, ISBN 978-0-13-547861-5, p. 68 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩
Sullivan 1994, p. 385. - Sullivan, B. M. (Summer 1994), "The Religious Authority of the Mahabharata: Vyasa and Brahma in the Hindu Scriptural Tradition", Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 62 (1): 377–401, doi:10.1093/jaarel/LXII.2.377 https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjaarel%2FLXII.2.377 ↩
Sanskrit original: Chandogya Upanishad, Wikisource; • English translation: Chandogya Upanishad 7.1.2, G Jha (Translator), Oriental Book Agency, p. 368 https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/छान्दोग्योपनिषद्_४ ↩
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Vasudha Narayanan (1994), The Vernacular Veda: Revelation, Recitation, and Ritual, University of South Carolina Press, ISBN 978-0-87249-965-2, pp. 43, 117–119 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩
Goswami, Satsvarupa (1976), Readings in Vedic Literature: The Tradition Speaks for Itself, S.l.: Assoc Publishing Group, p. 240, ISBN 978-0-912776-88-0 978-0-912776-88-0 ↩
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Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3-447-02522-5, pp. 12–13, 134–156, 203–210 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩
Greg Bailey (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-17281-3, pp. 442–443 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩
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JV Chelliah 1946, pp. 98–99. - JV Chelliah (1946). Pattupattu – Ten Tamil Idylls (Tamil Verses with Englilsh Translation). Tamil University (1985 print). https://archive.org/details/PattupattuTenTamilIdylls_20180715/page/n1 ↩
JV Chelliah 1946, pp. 98–100. - JV Chelliah (1946). Pattupattu – Ten Tamil Idylls (Tamil Verses with Englilsh Translation). Tamil University (1985 print). https://archive.org/details/PattupattuTenTamilIdylls_20180715/page/n1 ↩
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Vasudha Narayanan (1994), The Vernacular Veda: Revelation, Recitation, and Ritual, University of South Carolina Press, ISBN 978-0-87249-965-2, p. 194 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩
John Carman (1989), The Tamil Veda: Pillan's Interpretation of the Tiruvaymoli, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0-226-09305-5, pp. 259–261 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩
Elisa Freschi (2012): "The Vedas are not deontic authorities in absolute sense and may be disobeyed, but are recognized as a deontological epistemic authority by a Hindu orthodox school."[235] This differentiation between epistemic and deontic authority is true for all Indian religions. /wiki/Deontic ↩
Flood 1996, p. 82. - Flood, Gavin (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0 https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo ↩
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Lipner 2012, p. 16. - Lipner, Julius (2012), Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-135-24060-8 https://books.google.com/books?id=oH1FIareczEC ↩
Lipner quotes Brockington (1981), The sacred tread, p.5. ↩
Axel Michaels (2004), Hinduism: Past and Present, Princeton University Press, p.18; see also Julius Lipner (2012), Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, Routledge, p.77; and Brian K. Smith (2008), Hinduism, p.101, in Jacob Neusner (ed.), Sacred Texts and Authority, Wipf and Stock Publishers. ↩
Lipner 2012, pp. 15–17. - Lipner, Julius (2012), Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-135-24060-8 https://books.google.com/books?id=oH1FIareczEC ↩
Muhammad Khalid Masud (2000). Travellers in Faith: Studies of the Tablīghī Jamāʻat as a Transnational Islamic Movement for Faith Renewal. BRILL. p. 50. ISBN 978-90-04-11622-1. 978-90-04-11622-1 ↩
Rambachan 1994, p. 272. - Rambachan, Anantanand (1994), "Redefining the authority of scripture: The rejection of Vedic infallibility by Brahmo Samaj", in Patton, Laurie L. (ed.), Authority, Anxiety, and Canon: Essays in Vedic Interpretation, SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1938-0 https://books.google.com/books?id=aZjp0kIK5fsC&q=authority+vedas+rejection&pg=PA272 ↩
Nagappa 2011, p. 283 ("It is said that the Varna system [...] Sanatan Hindu"). - Nagappa, Gowda K. (2011), The Bhagavadgita in the Nationalist Discourse, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-908847-8 https://books.google.com/books?id=4PQtDwAAQBAJ&q=authority+vedas+ambedkar&pg=PT283 ↩
Müller, Friedrich Max (author) & Stone, Jon R. (author, editor) (2002). The essential Max Müller: on language, mythology, and religion. Illustrated edition. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-29309-3. Source: [1] (accessed: Friday May 7, 2010), p. 44 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩
"Rig Veda in UNESCO Memory of the World Register". Archived from the original on 27 September 2011. Retrieved 30 September 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110927045638/http://hinduism.about.com/od/scripturesepics/a/rigveda.htm ↩

Etymology and usage