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Etymology and nomenclature

In Sanskrit, the verbal adjective sáṃskṛta- is a compound word consisting of sáṃ ('together, good, well, perfected') and kṛta- ('made, formed, work').⁴⁷⁴⁸ It connotes a work that has been "well prepared, pure and perfect, polished, sacred".⁴⁹⁵⁰⁵¹ According to Biderman, the perfection contextually being referred to in the etymological origins of the word is its tonal—rather than semantic—qualities. Sound and oral transmission were highly valued qualities in ancient India, and its sages refined the alphabet, the structure of words, and its exacting grammar into a "collection of sounds, a kind of sublime musical mold" as an integral language they called Saṃskṛta.⁵² From the late Vedic period onwards, state Annette Wilke and Oliver Moebus, resonating sound and its musical foundations attracted an "exceptionally large amount of linguistic, philosophical and religious literature" in India. Sound was visualized as "pervading all creation", another representation of the world itself; the "mysterious magnum" of Hindu thought. The search for perfection in thought and the goal of liberation were among the dimensions of sacred sound, and the common thread that wove all ideas and inspirations together became the quest for what the ancient Indians believed to be a perfect language, the "phonocentric episteme" of Sanskrit.⁵³⁵⁴

Sanskrit as a language competed with numerous, less exact vernacular Indian languages called Prakritic languages (prākṛta-). The term prakṛta literally means "original, natural, normal, artless", states Franklin Southworth.⁵⁵ The relationship between Prakrit and Sanskrit is found in Indian texts dated to the 1st millennium CE. Patañjali acknowledged that Prakrit is the first language, one instinctively adopted by every child with all its imperfections and later leads to the problems of interpretation and misunderstanding. The purifying structure of the Sanskrit language removes these imperfections. The early Sanskrit grammarian Daṇḍin states, for example, that much in the Prakrit languages is etymologically rooted in Sanskrit, but involves "loss of sounds" and corruptions that result from a "disregard of the grammar". Daṇḍin acknowledged that there are words and confusing structures in Prakrit that thrive independent of Sanskrit. This view is found in the writing of Bharata Muni, the author of the ancient Natya Shastra text. The early Jain scholar Namisādhu acknowledged the difference, but disagreed that Prakrit language was a corruption of Sanskrit. Namisādhu stated that the Prakrit language was the pūrvam ('came before, origin') and that it came naturally to children, while Sanskrit was a refinement of Prakrit through "purification by grammar".⁵⁶

History

Origin and development

See also: Indo-European vocabulary, Proto-Indo-Aryan language, and Indo-Iranian languages

Sanskrit belongs to the Indo-European family of languages. It is one of the three earliest ancient documented languages that arose from a common root language now referred to as Proto-Indo-European:⁵⁷⁵⁸⁵⁹

• Vedic Sanskrit (c. 1500–500 BCE).
• Mycenaean Greek (c. 1450 BCE)⁶⁰ and Ancient Greek (c. 750–400 BCE).
• Hittite (c. 1750–1200 BCE).

Other Indo-European languages distantly related to Sanskrit include archaic and Classical Latin (c. 600 BCE–100 CE, Italic languages), Gothic (archaic Germanic language, c. 350 CE), Old Norse (c. 200 CE and after), Old Avestan (c. late 2nd millennium BCE⁶¹) and Younger Avestan (c. 900 BCE).⁶²⁶³ The closest ancient relatives of Vedic Sanskrit in the Indo-European languages are the Nuristani languages found in the remote Hindu Kush region of northeastern Afghanistan and northwestern Himalayas,⁶⁴⁶⁵⁶⁶ as well as the extinct Avestan and Old Persian – both Iranian languages.⁶⁷⁶⁸⁶⁹ Sanskrit belongs to the satem group of the Indo-European languages.

Colonial era scholars familiar with Latin and Greek were struck by the resemblance of the Sanskrit language, both in its vocabulary and grammar, to the classical languages of Europe. In The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World, Mallory and Adams illustrate the resemblance with the following examples of cognate forms⁷⁰ (with the addition of Old English for further comparison):

PIE	English	Old English	Latin	Greek	Sanskrit	Glossary
*méh₂tēr	mother	mōdor	māter	mētēr	mātṛ́-	mother
*ph₂tḗr	father	fæder	pater	patēr	pitṛ́-	father
*bʰréh₂tēr	brother	brōþor	frāter	phreter	bhrā́tṛ-	brother
*swésōr	sister	sweoster	soror	eor	svásṛ-	sister
*suHnús	son	sunu	-	hyiós	sūnú-	son
*dʰugh₂tḗr	daughter	dohtor	-	thugátēr	duhitṛ́-	daughter
*gʷṓws	cow	cū	bōs	bous	gáu-	cow
*demh₂-	tame, timber	tam, timber	domus	dom-	dām-	house, tame, build

The correspondences suggest some common root, and historical links between some of the distant major ancient languages of the world.⁷¹

The Indo-Aryan migrations theory explains the common features shared by Sanskrit and other Indo-European languages by proposing that the original speakers of what became Sanskrit arrived in South Asia from a region of common origin, somewhere north-west of the Indus region, during the early 2nd millennium BCE. Evidence for such a theory includes the close relationship between the Indo-Iranian tongues and the Baltic and Slavic languages, vocabulary exchange with the non-Indo-European Uralic languages, and the nature of the attested Indo-European words for flora and fauna.⁷²

The pre-history of Indo-Aryan languages which preceded Vedic Sanskrit is unclear and various hypotheses place it over a fairly wide limit. According to Thomas Burrow, based on the relationship between various Indo-European languages, the origin of all these languages may possibly be in what is now Central or Eastern Europe, while the Indo-Iranian group possibly arose in Central Russia.⁷³ The Iranian and Indo-Aryan branches separated quite early. It is the Indo-Aryan branch that moved into eastern Iran and then south into South Asia in the first half of the 2nd millennium BCE. Once in ancient India, the Indo-Aryan language underwent rapid linguistic change and morphed into the Vedic Sanskrit language.⁷⁴

Vedic Sanskrit

Main article: Vedic Sanskrit

The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit. The earliest attested Sanskrit text is the Rigveda (Ṛg-veda), a Hindu scripture from the mid- to late-second millennium BCE. No written records from such an early period survive, if any ever existed, but scholars are generally confident that the oral transmission of the texts is reliable: they are ceremonial literature, where the exact phonetic expression and its preservation were a part of the historic tradition.⁷⁵⁷⁶⁷⁷

However some scholars have suggested that the original Ṛg-veda differed in some fundamental ways in phonology compared to the sole surviving version available to us. In particular that retroflex consonants did not exist as a natural part of the earliest Vedic language,⁷⁸ and that these developed in the centuries after the composition had been completed, and as a gradual unconscious process during the oral transmission by generations of reciters.

The primary source for this argument is internal evidence of the text which betrays an instability of the phenomenon of retroflexion, with the same phrases having sandhi-induced retroflexion in some parts but not other.⁷⁹ This is taken along with evidence of controversy, for example, in passages of the Aitareya-Āraṇyaka (700 BCE), which features a discussion on whether retroflexion is valid in particular cases.⁸⁰

The Ṛg-veda is a collection of books, created by multiple authors. These authors represented different generations, and the mandalas 2 to 7 are the oldest while the mandalas 1 and 10 are relatively the youngest.⁸¹⁸² Yet, the Vedic Sanskrit in these books of the Ṛg-veda "hardly presents any dialectical diversity", states Louis Renou – an Indologist known for his scholarship of the Sanskrit literature and the Ṛg-veda in particular. According to Renou, this implies that the Vedic Sanskrit language had a "set linguistic pattern" by the second half of the 2nd millennium BCE.⁸³ Beyond the Ṛg-veda, the ancient literature in Vedic Sanskrit that has survived into the modern age include the Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda, along with the embedded and layered Vedic texts such as the Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and the early Upanishads.⁸⁴ These Vedic documents reflect the dialects of Sanskrit found in the various parts of the northwestern, northern, and eastern Indian subcontinent.⁸⁵⁸⁶

According to Michael Witzel, Vedic Sanskrit was a spoken language of the semi-nomadic Aryans.⁸⁷⁸⁸ The Vedic Sanskrit language or a closely related Indo-European variant was recognized beyond ancient India as evidenced by the "Mitanni Treaty" between the ancient Hittite and Mitanni people, carved into a rock, in a region that now includes parts of Syria and Turkey.⁸⁹⁹⁰ Parts of this treaty, such as the names of the Mitanni princes and technical terms related to horse training, for reasons not understood, are in early forms of Vedic Sanskrit. The treaty also invokes the gods Varuna, Mitra, Indra, and Nasatya found in the earliest layers of the Vedic literature.⁹¹⁹²

The Vedic Sanskrit found in the Ṛg-veda is distinctly more archaic than other Vedic texts, and in many respects, the Rigvedic language is notably more similar to those found in the archaic texts of Old Avestan Zoroastrian Gathas and Homer's Iliad and Odyssey.⁹³ According to Stephanie W. Jamison and Joel P. Brereton – Indologists known for their translation of the Ṛg-veda – the Vedic Sanskrit literature "clearly inherited" from Indo-Iranian and Indo-European times the social structures such as the role of the poet and the priests, the patronage economy, the phrasal equations, and some of the poetic metres.⁹⁴⁹⁵ While there are similarities, state Jamison and Brereton, there are also differences between Vedic Sanskrit, the Old Avestan, and the Mycenaean Greek literature. For example, unlike the Sanskrit similes in the Ṛg-veda, the Old Avestan Gathas lack simile entirely, and it is rare in the later version of the language. The Homerian Greek, like Ṛg-vedic Sanskrit, deploys simile extensively, but they are structurally very different.⁹⁶

Classical Sanskrit

The early Vedic form of the Sanskrit language was far less homogenous compared to the Classical Sanskrit as defined by grammarians by about the mid-1st millennium BCE. According to Richard Gombrich—an Indologist and a scholar of Sanskrit, Pāli and Buddhist Studies—the archaic Vedic Sanskrit found in the Rigveda had already evolved in the Vedic period, as evidenced in the later Vedic literature. Gombrich posits that the language in the early Upanishads of Hinduism and the late Vedic literature approaches Classical Sanskrit, while the archaic Vedic Sanskrit had by the Buddha's time become unintelligible to all except ancient Indian sages.⁹⁷

The formalization of the Saṃskṛta language is credited to Pāṇini, along with Patañjali's Mahābhāṣya and Katyayana's commentary that preceded Patañjali's work.⁹⁸ Panini composed Aṣṭādhyāyī ('Eight-Chapter Grammar'), which became the foundation of Vyākaraṇa, a Vedānga.⁹⁹ The Aṣṭādhyāyī was not the first description of Sanskrit grammar, but it is the earliest that has survived in full, and the culmination of a long grammatical tradition that Fortson says, is "one of the intellectual wonders of the ancient world".¹⁰⁰ Pāṇini cites ten scholars on the phonological and grammatical aspects of the Sanskrit language before him, as well as the variants in the usage of Sanskrit in different regions of India.¹⁰¹ The ten Vedic scholars he quotes are Āpiśali, Kaśyapa, Gārgya, Gālava, Cakravarmaṇa, Bhāradvāja, Śākaṭāyana, Śākalya, Senaka and Sphoṭāyana.¹⁰²¹⁰³

In the Aṣṭādhyāyī, language is observed in a manner that has no parallel among Greek or Latin grammarians. Pāṇini's grammar, according to Renou and Filliozat, is a classic that defines the linguistic expression and sets the standard for the Sanskrit language.¹⁰⁴ Pāṇini made use of a technical metalanguage consisting of a syntax, morphology and lexicon. This metalanguage is organised according to a series of meta-rules, some of which are explicitly stated while others can be deduced.¹⁰⁵ Despite differences in the analysis from that of modern linguistics, Pāṇini's work has been found valuable and the most advanced analysis of linguistics until the twentieth century.¹⁰⁶

Pāṇini's comprehensive and scientific theory of grammar is conventionally taken to mark the start of Classical Sanskrit.¹⁰⁷ His systematic treatise inspired and made Sanskrit the preeminent Indian language of learning and literature for two millennia.¹⁰⁸ It is unclear whether Pāṇini himself wrote his treatise or he orally created the detailed and sophisticated treatise then transmitted it through his students. Modern scholarship generally accepts that he knew of a form of writing, based on references to words such as lipi ('script') and lipikara ('scribe') in section 3.2 of the Aṣṭādhyāyī.^109110111112

The Classical Sanskrit language formalized by Pāṇini, states Renou, is "not an impoverished language", rather it is "a controlled and a restrained language from which archaisms and unnecessary formal alternatives were excluded".¹¹³ The Classical form of the language simplified the sandhi rules but retained various aspects of the Vedic language, while adding rigor and flexibilities, so that it had sufficient means to express thoughts as well as being "capable of responding to the future increasing demands of an infinitely diversified literature", according to Renou. Pāṇini included numerous "optional rules" beyond the Vedic Sanskrit's bahulam framework, to respect liberty and creativity so that individual writers separated by geography or time would have the choice to express facts and their views in their own way, where tradition followed competitive forms of the Sanskrit language.¹¹⁴

The phonetic differences between Vedic Sanskrit and Classical Sanskrit, as discerned from the current state of the surviving literature,¹¹⁵ are negligible when compared to the intense change that must have occurred in the pre-Vedic period between the Proto-Indo-Aryan language and Vedic Sanskrit.¹¹⁶ The noticeable differences between the Vedic and the Classical Sanskrit include the much-expanded grammar and grammatical categories as well as the differences in the accent, the semantics and the syntax.¹¹⁷ There are also some differences between how some of the nouns and verbs end, as well as the sandhi rules, both internal and external.¹¹⁸ Quite many words found in the early Vedic Sanskrit language are never found in late Vedic Sanskrit or Classical Sanskrit literature, while some words have different and new meanings in Classical Sanskrit when contextually compared to the early Vedic Sanskrit literature.¹¹⁹

Arthur Macdonell was among the early colonial era scholars who summarized some of the differences between the Vedic and Classical Sanskrit.¹²⁰¹²¹ Louis Renou published in 1956, in French, a more extensive discussion of the similarities, the differences and the evolution of the Vedic Sanskrit within the Vedic period and then to the Classical Sanskrit along with his views on the history. This work has been translated by Jagbans Balbir.¹²²

Sanskrit and Prakrit languages

The earliest known use of the word Saṃskṛta (Sanskrit), in the context of a speech or language, is found in verses 5.28.17–19 of the Ramayana.¹²³ Outside the learned sphere of written Classical Sanskrit, vernacular colloquial dialects (Prakrits) continued to evolve. Sanskrit co-existed with numerous other Prakrit languages of ancient India. The Prakrit languages of India also have ancient roots and some Sanskrit scholars have called these Apabhramsa, literally 'spoiled'.¹²⁴¹²⁵ The Vedic literature includes words whose phonetic equivalent are not found in other Indo-European languages but which are found in the regional Prakrit languages, which makes it likely that the interaction, the sharing of words and ideas began early in the Indian history. As the Indian thought diversified and challenged earlier beliefs of Hinduism, particularly in the form of Buddhism and Jainism, the Prakrit languages such as Pali in Theravada Buddhism and Ardhamagadhi in Jainism competed with Sanskrit in the ancient times.^126127128 However, states Paul Dundas, these ancient Prakrit languages had "roughly the same relationship to Sanskrit as medieval Italian does to Latin".¹²⁹ The Indian tradition states that the Buddha and the Mahavira preferred the Prakrit language so that everyone could understand it. However, scholars such as Dundas have questioned this hypothesis. They state that there is no evidence for this and whatever evidence is available suggests that by the start of the common era, hardly anybody other than learned monks had the capacity to understand the old Prakrit languages such as Ardhamagadhi.¹³⁰

A section of European scholars state that Sanskrit was never a spoken language.¹³¹ However, evidences shows that Sanskrit was a spoken language, essential for oral tradition that preserved the vast number of Sanskrit manuscripts from ancient India. The textual evidence in the works of Yaksa, Panini, and Patanajali affirms that Classical Sanskrit in their era was a spoken language (bhasha) used by the cultured and educated. Some sutras expound upon the variant forms of spoken Sanskrit versus written Sanskrit.¹³² Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Xuanzang mentioned in his memoir that official philosophical debates in India were held in Sanskrit, not in the vernacular language of that region.¹³³

According to Sanskrit linguist professor Madhav Deshpande, Sanskrit was a spoken language in a colloquial form by the mid-1st millennium BCE which coexisted with a more formal, grammatically correct form of literary Sanskrit.¹³⁴ This, states Deshpande, is true for modern languages where colloquial incorrect approximations and dialects of a language are spoken and understood, along with more "refined, sophisticated and grammatically accurate" forms of the same language being found in the literary works.¹³⁵ The Indian tradition, states Winternitz, has favored the learning and the usage of multiple languages from the ancient times. Sanskrit was a spoken language in the educated and the elite classes, but it was also a language that must have been understood in a wider circle of society because the widely popular folk epics and stories such as the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, the Bhagavata Purana, the Panchatantra and many other texts are all in the Sanskrit language.¹³⁶ The Classical Sanskrit with its exacting grammar was thus the language of the Indian scholars and the educated classes, while others communicated with approximate or ungrammatical variants of it as well as other natural Indian languages.¹³⁷ Sanskrit, as the learned language of Ancient India, thus existed alongside the vernacular Prakrits.¹³⁸ Many Sanskrit dramas indicate that the language coexisted with the vernacular Prakrits. The cities of Varanasi, Paithan, Pune and Kanchipuram were centers of classical Sanskrit learning and public debates until the arrival of the colonial era.¹³⁹

According to Lamotte, Sanskrit became the dominant literary and inscriptional language because of its precision in communication. It was, states Lamotte, an ideal instrument for presenting ideas, and as knowledge in Sanskrit multiplied, so did its spread and influence.¹⁴⁰ Sanskrit was adopted voluntarily as a vehicle of high culture, arts, and profound ideas. Pollock disagrees with Lamotte, but concurs that Sanskrit's influence grew into what he terms a "Sanskrit Cosmopolis" over a region that included all of South Asia and much of southeast Asia. The Sanskrit language cosmopolis thrived beyond India between 300 and 1300 CE.¹⁴¹

Today, it is believed that Kashmiri is the closest language to Sanskrit.^142143144

Dravidian influence on Sanskrit

Reinöhl mentions that not only have the Dravidian languages borrowed from Sanskrit vocabulary, but they have also affected Sanskrit on deeper levels of structure, "for instance in the domain of phonology where Indo-Aryan retroflexes have been attributed to Dravidian influence".¹⁴⁵ Similarly, Ferenc Ruzca states that all the major shifts in Indo-Aryan phonetics over two millennia can be attributed to the constant influence of a Dravidian language with a similar phonetic structure to Tamil.¹⁴⁶ Hock et al. quoting George Hart state that there was influence of Old Tamil on Sanskrit.¹⁴⁷ Hart compared Old Tamil and Classical Sanskrit to arrive at a conclusion that there was a common language from which these features both derived – "that both Tamil and Sanskrit derived their shared conventions, metres, and techniques from a common source, for it is clear that neither borrowed directly from the other."¹⁴⁸

Reinöhl further states that there is a symmetric relationship between Dravidian languages like Kannada or Tamil, with Indo-Aryan languages like Bengali or Hindi, whereas the same relationship is not found for non-Indo-Aryan languages, for example, Persian or English:

A sentence in a Dravidian language like Tamil or Kannada becomes ordinarily good Bengali or Hindi by substituting Bengali or Hindi equivalents for the Dravidian words and forms, without modifying the word order; but the same thing is not possible in rendering a Persian or English sentence into a non-Indo-Aryan language.

— Reinöhl¹⁴⁹

Shulman mentions that "Dravidian nonfinite verbal forms (called vinaiyeccam in Tamil) shaped the usage of the Sanskrit nonfinite verbs (originally derived from inflected forms of action nouns in Vedic). This particularly salient case of the possible influence of Dravidian on Sanskrit is only one of many items of syntactic assimilation, not least among them the large repertoire of morphological modality and aspect that, once one knows to look for it, can be found everywhere in classical and postclassical Sanskrit".¹⁵⁰

The main influence of Dravidian on Sanskrit is found to have been concentrated in the timespan between the late Vedic period and the crystallization of Classical Sanskrit. As in this period the Indo-Aryan tribes had not yet made contact with the inhabitants of the South of the subcontinent, this suggests a significant presence of Dravidian speakers in North India (the central Gangetic plain and the classical Madhyadeśa) who were instrumental in this substratal influence on Sanskrit.¹⁵¹

Influence

Sanskrit has been the predominant language of Hindu texts encompassing a rich tradition of philosophical and religious texts, as well as poetry, music, drama, scientific, technical and others.¹⁵²¹⁵³ It is the predominant language of one of the largest collection of historic manuscripts. The earliest known inscriptions in Sanskrit are from the 1st century BCE, such as the Ayodhya Inscription of Dhana and Ghosundi-Hathibada (Chittorgarh).¹⁵⁴

Though developed and nurtured by scholars of orthodox schools of Hinduism, Sanskrit has been the language for some of the key literary works and theology of heterodox schools of Indian philosophies such as Buddhism and Jainism.¹⁵⁵¹⁵⁶ The structure and capabilities of the Classical Sanskrit language launched ancient Indian speculations about "the nature and function of language", what is the relationship between words and their meanings in the context of a community of speakers, whether this relationship is objective or subjective, discovered or is created, how individuals learn and relate to the world around them through language, and about the limits of language.¹⁵⁷¹⁵⁸ They speculated on the role of language, the ontological status of painting word-images through sound, and the need for rules so that it can serve as a means for a community of speakers, separated by geography or time, to share and understand profound ideas from each other.¹⁵⁹¹⁶⁰ These speculations became particularly important to the Mīmāṃsā and the Nyaya schools of Hindu philosophy, and later to Vedanta and Mahayana Buddhism, states Frits Staal—a scholar of Linguistics with a focus on Indian philosophies and Sanskrit.¹⁶¹ Though written in a number of different scripts, the dominant language of Hindu texts has been Sanskrit. It or a hybrid form of Sanskrit became the preferred language of Mahayana Buddhism scholarship;¹⁶² for example, one of the early and influential Buddhist philosophers, Nagarjuna (c.200 CE), used Classical Sanskrit as the language for his texts.¹⁶³ According to Renou, Sanskrit had a limited role in the Theravada tradition (formerly known as the Hinayana) but the Prakrit works that have survived are of doubtful authenticity. Some of the canonical fragments of the early Buddhist traditions, discovered in the 20th century, suggest the early Buddhist traditions used an imperfect and reasonably good Sanskrit, sometimes with a Pali syntax, states Renou. The Mahāsāṃghika and Mahavastu, in their late Hinayana forms, used hybrid Sanskrit for their literature.¹⁶⁴ Sanskrit was also the language of some of the oldest surviving, authoritative and much followed philosophical works of Jainism such as the Tattvartha Sutra by Umaswati.¹⁶⁵¹⁶⁶

The Sanskrit language has been one of the major means for the transmission of knowledge and ideas in Asian history. Indian texts in Sanskrit were already in China by 402 CE, carried by the influential Buddhist pilgrim Faxian who translated them into Chinese by 418 CE.¹⁶⁷ Xuanzang, another Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, learnt Sanskrit in India and carried 657 Sanskrit texts to China in the 7th century where he established a major center of learning and language translation under the patronage of Emperor Taizong.¹⁶⁸¹⁶⁹ By the early 1st millennium CE, Sanskrit had spread Buddhist and Hindu ideas to Southeast Asia,¹⁷⁰ parts of the East Asia¹⁷¹ and the Central Asia.¹⁷² It was accepted as a language of high culture and the preferred language by some of the local ruling elites in these regions.¹⁷³ According to the Dalai Lama, the Sanskrit language is a parent language that is at the foundation of many modern languages of India and the one that promoted Indian thought to other distant countries. In Tibetan Buddhism, states the Dalai Lama, Sanskrit language has been a revered one and called legjar lhai-ka or "elegant language of the gods". It has been the means of transmitting the "profound wisdom of Buddhist philosophy" to Tibet.¹⁷⁴

The Sanskrit language created a pan-Indo-Aryan accessibility to information and knowledge in the ancient and medieval times, in contrast to the Prakrit languages which were understood just regionally.¹⁷⁵¹⁷⁶ It created a cultural bond across the subcontinent.¹⁷⁷ As local languages and dialects evolved and diversified, Sanskrit served as the common language.¹⁷⁸ It connected scholars from distant parts of South Asia such as Tamil Nadu and Kashmir, states Deshpande, as well as those from different fields of studies, though there must have been differences in its pronunciation given the first language of the respective speakers. The Sanskrit language brought Indo-Aryan speaking people together, particularly its elite scholars.¹⁷⁹ Some of these scholars of Indian history regionally produced vernacularized Sanskrit to reach wider audiences, as evidenced by texts discovered in Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Maharashtra. Once the audience became familiar with the easier to understand vernacularized version of Sanskrit, those interested could graduate from colloquial Sanskrit to the more advanced Classical Sanskrit. Rituals and the rites-of-passage ceremonies have been and continue to be the other occasions where a wide spectrum of people hear Sanskrit, and occasionally join in to speak some Sanskrit words such as namah.¹⁸⁰

Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini, around the fourth century BCE.¹⁸¹ Its position in the cultures of Greater India is akin to that of Latin and Ancient Greek in Europe. Sanskrit has significantly influenced most modern languages of the Indian subcontinent, particularly the languages of the northern, western, central and eastern Indian subcontinent.^182183184

Decline

The decline of Sanskrit began in the 13th century.¹⁸⁵¹⁸⁶ This coincides with the beginning of Islamic invasions of South Asia to create, and thereafter expand the Muslim rule in the form of Sultanates, and later the Mughal Empire.¹⁸⁷ Sheldon Pollock characterises the decline of Sanskrit as a long-term "cultural, social, and political change". He dismisses the idea that Sanskrit declined due to "struggle with barbarous invaders", and emphasises factors such as the increasing attractiveness of vernacular language for literary expression.¹⁸⁸

With the fall of Kashmir around the 13th century, a premier center of Sanskrit literary creativity, Sanskrit literature there disappeared,¹⁸⁹ perhaps in the "fires that periodically engulfed the capital of Kashmir" or the "Mongol invasion of 1320" states Pollock.¹⁹⁰ The Sanskrit literature which was once widely disseminated out of the northwest regions of the subcontinent, stopped after the 12th century.¹⁹¹ As Hindu kingdoms fell in the eastern and the South India, such as the great Vijayanagara Empire, so did Sanskrit.¹⁹² There were exceptions and short periods of imperial support for Sanskrit, mostly concentrated during the reign of the tolerant Mughal emperor Akbar.¹⁹³ Muslim rulers patronized the Middle Eastern language and scripts found in Persia and Arabia, and the Indians linguistically adapted to this Persianization to gain employment with the Muslim rulers.¹⁹⁴ Hindu rulers such as Shivaji of the Maratha Empire, reversed the process, by re-adopting Sanskrit and re-asserting their socio-linguistic identity.^195196197 After Islamic rule disintegrated in South Asia and the colonial rule era began, Sanskrit re-emerged but in the form of a "ghostly existence" in regions such as Bengal. This decline was the result of "political institutions and civic ethos" that did not support the historic Sanskrit literary culture¹⁹⁸ and the failure of new Sanskrit literature to assimilate into the changing cultural and political environment.¹⁹⁹

Sheldon Pollock states that in some crucial way, "Sanskrit is dead".²⁰⁰ After the 12th century, the Sanskrit literary works were reduced to "reinscription and restatements" of ideas already explored, and any creativity was restricted to hymns and verses. This contrasted with the previous 1,500 years when "great experiments in moral and aesthetic imagination" marked the Indian scholarship using Classical Sanskrit, states Pollock.²⁰¹

Scholars maintain that the Sanskrit language did not die, but rather only declined. Jurgen Hanneder disagrees with Pollock, finding his arguments elegant but "often arbitrary". According to Hanneder, a decline or regional absence of creative and innovative literature constitutes a negative evidence to Pollock's hypothesis, but it is not positive evidence. A closer look at Sanskrit in the Indian history after the 12th century suggests that Sanskrit survived despite the odds. According to Hanneder,²⁰²

On a more public level the statement that Sanskrit is a dead language is misleading, for Sanskrit is quite obviously not as dead as other dead languages and the fact that it is spoken, written and read will probably convince most people that it cannot be a dead language in the most common usage of the term. Pollock's notion of the "death of Sanskrit" remains in this unclear realm between academia and public opinion when he says that "most observers would agree that, in some crucial way, Sanskrit is dead."²⁰³

The Sanskrit language scholar Moriz Winternitz states that Sanskrit was never a dead language and it is still alive though its prevalence is lesser than ancient and medieval times. Sanskrit remains an integral part of Hindu journals, festivals, Ramlila plays, drama, rituals and the rites-of-passage.²⁰⁴ Similarly, Brian Hatcher states that the "metaphors of historical rupture" by Pollock are not valid, that there is ample proof that Sanskrit was very much alive in the narrow confines of surviving Hindu kingdoms between the 13th and 18th centuries, and its reverence and tradition continues.²⁰⁵

Hanneder states that modern works in Sanskrit are either ignored or their "modernity" contested.²⁰⁶

According to Robert P. Goldman and Sally Sutherland, Sanskrit is neither "dead" nor "living" in the conventional sense. It is a special, timeless language that lives in the numerous manuscripts, daily chants, and ceremonial recitations, a heritage language that Indians contextually prize, and which some practice.²⁰⁷

When the British introduced English to India in the 19th century, knowledge of Sanskrit and ancient literature continued to flourish as the study of Sanskrit changed from a more traditional style into a form of analytical and comparative scholarship mirroring that of Europe.²⁰⁸

Modern Indo-Aryan languages

The relationship of Sanskrit to the Prakrit languages, particularly the modern form of Indian languages, is complex and spans about 3,500 years, states Colin Masica—a linguist specializing in South Asian languages. A part of the difficulty is the lack of sufficient textual, archaeological and epigraphical evidence for the ancient Prakrit languages with rare exceptions such as Pali, leading to a tendency toward anachronistic errors.²⁰⁹ Sanskrit and Prakrit languages may be divided into Old Indo-Aryan (1500 BCE – 600 BCE), Middle Indo-Aryan (600 BCE – 1000 CE) and New Indo-Aryan (1000 CE – present), each can further be subdivided into early, middle or second, and late evolutionary substages.²¹⁰

Vedic Sanskrit belongs to the early Old Indo-Aryan stage, while Classical Sanskrit to the later Old Indo-Aryan stage. The evidence for Prakrits such as Pali (Theravada Buddhism) and Ardhamagadhi (Jainism), along with Magadhi, Maharashtri, Sinhala, Sauraseni and Niya (Gandhari), emerge in the Middle Indo-Aryan stage in two versions—archaic and more formalized—that may be placed in early and middle substages of the 600 BCE – 1000 CE period.²¹¹ Two literary Indo-Aryan languages can be traced to the late Middle Indo-Aryan stage and these are Apabhramsa and Elu (a literary form of Sinhalese). Numerous North, Central, Eastern and Western Indian languages, such as Hindi, Gujarati, Sindhi, Punjabi, Kashmiri, Nepali, Braj, Awadhi, Bengali, Assamese, Oriya, Marathi, and others belong to the New Indo-Aryan stage.²¹²

There is an extensive overlap in the vocabulary, phonetics and other aspects of these New Indo-Aryan languages with Sanskrit, but it is neither universal nor identical across the languages. They likely emerged from a synthesis of the ancient Sanskrit language traditions and an admixture of various regional dialects. Each language has some unique and regionally creative aspects, with unclear origins. Prakrit languages do have a grammatical structure, but like Vedic Sanskrit, it is far less rigorous than Classical Sanskrit. While the roots of all Prakrit languages may be in Vedic Sanskrit and ultimately the Proto-Indo-Aryan language, their structural details vary from Classical Sanskrit.²¹³²¹⁴ It is generally accepted by scholars and widely believed in India that the modern Indo-Aryan languages – such as Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, and Punjabi – are descendants of the Sanskrit language.^215216217 Sanskrit, states Burjor Avari, can be described as "the mother language of almost all the languages of north India".²¹⁸

Geographic distribution

See also: Sanskrit inscriptions in the Malay world

Further information: Sanskritisation and Indosphere

The Sanskrit language's historic presence is attested across a wide geography beyond South Asia. Inscriptions and literary evidence suggests that Sanskrit language was already being adopted in Southeast Asia and Central Asia in the 1st millennium CE, through monks, religious pilgrims and merchants.^219220221

South Asia has been the geographic range of the largest collection of the ancient and pre-18th-century Sanskrit manuscripts and inscriptions.²²² Beyond ancient India, significant collections of Sanskrit manuscripts and inscriptions have been found in China (particularly the Tibetan monasteries),²²³²²⁴ Myanmar,²²⁵ Indonesia,²²⁶ Cambodia,²²⁷ Laos,²²⁸ Vietnam,²²⁹ Thailand,²³⁰ and Malaysia.²³¹ Sanskrit inscriptions, manuscripts or its remnants, including some of the oldest known Sanskrit written texts, have been discovered in dry high deserts and mountainous terrains such as in Nepal,^232233234 Tibet,²³⁵²³⁶ Afghanistan,²³⁷²³⁸ Mongolia,²³⁹ Uzbekistan,²⁴⁰ Turkmenistan, Tajikistan,²⁴¹ and Kazakhstan.²⁴² Some Sanskrit texts and inscriptions have also been discovered in Korea and Japan.^243244245

Official status

See also: Sanskrit revival and Sanskrit universities in India

In India, Sanskrit is among the 22 official languages of India in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution.²⁴⁶ In 2010, Uttarakhand became the first state in India to make Sanskrit its second official language.²⁴⁷ In 2019, Himachal Pradesh made Sanskrit its second official language, becoming the second state in India to do so.²⁴⁸

Phonology

Sanskrit shares many Proto-Indo-European phonological features, although it features a larger inventory of distinct phonemes. The consonantal system is the same, though it systematically enlarged the inventory of distinct sounds. For example, Sanskrit added a voiceless aspirated "tʰ", to the voiceless "t", voiced "d" and voiced aspirated "dʰ" found in PIE languages.²⁴⁹

The most significant and distinctive phonological development in Sanskrit is vowel merger.²⁵⁰ The short *e, *o and *a, all merge as a (अ) in Sanskrit, while long *ē, *ō and *ā, all merge as long ā (आ). Compare Sanskrit nāman to Latin nōmen. These mergers occurred very early and significantly affected Sanskrit's morphological system.²⁵¹ Some phonological developments in it mirror those in other PIE languages. For example, the labiovelars merged with the plain velars as in other satem languages. The secondary palatalization of the resulting segments is more thorough and systematic within Sanskrit.²⁵² For example, unlike the loss of the morphological clarity from vowel contraction that is found in early Greek and related southeast European languages, Sanskrit deployed *y, *w, and *s intervocalically to provide morphological clarity.²⁵³

Vowels

The cardinal vowels (svaras) a (अ), i (इ), and u (उ) distinguish length in Sanskrit.²⁵⁴²⁵⁵ The short a (अ) in Sanskrit is a closer vowel than ā, equivalent to schwa. The mid vowels ē (ए) and ō (ओ) in Sanskrit are monophthongizations of the Indo-Iranian diphthongs *ai and *au. They are inherently long, though often transcribed e and o without the diacritic. The vocalic liquid r̥ in Sanskrit is a merger of PIE *r̥ and *l̥. The long r̥ is an innovation and it is used in a few analogically generated morphological categories.^256257258

Sanskrit vowels in the Devanagari script²⁵⁹²⁶⁰

	Independent form	IAST/ISO	IPA	Independent form	IAST/ISO	IPA
kaṇṭhya(Guttural)	अ	a	/ɐ/	आ	ā	/ɑː/
tālavya(Palatal)	इ	i	/i/	ई	ī	/iː/
oṣṭhya(Labial)	उ	u	/u/	ऊ	ū	/uː/
mūrdhanya(Retroflex)	ऋ	ṛ/r̥	/r̩/	ॠ	ṝ/r̥̄	/r̩ː/
dantya(Dental)	ऌ	ḷ/l̥	/l̩/	ॡ	ḹ/l̥̄261	/l̩ː/
kaṇṭhatālavya(Palatoguttural)	ए	e/ē	/eː/	ऐ	ai	/ɑj/
kaṇṭhoṣṭhya(Labioguttural)	ओ	o/ō	/oː/	औ	au	/ɑw/
(consonantal allophones)	ं	ṃ/ṁ262	/◌̃/	ः	ḥ263	/h/

According to Masica, Sanskrit has four traditional semivowels, with which were classed, "for morphophonemic reasons, the liquids: y, r, l, and v; that is, as y and v were the non-syllabics corresponding to i, u, so were r, l in relation to r̥ and l̥".²⁶⁴ The northwestern, the central and the eastern Sanskrit dialects have had a historic confusion between "r" and "l". The Paninian system that followed the central dialect preserved the distinction, likely out of reverence for the Vedic Sanskrit that distinguished the "r" and "l". However, the northwestern dialect only had "r", while the eastern dialect probably only had "l", states Masica. Thus literary works from different parts of ancient India appear inconsistent in their use of "r" and "l", resulting in doublets that are occasionally semantically differentiated.²⁶⁵

The nasal 'ṃ' is optionally the corresponding nasal consonant before plosives (aṃ + k = aṅk or am k) and an 'm'-sound before r, s, ś, ṣ, and h. Before y, l, v, it can cause nasalaization and gemination (am + y = aỹy or am y).²⁶⁶

Consonants

Sanskrit possesses a symmetric consonantal phoneme structure based on how the sound is articulated, though the actual usage of these sounds conceals the lack of parallelism in the apparent symmetry possibly from historical changes within the language.²⁶⁷

Sanskrit consonants in the Devanagari script²⁶⁸²⁶⁹

	sparśa(Plosive)								anunāsika(Nasal)		antastha(Approximant)		ūṣman/saṃgharṣhī(Fricative)
Voicing →	aghoṣa				ghoṣa								aghoṣa
Aspiration →	alpaprāṇa		mahāprāṇa		alpaprāṇa		mahāprāṇa		alpaprāṇa				mahāprāṇa
kaṇṭhya(Guttural)	क	ka[k]	ख	kha[kʰ]	ग	ga[ɡ]	घ	gha[ɡʱ]	ङ	ṅa[ŋ]	ह	ha[ɦ]	ᳲक	ẖ[x]
tālavya(Palatal)	च	ca[t͜ɕ]	छ	cha[t͜ɕʰ]	ज	ja[d͜ʑ]	झ	jha[d͜ʑʱ]	ञ	ña[ɲ]	य	ya[j]	श	śa[ɕ]
mūrdhanya(Retroflex)	ट	ṭa[ʈ]	ठ	ṭha[ʈʰ]	ड	ḍa[ɖ]	ढ	ḍha[ɖʱ]	ण	ṇa[ɳ]	र	ra[ɾ]	ष	ṣa[ʂ]
dantya(Dental)	त	ta[t]	थ	tha[tʰ]	द	da[d]	ध	dha[dʱ]	न	na[n]	ल	la[l]	स	sa[s]
oṣṭhya(Labial)	प	pa[p]	फ	pha[pʰ]	ब	ba[b]	भ	bha[bʱ]	म	ma[m]	व	va[ʋ]	ᳲप	ḫ[ɸ]

• Sanskrit has a series of retroflex stops originating as conditioned alternants of dentals.²⁷⁰
• jh is a marginal phoneme in Sanskrit, hence its phonology is more difficult to reconstruct; it was more commonly employed in the Middle Indo-Aryan languages as a result of phonological processes resulting in the phoneme.
• The palatal nasal is a conditioned variant of n occurring next to palatal obstruents.²⁷¹
• The anusvara that Sanskrit deploys is a conditioned alternant of post-vocalic nasals, under certain sandhi conditions.²⁷²
• The visarga is a word-final or morpheme-final conditioned alternant of s and r under certain sandhi conditions.²⁷³
• The voiceless aspirated series is also an innovation in Sanskrit but is rarer than the other three series.²⁷⁴
• While the Sanskrit language organizes sounds for expression beyond those found in the PIE language, it retained many features found in the Iranian and Balto-Slavic languages. An example of a similar process in all three is the retroflex sibilant ʂ being the automatic product of dental s following i, u, r, and k.²⁷⁵

Phonological alternations, sandhi rules

See also: Sandhi and Sanskrit grammar

Sanskrit deploys extensive phonological alternations on different linguistic levels through sandhi rules (literally, the rules of "putting together, union, connection, alliance"), similar to the English alteration of "going to" as gonna.²⁷⁶ The Sanskrit language accepts such alterations within it, but offers formal rules for the sandhi of any two words next to each other in the same sentence or linking two sentences. The external sandhi rules state that similar short vowels coalesce into a single long vowel, while dissimilar vowels form glides or undergo diphthongization.²⁷⁷ Among the consonants, most external sandhi rules recommend regressive assimilation for clarity when they are voiced. These rules ordinarily apply at compound seams and morpheme boundaries.²⁷⁸ In Vedic Sanskrit, the external sandhi rules are more variable than in Classical Sanskrit.²⁷⁹

Vedic Pitch Accent

See also: Vedic accent and Vedic chant

Vedic Sanskrit included a three-way pitch accent system of udātta (raised), anudātta (not-raised or grave), and svarita (sounded) which were high, low and falling pitches respectively. Each word generally had one udātta accent except for certain compound words. The classical language ultimately lost this system, but it was preserved in Vedic texts and phonological treatises. Traditional chanting renders the udātta as an unaccented mid-tone and the first half of the svarita as higher than an udātta; the other half is rendered the same level of that of an udātta.²⁸⁰

Morphology

Main article: Sanskrit grammar

See also: Vedic Sanskrit grammar and Sanskrit verbs

The basis of Sanskrit morphology is the root, states Jamison, "a morpheme bearing lexical meaning".²⁸¹ The verbal and nominal stems of Sanskrit words are derived from this root through the phonological vowel-gradation processes, the addition of affixes, verbal and nominal stems. It then adds an ending to establish the grammatical and syntactic identity of the stem. According to Jamison, the "three major formal elements of the morphology are (i) root, (ii) affix, and (iii) ending; and they are roughly responsible for (i) lexical meaning, (ii) derivation, and (iii) inflection respectively".²⁸²

A Sanskrit word has the following canonical structure:²⁸³

Root + Affix0-n + Ending0–1

The root structure has certain phonological constraints. Two of the most important constraints of a "root" is that it does not end in a short "a" (अ) and that it is monosyllabic.²⁸⁴ In contrast, the affixes and endings commonly do. The affixes in Sanskrit are almost always suffixes, with exceptions such as the augment "a-" added as prefix to past tense verb forms and the "-na/n-" infix in single verbal present class, states Jamison.²⁸⁵

Sanskrit verbs have the following canonical structure:²⁸⁶

Root + SuffixTense-Aspect + SuffixMood + EndingPersonal-Number-Voice

According to Ruppel, verbs in Sanskrit express the same information as other Indo-European languages such as English.²⁸⁷ Sanskrit verbs describe an action or occurrence or state, its embedded morphology informs as to "who is doing it" (person or persons), "when it is done" (tense) and "how it is done" (mood, voice). The Indo-European languages differ in the detail. For example, the Sanskrit language attaches the affixes and ending to the verb root, while the English language adds small independent words before the verb. In Sanskrit, these elements co-exist within the word.²⁸⁸²⁸⁹

Word morphology in Sanskrit, A. M. Ruppel²⁹⁰²⁹¹

	Sanskrit word equivalent
English expression	IAST/ISO	Devanagari
you carry	bharasi	भरसि
they carry	bharanti	भरन्ति
you will carry	bhariṣyasi	भरिष्यसि

Both verbs and nouns in Sanskrit are either thematic or athematic, states Jamison.²⁹² Guna (strengthened) forms in the active singular regularly alternate in athematic verbs. The finite verbs of Classical Sanskrit have the following grammatical categories: person, number, voice, tense-aspect, and mood. According to Jamison, a portmanteau morpheme generally expresses the person-number-voice in Sanskrit, and sometimes also the ending or only the ending. The mood of the word is embedded in the affix.²⁹³

These elements of word architecture are the typical building blocks in Classical Sanskrit, but in Vedic Sanskrit these elements fluctuate and are unclear. For example, in the Rigveda preverbs regularly occur in tmesis, states Jamison, which means they are "separated from the finite verb".²⁹⁴ This indecisiveness is likely linked to Vedic Sanskrit's attempt to incorporate accent. With nonfinite forms of the verb and with nominal derivatives thereof, states Jamison, "preverbs show much clearer univerbation in Vedic, both by position and by accent, and by Classical Sanskrit, tmesis is no longer possible even with finite forms".²⁹⁵

While roots are typical in Sanskrit, some words do not follow the canonical structure.²⁹⁶ A few forms lack both inflection and root. Many words are inflected (and can enter into derivation) but lack a recognizable root. Examples from the basic vocabulary include kinship terms such as mātar- (mother), nas- (nose), śvan- (dog). According to Jamison, pronouns and some words outside the semantic categories also lack roots, as do the numerals. Similarly, the Sanskrit language is flexible enough to not mandate inflection.²⁹⁷

The Sanskrit words can contain more than one affix that interact with each other. Affixes in Sanskrit can be athematic as well as thematic, according to Jamison.²⁹⁸ Athematic affixes can be alternating. Sanskrit deploys eight cases, namely nominative, accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive, locative, vocative.²⁹⁹

Stems, that is "root + affix", appear in two categories in Sanskrit: vowel stems and consonant stems. Unlike some Indo-European languages such as Latin or Greek, according to Jamison, "Sanskrit has no closed set of conventionally denoted noun declensions". Sanskrit includes a fairly large set of stem-types.³⁰⁰ The linguistic interaction of the roots, the phonological segments, lexical items and the grammar for the Classical Sanskrit consist of four Paninian components. These, states Paul Kiparsky, are the Astadhyaayi, a comprehensive system of 4,000 grammatical rules, of which a small set are frequently used; Sivasutras, an inventory of anubandhas (markers) that partition phonological segments for efficient abbreviations through the pratyharas technique; Dhatupatha, a list of 2,000 verbal roots classified by their morphology and syntactic properties using diacritic markers, a structure that guides its writing systems; and, the Ganapatha, an inventory of word groups, classes of lexical systems.³⁰¹ There are peripheral adjuncts to these four, such as the Unadisutras, which focus on irregularly formed derivatives from the roots.³⁰²

Sanskrit morphology is generally studied in two broad fundamental categories: the nominal forms and the verbal forms. These differ in the types of endings and what these endings mark in the grammatical context.³⁰³ Pronouns and nouns share the same grammatical categories, though they may differ in inflection. Verb-based adjectives and participles are not formally distinct from nouns. Adverbs are typically frozen case forms of adjectives, states Jamison, and "nonfinite verbal forms such as infinitives and gerunds also clearly show frozen nominal case endings".³⁰⁴

Verbal forms

The Sanskrit language includes five tenses: present, future, past imperfect, past aorist and past perfect.³⁰⁵ It outlines three types of voices: active, passive and the middle.³⁰⁶ The middle is also referred to as the mediopassive, or more formally in Sanskrit as parasmaipada (word for another) and atmanepada (word for oneself).³⁰⁷

Voice in Sanskrit, Stephanie Jamison³⁰⁸³⁰⁹

	Active			Middle(Mediopassive)
	Singular	Dual	Plural	Singular	Dual	Plural
1st person	-mi	-vaḥ	-maḥ	-e	-vahe	-mahe
2nd person	-si	-thaḥ	-tha	-se	-āthe	-dhve
3rd person	-ti	-taḥ	-anti	-te	-āte	-ante

The paradigm for the tense-aspect system in Sanskrit is the three-way contrast between the "present", the "aorist" and the "perfect" architecture.³¹⁰ Vedic Sanskrit is more elaborate and had several additional tenses. For example, the Rigveda includes perfect and a marginal pluperfect. Classical Sanskrit simplifies the "present" system down to two tenses, the perfect and the imperfect, while the "aorist" stems retain the aorist tense and the "perfect" stems retain the perfect and marginal pluperfect.³¹¹ The classical version of the language has elaborate rules for both voice and the tense-aspect system to emphasize clarity, and this is more elaborate than in other Indo-European languages. The evolution of these systems can be seen from the earliest layers of the Vedic literature to the late Vedic literature.³¹²

The three verbal moods in Sanskrit are indicative, potential (optative), and imperative.³¹³

Nominal forms

Sanskrit recognizes three numbers—singular, dual, and plural.³¹⁴ The dual is a fully functioning category, used beyond naturally paired objects such as hands or eyes, extending to any collection of two. The elliptical dual is notable in the Vedic Sanskrit, according to Jamison, where a noun in the dual signals a paired opposition.³¹⁵ Illustrations include dyāvā (literally, "the two heavens" for heaven-and-earth), mātarā (literally, "the two mothers" for mother-and-father).³¹⁶ A verb may be singular, dual or plural, while the person recognized in the language are forms of "I", "you", "he/she/it", "we" and "they".³¹⁷

There are three persons in Sanskrit: first, second and third.³¹⁸ Sanskrit uses the 3×3 grid formed by the three numbers and the three persons parameters as the paradigm and the basic building block of its verbal system.³¹⁹

The Sanskrit language incorporates three genders: feminine, masculine and neuter.³²⁰ All nouns have inherent gender. With some exceptions, personal pronouns have no gender. Exceptions include demonstrative and anaphoric pronouns.³²¹ Derivation of a word is used to express the feminine. Two most common derivations come from feminine-forming suffixes, the -ā- (आ, Rādhā) and -ī- (ई, Rukminī). The masculine and neuter are much simpler, and the difference between them is primarily inflectional.³²²³²³ Similar affixes for the feminine are found in many Indo-European languages, states Burrow, suggesting links of the Sanskrit to its PIE heritage.³²⁴

Pronouns in Sanskrit include the personal pronouns of the first and second persons, unmarked for gender, and a larger number of gender-distinguishing pronouns and adjectives.³²⁵ Examples of the former include ahám (first singular), vayám (first plural) and yūyám (second plural). The latter can be demonstrative, deictic or anaphoric.³²⁶ Both the Vedic and Classical Sanskrit share the sá/tám pronominal stem, and this is the closest element to a third person pronoun and an article in the Sanskrit language, states Jamison.³²⁷

Prosody, metre

Main articles: Sanskrit prosody and Vedic metre

The Sanskrit language formally incorporates poetic metres.³²⁸ By the late Vedic era, this developed into a field of study; it was central to the composition of the Hindu literature, including the later Vedic texts. This study of Sanskrit prosody is called chandas, and is considered one of the six Vedangas, or limbs of Vedic studies.³²⁹³³⁰

Sanskrit metres include those based on a fixed number of syllables per verse, and those based on fixed number of morae per verse.³³¹ The Vedic Sanskrit employs fifteen metres, of which seven are common, and the most frequent are three (8-, 11- and 12-syllable lines).³³² The Classical Sanskrit deploys both linear and non-linear metres, many of which are based on syllables and others based on diligently crafted verses based on repeating numbers of morae (matra per foot).³³³

Writing system

Further information: Brahmi script and Devanagari

The early history of writing Sanskrit and other languages in ancient India is a problematic topic despite a century of scholarship, states Richard Salomon – an epigraphist and Indologist specializing in Sanskrit and Pali literature.³³⁴ The earliest possible script from South Asia is from the Indus Valley civilization (3rd/2nd millennium BCE), but this script – if it is a script – remains undeciphered. If any scripts existed in the Vedic period, they have not survived. Scholars generally accept that Sanskrit was spoken in an oral society, and that an oral tradition preserved the extensive Vedic and Classical Sanskrit literature.³³⁵ Other scholars such as Jack Goody argue that the Vedic Sanskrit texts are not the product of an oral society, basing this view by comparing inconsistencies in the transmitted versions of literature from various oral societies such as the Greek (Greco-Sanskrit), Serbian, and other cultures. This minority of scholars argue that the Vedic literature is too consistent and vast to have been composed and transmitted orally across generations, without having been written down.^336337338

Lipi is the term in Sanskrit which means "writing, letters, alphabet". It contextually refers to scripts, the art or any manner of writing or drawing.³³⁹ The term, in the sense of a writing system, appears in some of the earliest Buddhist, Hindu, and Jaina texts. Pāṇini's Astadhyayi, composed sometime around the 5th or 4th century BCE, for example, mentions lipi in the context of a writing script and education system in his times, but he does not name the script.^340341342 Several early Buddhist and Jaina texts, such as the Lalitavistara Sūtra and Pannavana Sutta include lists of numerous writing scripts in ancient India.³⁴³ The Buddhist texts list the sixty four lipi that the Buddha knew as a child, with the Brahmi script topping the list. "The historical value of this list is however limited by several factors", states Salomon. The list may be a later interpolation.³⁴⁴³⁴⁵ The Jain canonical texts such as the Pannavana Sutta – probably older than the Buddhist texts – list eighteen writing systems, with the Brahmi topping the list and Kharotthi (Kharoshthi) listed as fourth. The Jaina text elsewhere states that the "Brahmi is written in 18 different forms", but the details are lacking.³⁴⁶ However, the reliability of these lists has been questioned and the empirical evidence of writing systems in the form of Sanskrit or Prakrit inscriptions dated prior to the 3rd century BCE has not been found. If the ancient surfaces for writing Sanskrit were palm leaves, tree bark and cloth – the same as those in later times – these have not survived.³⁴⁷³⁴⁸ According to Salomon, many find it difficult to explain the "evidently high level of political organization and cultural complexity" of ancient India without a writing system for Sanskrit and other languages.³⁴⁹³⁵⁰

The oldest datable writing systems for Sanskrit are the Brāhmī script, the related Kharoṣṭhī script and the Brahmi derivatives.³⁵¹³⁵² The Kharosthi was used in the northwestern part of South Asia and it became extinct, while the Brahmi was used all over the subcontinent along with regional scripts such as Old Tamil.³⁵³ Of these, the earliest records in the Sanskrit language are in Brahmi, a script that later evolved into numerous related Indic scripts for Sanskrit, along with Southeast Asian scripts (Burmese, Thai, Lao, Khmer, others) and many extinct Central Asian scripts such as those discovered along with the Kharosthi in the Tarim Basin of western China and in Uzbekistan.³⁵⁴ The most extensive inscriptions that have survived into the modern era are the rock edicts and pillar inscriptions of the 3rd century BCE Mauryan emperor Ashoka, but these are not in Sanskrit.³⁵⁵³⁵⁶

Scripts

Over the centuries, and across countries, a number of scripts have been used to write Sanskrit.

Brahmi script

Main article: Brahmi script

The Brahmi script for writing Sanskrit is a "modified consonant-syllabic" script. The graphic syllable is its basic unit, and this consists of a consonant with or without diacritic modifications.³⁵⁷ Since the vowel is an integral part of the consonants, and given the efficiently compacted, fused consonant cluster morphology for Sanskrit words and grammar, the Brahmi and its derivative writing systems deploy ligatures, diacritics and relative positioning of the vowel to inform the reader how the vowel is related to the consonant and how it is expected to be pronounced for clarity.^358359360 This feature of Brahmi and its modern Indic script derivatives makes it difficult to classify it under the main script types used for the writing systems for most of the world's languages, namely logographic, syllabic and alphabetic.³⁶¹

Nagari script

Main articles: Devanagari, Nandinagari, and Nāgarī script

Many modern era manuscripts are written and available in the Nagari script, whose form is attestable to the 1st millennium CE.³⁶² The Nagari script is the ancestor of Devanagari (north India), Nandinagari (south India) and other variants. The Nāgarī script was in regular use by 7th century CE, and had fully evolved into Devanagari and Nandinagari³⁶³ scripts by about the end of the first millennium of the common era.³⁶⁴³⁶⁵ The Devanagari script, states Banerji, became more popular for Sanskrit in India since about the 18th century.³⁶⁶ However, Sanskrit does have special historical connection to the Nagari script as attested by the epigraphical evidence.³⁶⁷

The Nagari script used for Classical Sanskrit has the fullest repertoire of characters consisting of fourteen vowels and thirty three consonants. For Vedic Sanskrit, it has two more allophonic consonantal characters (the intervocalic ळ ḷa, and ळ्ह ḷha).³⁶⁸ To communicate phonetic accuracy, it also includes several modifiers such as the anusvara dot and the visarga double dot, punctuation symbols and others such as the halanta sign.³⁶⁹

Other writing systems

Other scripts such as Gujarati, Bangla-Assamese, Odia and major south Indian scripts, states Salomon, "have been and often still are used in their proper territories for writing Sanskrit".³⁷⁰ These and many Indian scripts look different to the untrained eye, but the differences between Indic scripts is "mostly superficial and they share the same phonetic repertoire and systemic features", states Salomon.³⁷¹ They all have essentially the same set of eleven to fourteen vowels and thirty-three consonants as established by the Sanskrit language and attestable in the Brahmi script. Further, a closer examination reveals that they all have the similar basic graphic principles, the same varnamala (literally, "garland of letters") alphabetic ordering following the same logical phonetic order, easing the work of historic skilled scribes writing or reproducing Sanskrit works across South Asia.³⁷²³⁷³

In the south, where Dravidian languages predominate, scripts used for Sanskrit include the Kannada, Telugu, Malayalam and Grantha alphabets.

Transliteration schemes, Romanisation

Main articles: Devanagari transliteration and International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration

Since the late 18th century, Sanskrit has been transliterated using the Latin alphabet. The system most commonly used today is the IAST (International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration), which has been the academic standard since 1888. ASCII-based transliteration schemes have also evolved because of difficulties representing Sanskrit characters in computer systems. These include Harvard-Kyoto and ITRANS, a transliteration scheme that is used widely on the Internet, especially in Usenet and in email, for considerations of speed of entry as well as rendering issues. With the wide availability of Unicode-aware web browsers, IAST has become common online. It is also possible to type using an alphanumeric keyboard and transliterate to Devanagari using software like Mac OS X's international support.

Epigraphy

Main article: Sanskrit epigraphy

This section is transcluded from Sanskrit epigraphy. (edit | history)

Sanskrit epigraphy, the study of ancient inscriptions in Sanskrit, offers insight into the linguistic, cultural, and historical evolution of South Asia and its neighbors. Early inscriptions, such as those from the 1st century BCE in Ayodhya and Hathibada, are written in Brahmi script and reflect the transition to classical Sanskrit. The Mathura inscriptions from the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, including the Mora Well and Vasu Doorjamb inscriptions, represent significant contributions to the early use of Sanskrit, often linked to Hindu and Jaina traditions.³⁷⁴³⁷⁵

Sanskrit inscriptions extended beyond South Asia, influencing Southeast Asia from the 4th century CE onward. Indic scripts adapted for Sanskrit were found in regions like Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Cambodia, where they evolved into local scripts such as Khmer, Javanese, and Balinese. These inscriptions highlight the spread of Indian cultural and religious practices.^376377378

Literature

Main articles: Sanskrit literature and Sanskrit Buddhist literature

Literature in Sanskrit³⁷⁹ can be broadly divided into texts composed in Vedic Sanskrit and the later Classical Sanskrit.³⁸⁰ Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the extensive liturgical works of the Vedic religion,³⁸¹ which aside from the four Vedas, include the Brāhmaṇas and the Sūtras.^382383384

The Vedic literature that survives is entirely of a religious form, whereas works in Classical Sanskrit exist in a wide variety of fields including epics, lyric, drama, romance, fairytale, fables, grammar, civil and religious law, the science of politics and practical life, the science of love and sex, philosophy, medicine, astronomy, astrology and mathematics, and is largely secular in subject-matter.³⁸⁵³⁸⁶

While Vedic literature is essentially optimistic in spirit, portraying man as strong and powerful capable of finding fulfilment both here and in the afterworld, the later literature is pessimistic, portraying humans as controlled by the forces of fate with worldly pleasures deemed the cause of misery. These fundamental differences in psychology are attributed to the absence of the doctrines of Karma and reincarnation in the Vedic period, notions which are very prevalent in later times.³⁸⁷

Works

See also: Hindu texts, Buddhist texts, and Jain literature

Sanskrit has been written in various scripts on a variety of media such as palm leaves, cloth, paper, rock and metal sheets, from ancient times.³⁸⁸

Sanskrit literature by tradition

Tradition	Sanskrit texts, genre or collection	Example	References
Hinduism	Scriptures	Vedas, Upaniṣads, Āgamas, the Bhagavad·Gītā	389390
	Language, Grammar	Aṣṭādhyāyī, Gaṇa·pāṭha, Pada·pāṭha, Vārttikas, Mahābhāṣya, Vākya·padīya, Phiṭ·sūtra	391392393
	Civil and Religious Law	Dharma·sūtras/Dharma·śāstras,394 Manu·smṛti	395396
	Statecraft, political science	Artha·śāstra	397
	Timekeeping, Mathematics, Logic	Kalpa, Jyotiṣa, Gaṇita·śāstra, Śulba·sūtras, Siddhāntas, Āryabhaṭīya, Daśa·gītikā·sutra, Siddhānta·śiromaṇi, Gaṇita·sāra·saṅgraha, Bīja·gaṇita398	399400
	Life sciences, health	Āyurveda, Suśruta·saṃhitā, Caraka·saṃhitā	401402
	Sex, emotions403	Kāma·sūtra, Pañca·sāyaka, Rati·rahasya, Rati·mañjari, Anaṅga·ranga	404405
	Epics	Rāmāyaṇa, Mahābhārata	406407
	Court Epic (Kāvya)	Raghu·vaṃśa, Kumāra·sambhava	408
	Gnomic and didactic literature	Subhāṣitas, Nīti·śataka, Bodhicary'âvatāra, Śṛṅgāra·jñāna·nirṇaya, Kalā·vilāsa, Catur·varga·saṅgraha, Nīti·mañjari, Mugdh'ôpadeśa, Subhāṣita·ratna·sandoha, Yoga·śāstra, Śṛṅgāra·vairāgya·taraṅgiṇī	409
	Drama, dance and the performance arts	Nāṭya·śāstra	410411412
	Music	Sangīta·śāstra	413414
	Poetics	Kāvya·śāstra	415
	Mythology	Purāṇas	416
	Mystical speculations, philosophy	Darśana, Sāṅkhya, Yoga (philosophy), Nyāya, Vaiśeṣika, Mīmāṅsa, Vedānta, Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, Smārta Tradition and others	417
	Agriculture and food	Kṛṣi·śāstra	418
	Design, architecture (Vastu, Śilpa)	Śilpa·śāstra	419420
	Temples, Sculpture	Bṛhat·saṃhitā	421
	Saṃskāra (rites-of-passage)	Gṛhya·sūtras	422
Buddhism	Sutras, Vinaya, Kāvya, Medicine, Buddhist philosophy	Tripiṭaka,423 Mahayana sutras and shastras, tantras, grammar texts, Buddhist poetry, drama, Buddhist medical texts	424425426
Jainism	Theology, philosophy	Tattvārtha Sūtra, Mahāpurāṇa and others	427428

Lexicon

See also: Indo-European vocabulary and Sanskrit compound

As an Indo-European language, Sanskrit's core lexicon is inherited from Proto-Indo-European. Over time however, the language exhibits a tendency to shed many of these inherited words and borrow others in their place from other sources.

In the oldest Vedic literature, there are few such non-Indo-European words, but these progressively grow in volume.⁴²⁹

The following are some of the old Indo-European words that eventually fade out of use in Sanskrit:⁴³⁰

ápas	work	cf. Latin opus
kravís	raw flesh	cf. Latin crūdus
dáma-	house	cf. Latin domus
dā́nu-	moisture
háras-	heat

Dravidian lexical influence

The sources of these new loanwords are many, and vary across the different regions of the Indian subcontinent. But of all influences on the lexicon of Sanskrit, the most important is Dravidian.

The following is a list of Dravidian entrants into Sanskrit lexicon, although some may have been contested:⁴³¹⁴³²

phálam	ripe fruit	Proto-Dravidian *paẓam
múkham	mouth	Proto-Dravidian *mukam
kajjala-	soot, lampblack
kaṭu-	sharp, pungent
kaṭhina-	hard, firm
kuṭi-	hut, house
kuṭṭ-	to pound
kuṇḍala-	loop, ring, earring, coil of rope
khala-	a rogue
mayū́ra-	peacock
mallikā	jasmine
mīna-	fish
vallī-	creeper
heramba-	buffalo

Nominal-form preference

While Vedic and epic form of speech is largely cognate to that of other Indo-European languages such as Greek and Latin, later Sanskrit shows a tendency to move away from using verbal forms to nominal ones. Examples of nominal forms taking the place of conventional conjugation are:

past passive participle	naraḥ gataḥ	"the man went", (lit. 'The man was gone')
active past participle in -vant	kṛtavān	"he had done" (lit. 'He, having done, (is)')

However the most notable development is the prolific use of word-compounding to express ideas normally conveyed by verbal forms and sub-clauses introduced by conjunctions.⁴³³

Classical Sanskrit's pre-eminent playwright Kālidāsa uses:

vīcikṣobhastanitavihagaśreṇikāñcīguṇā

whose girdle-string is a row of birds, loquacious through the agitation of the waves

Influence on other languages

See also: Sanskritisation (language), Indosphere, and Greater India

For nearly 2,000 years, Sanskrit was the language of a cultural order that exerted influence across South Asia, Inner Asia, Southeast Asia, and to a certain extent East Asia.⁴³⁴ A significant form of post-Vedic Sanskrit is found in the Sanskrit of Indian epic poetry—the Ramayana and Mahabharata. The deviations from Pāṇini in the epics are generally considered to be on account of interference from Prakrits, or innovations, and not because they are pre-Paninian.⁴³⁵ Traditional Sanskrit scholars call such deviations ārṣa (आर्ष), meaning 'of the ṛṣis', the traditional title for the ancient authors. In some contexts, there are also more "prakritisms" (borrowings from common speech) than in Classical Sanskrit proper. Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit is a literary language heavily influenced by the Middle Indo-Aryan languages, based on early Buddhist Prakrit texts which subsequently assimilated to the Classical Sanskrit standard in varying degrees.⁴³⁶

Indian subcontinent

Sanskrit has greatly influenced the languages of India that grew from its vocabulary and grammatical base; for instance, Hindi is a "Sanskritised register" of Hindustani. All modern Indo-Aryan languages, as well as Munda and Dravidian languages have borrowed many words either directly from Sanskrit (tatsama words), or indirectly via middle Indo-Aryan languages (tadbhava words). Words originating in Sanskrit are estimated at fifty percent of the vocabulary of modern Indo-Aryan languages, as well as the literary forms of Malayalam and Kannada.⁴³⁷ Literary texts in Telugu are lexically Sanskrit or Sanskritised to an enormous extent, perhaps seventy percent or more.⁴³⁸ Marathi is another prominent language in Western India, that derives most of its words and Marathi grammar from Sanskrit.⁴³⁹ Sanskrit words are often preferred in the literary texts in Marathi over corresponding colloquial Marathi word.⁴⁴⁰

There has been a profound influence of Sanskrit on the lexical and grammatical systems of Dravidian languages. As per Dalby, India has been a single cultural area for about two millennia which has helped Sanskrit influence on all the Indic languages.⁴⁴¹ Emeneau and Burrow mention the tendency "for all four of the Dravidian literary languages in South to make literary use of total Sanskrit lexicon indiscriminately".⁴⁴² There are a large number of loanwords found in the vocabulary of the three major Dravidian languages Malayalam, Kannada and Telugu.⁴⁴³ Tamil also has significant loanwords from Sanskrit.⁴⁴⁴ Krishnamurthi mentions that although it is not clear when the Sanskrit influence happened on the Dravidian languages, it might have been around the 5th century BCE at the time of separation of Tamil and Kannada from a common ancestral stage.⁴⁴⁵ ‌The borrowed words are classified into two types based on phonological integration – tadbhava – those words derived from Prakrit and tatsama – unassimilated loanwords from Sanskrit.⁴⁴⁶

Strazny mentions that "so massive has been the influence that it is hard to utter Sanskrit words have influenced Kannada from the early times".⁴⁴⁷ The first document in Kannada, the Halmidi inscription has a large number of Sanskrit words. As per Kachru, the influence has not only been on single lexical items in Kannada but also on "long nominal compounds and complicated syntactic expressions". New words have been created in Kannada using Sanskrit derivational prefixes and suffixes like vikēndrīkaraṇa, anilīkaraṇa, bahīskruṭa. Similar stratification is found in verb morphology. Sanskrit words readily undergo verbalization in Kannada, verbalizing suffixes as in: chāpisu, dauḍāyisu, ravānisu.⁴⁴⁸

George mentions that "No other Dravidian language has been so deeply influenced by Sanskrit as Malayalam".⁴⁴⁹ According to Lambert, Malayalam is so immensely Sanskritised that every Sanskrit word can be used in Malayalam by integrating "prosodic phonological" changes as per Grant.⁴⁵⁰ Loanwords have been integrated into Malayalam by "prosodic phonological" changes as per Grant. These phonological changes are either by replacement of a vowel as in sant-am coming from Sanskrit santa, sāgar-am from sāgara, or addition of prothetic vowel as in aracan from rājā-, uruvam from rūpa, codyam from sodhya.⁴⁵¹

Hans Henrich et al. note that, the language of the pre-modern Telugu literature was also highly influenced by Sanskrit and was standardized between 11th and 14th centuries.⁴⁵² Aiyar has shown that in a class of tadbhavas in Telugu the first and second letters are often replaced by the third and fourth letters and fourth again replaced often by h. Examples of the same are: Sanskrit artha becomes ardhama, vīthi becomes vidhi, putra becomes bidda, mukham becomes muhamu.⁴⁵³

Tamil also has been influenced by Sanskrit. Hans Henrich et al. mention that propagation of Jainism and Buddhism into south India had its influence.⁴⁵⁴ Shulman mentions that although contrary to the views held by Tamil purists, modern Tamil has been significantly influenced from Sanskrit, further states that "Indeed, there may well be more Sanskrit in Tamil than in the Sanskrit derived north-Indian vernaculars". Sanskrit words have been Tamilized through the "Tamil phonematic grid".⁴⁵⁵

Beyond the Indian subcontinent

Sanskrit was a language for religious purposes and for the political elite in parts of medieval era Southeast Asia, Central Asia and East Asia, having been introduced in these regions mainly along with the spread of Buddhism. In some cases, it has competed with Pāli for prominence.⁴⁵⁶⁴⁵⁷

East Asia

Buddhist Sanskrit has had a considerable influence on Sino-Tibetan languages such as Chinese, state William Wang and Chaofen Sun.⁴⁵⁸ Many words have been adopted from Sanskrit into Chinese, both in its historic religious discourse and everyday use.⁴⁵⁹⁴⁶⁰ This process likely started about 200 CE and continued through about 1400 CE, with the efforts of monks such as Yuezhi, Anxi, Kangju, Tianzhu, Yan Fodiao, Faxian, Xuanzang and Yijing.⁴⁶¹

Further, as the Chinese languages and culture influenced the rest of East Asia, the ideas in Sanskrit texts and some of its linguistic elements migrated further.⁴⁶²⁴⁶³

Many terms were transliterated directly and added to the Chinese vocabulary. Chinese words like 剎那 chànà (Devanagari: क्षण kṣaṇa 'instantaneous period') were borrowed from Sanskrit. Many Sanskrit texts survive only in Tibetan collections of commentaries to the Buddhist teachings, the Tengyur.

Sanskrit has also influenced the religious register of Japanese mostly through transliterations. These were borrowed from Chinese transliterations.⁴⁶⁴ In particular, the Shingon (lit. 'True Words') sect of esoteric Buddhism has been relying on Sanskrit and original Sanskrit mantras and writings, as a means of realizing Buddhahood.⁴⁶⁵

Southeast Asia

Further information: Sanskrit inscriptions in the Malay world

A large number of inscriptions in Sanskrit across Southeast Asia testify the influence the language held in these regions.⁴⁶⁶

Languages such as Indonesian, Thai and Lao contain many loanwords from Sanskrit, as does Khmer. Many Sanskrit loanwords are also found in Austronesian languages, such as Javanese, particularly the older form in which nearly half the vocabulary is borrowed.⁴⁶⁷

Other Austronesian languages, such as Malay (descended into modern Malaysian and Indonesian standards) also derive much of their vocabulary from Sanskrit. Similarly, Philippine languages such as Tagalog have some Sanskrit loanwords, although more are derived from Spanish.

A Sanskrit loanword encountered in many Southeast Asian languages is the word bhāṣā, or spoken language, which is used to refer to the names of many languages.⁴⁶⁸

To this day, Southeast Asian languages such as Thai are known to draw upon Sanskrit for technical vocabulary.⁴⁶⁹

Indonesia

Further information: List of Indic loanwords in Indonesian

The earliest Sanskrit text which was founded in the Indonesian Archipelago was at Eastern Borneo dating back to 400 CE known as the Mulavarman inscription.⁴⁷⁰ This is one of the reason of strong influence of Indian culture that entered the Malay Archipelago during the Indianization era, and since then, Indian culture has been absorbed towards Indonesian culture and language. Thus, the Sanskrit culture in Indonesia exists not as a religious aspect but more towards a cultural aspect that has been present for generations, resulting in a more cultural rather than Hinduistic value of the Indonesian people. As a result, it is common to find Muslim or Christian Indonesians with names that have Indian or Sanskrit nuances. Unlike names derived from Sanskrit in Thai and Khmer, the pronunciation of Sanskrit names in Indonesia is more similar to the original Indian pronunciation, except that "v" is changed to "w", for example, "Vishnu" in India will be spelled "Wisnu" in Indonesia.

Rest of the world

In ancient and medieval times, several Sanskrit words in the field of food and spices made their way into European languages including Greek, Latin and later English. Some of these are pepper, ginger and sugar. English today has several words of Sanskrit origin, most of them borrowed⁴⁷¹[better source needed] during the British Raj or later. Some of these words have in turn been borrowed by other European or world languages.

Modern era

Liturgy, ceremonies and meditation

Sanskrit is the sacred language of various Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain traditions. It is used during worship in Hindu temples. In Newar Buddhism, it is used in all monasteries. Sanskrit mantras and Sanskrit as a ritual language was commonplace among Jains throughout their medieval history.⁴⁷²

Many Hindu rituals and rites-of-passage such as the "giving away the bride" and mutual vows at weddings, a baby's naming or first solid food ceremony and the goodbye during a cremation invoke and chant Sanskrit hymns.⁴⁷³ Major festivals such as the Durga Puja ritually recite entire Sanskrit texts such as the Devi Mahatmya every year particularly among the numerous communities of eastern India.⁴⁷⁴⁴⁷⁵ In the south, Sanskrit texts are recited at many major Hindu temples such as the Meenakshi Temple.⁴⁷⁶ In India and beyond, recitations of the Bhagavad Gita occur in diverse settings, including "simple private household readings, to family and neighborhood recitation sessions, to holy men reciting in temples or at pilgrimage places for passersby, to public Gita discourses held almost nightly at halls and auditoriums in every Indian city".⁴⁷⁷

Literature and arts

See also: List of Sahitya Akademi Award winners for Sanskrit

More than 3,000 Sanskrit works have been composed since India's independence in 1947.⁴⁷⁸ Much of this work has been judged of high quality, in comparison to both classical Sanskrit literature and modern literature in other Indian languages.⁴⁷⁹⁴⁸⁰ In 2009, Satya Vrat Shastri became the first Sanskrit author to win the Jnanpith Award, India's highest literary award.⁴⁸¹

Sanskrit is used extensively in the Carnatic and Hindustani branches of classical music. Kirtanas, bhajans, stotras, and shlokas of Sanskrit are popular throughout India. The Samaveda uses musical notations in several of its recessions.⁴⁸²

In Mainland China, musicians such as Sa Dingding have written pop songs in Sanskrit.⁴⁸³

Numerous loan Sanskrit words are found in other major Asian languages. For example, Filipino,⁴⁸⁴ Cebuano,⁴⁸⁵ Lao, Khmer,⁴⁸⁶ Thai and its alphabets, Malay (including Malaysian and Indonesian), Javanese (old Javanese-English dictionary by P.J. Zoetmulder contains over 25,500 entries), and even in English.

Media

Since 1974, there has been a short daily news broadcast on All India Radio.⁴⁸⁷ These broadcasts are also made available on the internet on AIR's website.⁴⁸⁸⁴⁸⁹ Sanskrit news is broadcast on TV and on the internet through the DD National channel.⁴⁹⁰ Over 90 weeklies, fortnightlies and quarterlies are published in Sanskrit. Sudharma, a daily printed newspaper in Sanskrit, has been published out of Mysore, India, since 1970. It was started by K.N. Varadaraja Iyengar, a Sanskrit scholar from Mysore.

Schools and contemporary status

See also: Sanskrit revival

Sanskrit has been taught in schools from time immemorial in India. In modern times, the first Sanskrit University was Sampurnanand Sanskrit University, established in 1791 in the Indian city of Varanasi. Sanskrit is taught in 5,000 traditional schools (Pathashalas), and 14,000 schools⁴⁹¹ in India, where there are also 22 colleges and universities dedicated to the exclusive study of the language. Sanskrit is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India.⁴⁹² Despite it being a studied school subject in contemporary India, Sanskrit has not been spoken as a native language in centuries.^493494495

In India, Sanskrit is offered as a language in central and several state education board schools and is also taught in traditional gurukulas across the country.⁴⁹⁶ A number of colleges and universities in India have dedicated departments for Sanskrit studies. In March 2020, the Indian Parliament passed the Central Sanskrit Universities Act, 2020 which upgraded three universities, National Sanskrit University, Central Sanskrit University and Shri Lal Bahadur Shastri National Sanskrit University, from the deemed to be university status to a central university status.⁴⁹⁷

Dmitri Mendeleev used the Sanskrit numbers of one, two and three (eka-, dvi- or dwi-, and tri- respectively) to give provisional names to his predicted elements, like eka-boron being Gallium or eka-Francium being Ununennium.

In the province of Bali in Indonesia, a number of educational and scholarly institutions have also been conducting Sanskrit lessons for Hindu locals.⁴⁹⁸[better source needed]

In the West

See also: Sanskrit revival § Revival outside India

St James Junior School and Avanti Schools Trust in London, England, offer Sanskrit as part of the curriculum.⁴⁹⁹ Since September 2009, US high school students have been able to receive credits as Independent Study or toward Foreign Language requirements by studying Sanskrit as part of the "SAFL: Samskritam as a Foreign Language" program coordinated by Samskrita Bharati.⁵⁰⁰ In Australia, the private boys' high school Sydney Grammar School offers Sanskrit from years 7 through to 12, including for the Higher School Certificate.⁵⁰¹ Other schools that offer Sanskrit include the Ficino School in Auckland, New Zealand; St James Preparatory Schools in Cape Town, Durban and Johannesburg, South Africa; John Colet School, Sydney, Australia; Erasmus School, Melbourne, Australia.^502503504

European studies and discourse

See also: Sanskrit studies

European scholarship in Sanskrit, begun by Heinrich Roth (1620–1668) and Johann Ernst Hanxleden (1681–1731), is considered responsible for the discovery of an Indo-European language family by Sir William Jones (1746–1794). This research played an important role in the development of Western philology, or historical linguistics.⁵⁰⁵

The 18th- and 19th-century speculations about the possible links of Sanskrit to ancient Egyptian language were later proven to be wrong, but it fed an orientalist discourse both in the form Indophobia and Indophilia, states Trautmann.⁵⁰⁶ Sanskrit writings, when first discovered, were imagined by Indophiles to potentially be "repositories of the primitive experiences and religion of the human race, and as such confirmatory of the truth of Christian scripture", as well as a key to "universal ethnological narrative".⁵⁰⁷: 96–97  The Indophobes imagined the opposite, making the counterclaim that there is little of any value in Sanskrit, portraying it as "a language fabricated by artful [Brahmin] priests", with little original thought, possibly copied from the Greeks who came with Alexander or perhaps the Persians.⁵⁰⁸: 124–126 

Scholars such as William Jones and his colleagues felt the need for systematic studies of Sanskrit language and literature. This launched the Asiatic Society, an idea that was soon transplanted to Europe starting with the efforts of Henry Thomas Colebrooke in Britain, then Alexander Hamilton who helped expand its studies to Paris and thereafter his student Friedrich Schlegel who introduced Sanskrit to the universities of Germany. Schlegel nurtured his own students into influential European Sanskrit scholars, particularly through Franz Bopp and Friedrich Max Müller. As these scholars translated the Sanskrit manuscripts, the enthusiasm for Sanskrit grew rapidly among European scholars, states Trautmann, and chairs for Sanskrit "were established in the universities of nearly every German statelet" creating a competition for Sanskrit experts.⁵⁰⁹: 133–142 

Symbolic usage

See also: Sanskrit honorifics in Southeast Asia, Sanskritised naming of people across the world, and Sanskritised naming of places across the world

In India, Indonesia, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia, Sanskrit phrases are widely used as mottoes for various national, educational and social organisations:

• India: Satyameva Jayate (सत्यमेव जयते), meaning 'truth alone triumphs'.⁵¹⁰
• Nepal: Janani Janmabhūmischa Swargādapi Garīyasī (जननी जन्मभूमिश्च स्वर्गादपि गरीयसी), meaning 'mother and motherland are superior to heaven'.
• Indonesia: In Indonesia, Sanskrit is widely used as terms and mottoes of the armed forces and other national organizations (See: Indonesian Armed Forces mottoes). Rastra Sewakottama (राष्ट्र सेवकोत्तम, transl. 'people's main servants') is the official motto of the Indonesian National Police, Tri Dharma Eka Karma (त्रिधर्म एक कर्म) is the official motto of the Indonesian Military, Kartika Eka Paksi (कार्तिक एक पक्षी, transl. 'unmatchable bird with noble goals') is the official motto of the Indonesian Army,⁵¹¹ Adhitakarya Mahatvavirya Nagarabhakti (अधीतकार्य महत्ववीर्य नगरभक्ति, transl. 'hard-working knights serving bravery as nations hero') is the official motto of the Indonesian Military Academy,⁵¹² Upakriya Labdha Prayojana Balottama (उपक्रिया लब्ध प्रयोजन बालोत्तम, transl. 'purpose of the unit is to give the best service to the nation by finding the perfect soldier') is the official motto of the Army Psychological Corps, Karmanye Vadikaraste Mafalesu Kadatjana (कर्मण्येवाधिकारस्ते मा फलेषु कदाचन, transl. 'working without counting the profit and loss') is the official motto of the Air-Force Special Forces (Paskhas),⁵¹³ Jalesu Bhumyamca Jayamahe (जलेषु भूम्यम्च जयमहे, transl. 'on the sea and land we are glorious') is the official motto of the Indonesian Marine Corps,⁵¹⁴ and there are more units and organizations in Indonesia either Armed Forces or civil which use the Sanskrit language respectively as their mottoes and other purposes.
• Many of India's and Nepal's scientific and administrative terms use Sanskrit. The Indian guided missile program that was commenced in 1983 by the Defence Research and Development Organisation has named the five missiles (ballistic and others) that it developed Prithvi, Agni, Akash, Nag and the Trishul missile system. India's first modern fighter aircraft is named HAL Tejas.

In November 2020, Gaurav Sharma, a New Zealand politician of Indian origin swore into parliament using Sanskrit alongside Māori; the decision was made as a "homage to all Indian languages" compromising between his native Pahari and Punjabi.⁵¹⁵

In popular culture

The song My Sweet Lord by George Harrison includes The Hare Krishna mantra, also referred to reverentially as the Maha Mantra, a 16-word Vaishnava mantra which is mentioned in the Kali-Santarana Upanishad. Satyagraha, an opera by Philip Glass, uses texts from the Bhagavad Gita, sung in Sanskrit.⁵¹⁶⁵¹⁷ In 1996, English psychedelic rock band Kula Shaker released Govinda, a song entirely sung in Sanskrit. The closing credits of The Matrix Revolutions has a prayer from the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The song "Cyber-raga" from Madonna's album Music includes Sanskrit chants,⁵¹⁸ and Shanti/Ashtangi from her 1998 album Ray of Light, which won a Grammy, is the ashtanga vinyasa yoga chant.⁵¹⁹ The lyrics include the mantra Om shanti.⁵²⁰ Composer John Williams featured choirs singing in Sanskrit for Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom and in Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace.⁵²¹⁵²²[better source needed] The theme song of Battlestar Galactica 2004 is the Gayatri Mantra, taken from the Rigveda.⁵²³ The lyrics of "The Child in Us" by Enigma also contain Sanskrit verses.⁵²⁴[better source needed] In 2006, Mexican singer Paulina Rubio was influenced in Sanskrit for her concept album Ananda.⁵²⁵

See also

• Arsha prayoga
• Āryabhaṭa numeration
• List of Sanskrit-related topics
• Spitzer Manuscript
• Proto-Indo-Aryan
• Proto-Indo-Iranian
• Proto-Indo-European

Notes

Bibliography

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• MacDonell, Arthur (2004). A History Of Sanskrit Literature. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4179-0619-2.
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• Sheldon Pollock (2009). The Language of the Gods in the World of Men: Sanskrit, Culture, and Power in Premodern India. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-26003-0. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018.
• Pollock, Sheldon (2001). "The Death of Sanskrit". Comparative Studies in Society and History. 43 (2). Cambridge University Press: 392–426. doi:10.1017/s001041750100353x (inactive 1 November 2024). JSTOR 2696659. S2CID 35550166.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
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Further reading

• Bahadur, P.; Jain, A.; Chauhan, D.S. (2011). "English to Sanskrit Machine Translation". Proceedings of the International Conference & Workshop on Emerging Trends in Technology - ICWET '11. ICWET '11: Proceedings of the International Conference & Workshop on Emerging Trends in Technology. New York, NY, USA: Association for Computing Machinery. p. 641. doi:10.1145/1980022.1980161. ISBN 9781450304498. Archived from the original on 20 September 2021. Retrieved 20 September 2021.
• Bailey, H. W. (1955). "Buddhist Sanskrit". The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 87 (1/2). Cambridge University Press: 13–24. doi:10.1017/S0035869X00106975. JSTOR 25581326. S2CID 250346761.
• Beekes, Robert S.P. (2011). Comparative Indo-European Linguistics: An introduction (2nd ed.). John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 978-90-272-8500-3. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018.
• Benware, Wilbur (1974). The Study of Indo-European Vocalism in the 19th Century: From the Beginnings to Whitney and Scherer: A Critical-Historical Account. Benjamins. ISBN 978-90-272-0894-1.
• Bloomfield, Leonard (1984). Language. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226060675. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
• Bowern, Claire; Evans, Bethwyn (2015). The Routledge Handbook of Historical Linguistics. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-74324-8. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018.
• Briggs, Rick (15 March 1985). "Knowledge Representation in Sanskrit and Artificial Intelligence". AI Magazine. 6 (1). RIACS, NASA Ames Research Center. doi:10.1609/aimag.v6i1.466. S2CID 6836833. Archived from the original on 20 September 2021. Retrieved 20 September 2021.
• Bronkhorst, Johannes (1993). "Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit: The Original Language". Aspects of Buddhist Sanskrit: Proceedings of the International Symposium on the Language of Sanskrit Buddhist Texts, 1–5 Oct. 1991. Sarnath. pp. 396–423. ISBN 978-81-900149-1-5.
• Chatterji, Suniti Kumar (1957). "Indianism and Sanskrit". Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. 38 (1/2). Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute: 1–33. JSTOR 44082791.
• Clackson, James (18 October 2007). Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-46734-6.
• Coulson, Michael (1992). Richard Gombrich; James Benson (eds.). Sanskrit : an introduction to the classical language (2nd, revised by Gombrich and Benson ed.). Random House. ISBN 978-0-340-56867-5. OCLC 26550827.
• Filliozat, J. (1955). "Sanskrit as Language of Communication". Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. 36 (3/4). Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute: 179–189. JSTOR 44082954.
• Filliozat, Pierre-Sylvain (2000). The Sanskrit Language: An Overview : History and Structure, Linguistic and Philosophical Representations, Uses and Users. Indica. ISBN 978-81-86569-17-7. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018.
• Fortson, Benjamin W. IV (2011). Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-5968-8. Archived from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2018.
• Gamkrelidze, Thomas V.; Ivanov, Vjaceslav V. (2010). Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans: A Reconstruction and Historical Analysis of a Proto-Language and Proto-Culture. Part I: The Text. Part II: Bibliography, Indexes. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-081503-0. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018.
• Gamkrelidze, Thomas V.; Ivanov, V. V. (1990). "The Early History of Indo-European Languages". Scientific American. 262 (3). Nature America: 110–117. Bibcode:1990SciAm.262c.110G. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0390-110. JSTOR 24996796.
• Grünendahl, Reinhold (2001). South Indian Scripts in Sanskrit Manuscripts and Prints: Grantha Tamil, Malayalam, Telugu, Kannada, Nandinagari. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-04504-9. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 13 July 2018.
• Huet, Gerard (2005). "A functional toolkit for morphological and phonological processing, application to a Sanskrit tagger". Journal of Functional Programming. 15 (4). Cambridge University Press: 573–614. doi:10.1017/S0956796804005416 (inactive 1 November 2024). S2CID 483509.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
• Lehmann, Winfred Philipp (1996). Theoretical Bases of Indo-European Linguistics. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-13850-5. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018.
• Keown, Damien; Prebish, Charles S. (2013). Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-136-98595-9. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 13 January 2017.
• Kak, Subhash C. (1987). "The Paninian approach to natural language processing". International Journal of Approximate Reasoning. 1 (1): 117–130. doi:10.1016/0888-613X(87)90007-7. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
• Kessler-Persaud, Anne (2009). Knut A. Jacobsen; et al. (eds.). Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism: Sacred texts, ritual traditions, arts, concepts. Brill Academic. ISBN 978-90-04-17893-9.
• Mahadevan, Iravatham (2003). Early Tamil Epigraphy from the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century A.D. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01227-1.
• Malhotra, Rajiv (2016). The Battle for Sanskrit: Is Sanskrit Political or Sacred, Oppressive or Liberating, Dead or Alive?. Harper Collins. ISBN 978-9351775386.
• Mallory, J. P. (1992). "In Search of the Indo-Europeans / Language, Archaeology and Myth". Praehistorische Zeitschrift. 67 (1). Walter de Gruyter GmbH. doi:10.1515/pz-1992-0118. ISSN 1613-0804. S2CID 197841755.
• Mallory, J. P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-884964-98-5. Archived from the original on 19 February 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2018.
• Matilal, Bimal (2015). The word and the world : India's contribution to the study of language. New Delhi, India Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-565512-4. OCLC 59319758.
• Maurer, Walter (2001). The Sanskrit language: an introductory grammar and reader. Surrey, England: Curzon. ISBN 978-0-7007-1382-0.
• Michael Meier-Brügger (2013). Indo-European Linguistics. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-089514-8. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018.
• Murray, Tim (2007). Milestones in Archaeology: A Chronological Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-186-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018.
• Nedi︠a︡lkov, V. P. (2007). Reciprocal constructions. Amsterdam Philadelphia: J. Benjamins Pub. Co. ISBN 978-90-272-2983-0.
• Petersen, Walter (1912). "Vedic, Sanskrit, and Prakrit". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 32 (4). American Oriental Society: 414–428. doi:10.2307/3087594. ISSN 0003-0279. JSTOR 3087594.
• Ooi, Keat Gin (2004). Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor. ABC-CLIO. p. 643. ISBN 978-1-57607-770-2. Archived from the original on 16 January 2023. Retrieved 21 July 2018.
• Raghavan, V. (1968). "Sanskrit: Flow of Studies". Indian Literature. 11 (4). Sahitya Akademi: 82–87. JSTOR 24157111.
• Raghavan, V. (1965). "Sanskrit". Indian Literature. 8 (2). Sahitya Akademi: 110–115. JSTOR 23329146.
• Renfrew, Colin (1990). Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-38675-3. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018.
• Sanyal, Ratna; Pappu, Aasish (2008). "Vaakkriti: Sanskrit Tokenizer". Proceedings of the Third International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing: Volume-II. International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (IJCNLP). Archived from the original on 21 September 2021. Retrieved 20 September 2021.
• Shendge, Malati J. (1997). The Language of the Harappans: From Akkadian to Sanskrit. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 978-81-7017-325-0. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018.
• Thieme, Paul (1958). "The Indo-European Language". Scientific American. 199 (4): 63–78. Bibcode:1958SciAm.199d..63T. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1058-63. JSTOR 24944793.
• van der Veer, Peter (2008). "Does Sanskrit Knowledge Exist?". Journal of Indian Philosophy. 36 (5/6). Springer: 633–641. doi:10.1007/s10781-008-9038-8. JSTOR 23497502. S2CID 170594265.
• Whitney, W.D. (1885). "The Roots of the Sanskrit Language". Transactions of the American Philological Association. 16. JSTOR: 5–29. doi:10.2307/2935779. ISSN 0271-4442. JSTOR 2935779.

External links

• "INDICORPUS-31". 31 Sanskrit and Dravidian dictionaries for Lingvo.
• Karen Thomson; Jonathan Slocum. "Ancient Sanskrit Online". free online lessons from the "Linguistics Research Center". University of Texas at Austin.
• "Samskrita Bharati". an organisation promoting the usage of Sanskrit
• "Sanskrit Documents". — Documents in ITX format of Upanishads, Stotras etc.
• "Sanskrit texts". Sacred Text Archive.
• "Sanskrit Manuscripts". Cambridge Digital Library.
• "Lexilogos Devanagari Sanskrit Keyboard". for typing Sanskrit in the Devanagari script.
• "Online Sanskrit Dictionary". — sources results from Monier Williams etc.
• "The Sanskrit Grammarian". — dynamic online declension and conjugation tool
• "Online Sanskrit Dictionary". — Sanskrit hypertext dictionary
• "Sanskrit Shlokas collection". — Collection of Sanskrit Shlokas from Various Sanskrit Texts

References

1. Cardona, George; Luraghi, Silvia (2018). "Sanskrit". In Bernard Comrie (ed.). The World's Major Languages. Taylor & Francis. pp. 497–. ISBN 978-1-317-29049-0. Sanskrit (samskrita- 'adorned, purified') ... It is in the Ramayana that the term saṃskṛta- is encountered probably for the first time with reference to the language. 978-1-317-29049-0 ↩

2. Wright, J.C. (1990). "Reviewed Works: Pāṇini: His Work and Its Traditions. Vol. I. Background and Introduction by George Cardona; Grammaire sanskrite pâninéenne by Pierre-Sylvain Filliozat". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 53 (1). Cambridge University Press: 152–154. doi:10.1017/S0041977X0002156X. JSTOR 618999. The first reference to 'Sanskrit' in the context of language is in the Ramayana, Book 5 (Sundarkanda), Canto 28, Verse 17: अहं ह्यतितनुश्चैव वनरश्च विशेषतः // वाचंचोदाहरिष्यामि मानुषीमिह संस्कृताम् // १७ // Hanuman says, 'First, my body is very subtle, second I am a monkey. Especially as a monkey, I will use here the human-appropriate Sanskrit speech / language.' https://www.jstor.org/stable/618999 ↩

3. "Ashtadhyayi". ashtadhyayi.com. Retrieved 30 December 2024. https://ashtadhyayi.com/sutraani/8/3/5 ↩

4. Apte, Vaman Shivaram (1957). Revised and enlarged edition of Prin. V.S. Apte's The practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Poona: Prasad Prakashan. p. 1596. from संस्कृत saṃskṛitə past passive participle: Made perfect, refined, polished, cultivated. -तः -tah A word formed regularly according to the rules of grammar, a regular derivative. -तम् -tam Refined or highly polished speech, the Sanskṛit language; संस्कृतं नाम दैवी वागन्वाख्याता महर्षिभिः ("named sanskritam the divine language elaborated by the sages") from Kāvyadarśa.1. 33. of Daṇḍin https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/apte_query.py?qs=%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4&searchhws=yes ↩

5. "dhārayan·brāhmaṇam rupam·ilvalaḥ saṃskṛtam vadan..." – The Rāmāyaṇa 3.10.54 – said to be the first known use of saṃskṛta with reference to the language.[19] ↩

6. Roger D. Woodard (2008). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. The earliest form of this 'oldest' language, Sanskrit, is the one found in the ancient Brahmanic text called the Rigveda, composed c. 1500 BCE. The date makes Sanskrit one of the three earliest of the well-documented languages of the Indo-European family – the other two being Old Hittite and Myceanaean Greek – and, in keeping with its early appearance, Sanskrit has been a cornerstone in the reconstruction of the parent language of the Indo-European family – Proto-Indo-European. 978-0-521-68494-1 ↩

7. Bauer, Brigitte L. M. (2017). Nominal Apposition in Indo-European: Its forms and functions, and its evolution in Latin-romance. De Gruyter. pp. 90–92. ISBN 978-3-11-046175-6. For detailed comparison of the languages, see pp. 90–126. 978-3-11-046175-6 ↩

8. Ramat, Anna Giacalone; Ramat, Paolo (2015). The Indo-European Languages. Routledge. pp. 26–31. ISBN 978-1-134-92187-4. 978-1-134-92187-4 ↩

9. "Sanskrit language | Origin, History, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 14 April 2025. Retrieved 27 April 2025. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sanskrit-language ↩

10. Dyson, Tim (2018). A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day. Oxford University Press. pp. 14–15. ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8. Although the collapse of the Indus valley civilization is no longer believed to have been due to an 'Aryan invasion' it is widely thought that, at roughly the same time, or perhaps a few centuries later, new Indo-Aryan-speaking people and influences began to enter the subcontinent from the north-west. Detailed evidence is lacking. Nevertheless, a predecessor of the language that would eventually be called Sanskrit was probably introduced into the north-west sometime between 3,900 and 3,000 years ago. This language was related to one then spoken in eastern Iran; and both of these languages belonged to the Indo-European language family. 978-0-19-882905-8 ↩

11. Pinkney, Andrea Marion (2014). "Revealing the Vedas in 'Hinduism': Foundations and issues of interpretation of religions in South Asian Hindu traditions". In Bryan S. Turner; Oscar Salemink (eds.). Routledge Handbook of Religions in Asia. Routledge. pp. 38–. ISBN 978-1-317-63646-5. According to Asko Parpola, the Proto-Indo-Aryan civilization was influenced by two external waves of migrations. The first group originated from the southern Urals (c. 2100 BCE) and mixed with the peoples of the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC); this group then proceeded to South Asia, arriving around 1900 BCE. The second wave arrived in northern South Asia around 1750 BCE and mixed with the formerly arrived group, producing the Mitanni Aryans (c. 1500 BCE), a precursor to the peoples of the Ṛgveda. Michael Witzel has assigned an approximate chronology to the strata of Vedic languages, arguing that the language of the Ṛgveda changed through the beginning of the Iron Age in South Asia, which started in the Northwest (Punjab) around 1000 BCE. On the basis of comparative philological evidence, Witzel has suggested a five-stage periodization of Vedic civilization, beginning with the Ṛgveda. On the basis of internal evidence, the Ṛgveda is dated as a late Bronze Age text composed by pastoral migrants with limited settlements, probably between 1350 and 1150 BCE in the Punjab region. 978-1-317-63646-5 ↩

12. Michael C. Howard 2012, p. 21 - Michael C. Howard (2012). Transnationalism in Ancient and Medieval Societies: The Role of Cross-Border Trade and Travel. McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-9033-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=6QPWXrCCzBIC&pg=PA21 ↩

13. Pollock, Sheldon (2006). The Language of the Gods in the World of Men: Sanskrit, Culture, and Power in Premodern India. University of California Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-520-24500-6. Once Sanskrit emerged from the sacerdotal environment ... it became the sole medium by which ruling elites expressed their power ... Sanskrit probably never functioned as an everyday medium of communication anywhere in the cosmopolis—not in South Asia itself, let alone Southeast Asia ... The work Sanskrit did do ... was directed above all toward articulating a form of ... politics ... as celebration of aesthetic power. 978-0-520-24500-6 ↩

14. Burrow 1973, pp. 62–64. - Burrow, Thomas (1973). The Sanskrit Language (3rd, revised ed.). London: Faber & Faber. ↩

15. Cardona, George; Luraghi, Silvia (2018). "Sanskrit". In Bernard Comrie (ed.). The World's Major Languages. Taylor & Francis. pp. 497–. ISBN 978-1-317-29049-0. Sanskrit (samskrita- 'adorned, purified') refers to several varieties of Old Indo-Aryan whose most archaic forms are found in Vedic texts: the Rigveda (Ṛgveda), Yajurveda, Sāmveda, Atharvaveda, with various branches. 978-1-317-29049-0 ↩

16. Alfred C. Woolner (1986). Introduction to Prakrit. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 3–4. ISBN 978-81-208-0189-9. If in 'Sanskrit' we include the Vedic language and all dialects of the Old Indian period, then it is true to say that all the Prakrits are derived from Sanskrit. If on the other hand 'Sanskrit' is used more strictly of the Panini-Patanjali language or 'Classical Sanskrit,' then it is untrue to say that any Prakrit is derived from Sanskrit, except that Sauraseni, the Midland Prakrit, is derived from the Old Indian dialect of the Madhyadesa on which Classical Sanskrit was mainly based. 978-81-208-0189-9 ↩

17. Lowe, John J. (2015). Participles in Rigvedic Sanskrit: The syntax and semantics of adjectival verb forms. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-0-19-100505-3. It consists of 1,028 hymns (suktas), highly crafted poetic compositions originally intended for recital during rituals and for the invocation of and communication with the Indo-Aryan gods. Modern scholarly opinion largely agrees that these hymns were composed between around 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE, during the eastward migration of the Indo-Aryan tribes from the mountains of what is today northern Afghanistan across the Punjab into north India. 978-0-19-100505-3 ↩

18. Witzel, Michael (2006). "Early Loan Words in Western Central Asia: Indicators of Substrate Populations, Migrations, and Trade Relations". In Victor H. Mair (ed.). Contact And Exchange in the Ancient World. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 158–190, 160. ISBN 978-0-8248-2884-4. The Vedas were composed (roughly between 1500-1200 and 500 BCE) in parts of present-day Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and northern India. The oldest text at our disposal is the Rgveda (RV); it is composed in archaic Indo-Aryan (Vedic Sanskrit). 978-0-8248-2884-4 ↩

19. Shulman, David (2016). Tamil. Harvard University Press. pp. 17–19. ISBN 978-0-674-97465-4. (p. 17) Similarly, we find a large number of other items relating to flora and fauna, grains, pulses, and spices—that is, words that we might expect to have made their way into Sanskrit from the linguistic environment of prehistoric or early-historic India. ... (p. 18) Dravidian certainly influenced Sanskrit phonology and syntax from early on ... (p 19) Vedic Sanskrit was in contact, from very ancient times, with speakers of Dravidian languages, and that the two language families profoundly influenced one another. 978-0-674-97465-4 ↩

20. "All these achievements are dwarfed, though, by the Sanskrit linguistic tradition culminating in the famous grammar by Pāṇini, known as the Aṣṭhādhyāyī. The elegance and comprehensiveness of its architecture have yet to be surpassed by any grammar of any language, and its ingenious methods of stratifying out use and mention, language and metalanguage, and theorem and metatheorem predate key discoveries in western philosophy by millennia."[34] ↩

21. Evans, Nicholas (2009). Dying Words: Endangered languages and what they have to tell us. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 27–. ISBN 978-0-631-23305-3. 978-0-631-23305-3 ↩

22. "The Sanskrit grammatical tradition is also the ultimate source of the notion of zero, which, once adopted in the Arabic system of numerals, allowed us to transcend the cumbersome notations of Roman arithmetic."[34] ↩

23. Glenn Van Brummelen (2014). "Arithmetic". In Thomas F. Glick; Steven Livesey; Faith Wallis (eds.). Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 46–48. ISBN 978-1-135-45932-1. The story of the growth of arithmetic from the ancient inheritance to the wealth passed on to the Renaissance is dramatic and passes through several cultures. The most groundbreaking achievement was the evolution of a positional number system, in which the position of a digit within a number determines its value according to powers (usually) of ten (e.g., in 3,285, the "2" refers to hundreds). Its extension to include decimal fractions and the procedures that were made possible by its adoption transformed the abilities of all who calculated, with an effect comparable to the modern invention of the electronic computer. Roughly speaking, this began in India, was transmitted to Islam, and then to the Latin West. 978-1-135-45932-1 ↩

24. Lowe, John J. (2017). Transitive Nouns and Adjectives: Evidence from Early Indo-Aryan. Oxford University Press. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-19-879357-1. The term 'Epic Sanskrit' refers to the language of the two great Sanskrit epics, the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa. ... It is likely, therefore, that the epic-like elements found in Vedic sources and the two epics that we have are not directly related, but that both drew on the same source, an oral tradition of storytelling that existed before, throughout, and after the Vedic period. 978-0-19-879357-1 ↩

25. Lowe, John J. (2017). Transitive Nouns and Adjectives: Evidence from Early Indo-Aryan. Oxford University Press. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-19-879357-1. The desire to preserve understanding and knowledge of Sanskrit in the face of ongoing linguistic change drove the development of an indigenous grammatical tradition, which culminated in the composition of the Aṣṭādhyāyī, attributed to the grammarian Pāṇini, no later than the early fourth century BCE. In subsequent centuries, Sanskrit ceased to be learnt as a native language, and eventually ceased to develop as living languages do, becoming increasingly fixed according to the prescriptions of the grammatical tradition. 978-0-19-879357-1 ↩

26. Lowe, John J. (2015). Participles in Rigvedic Sanskrit: The Syntax and Semantics of Adjectival Verb Forms. Oxford University Press. pp. 2–. ISBN 978-0-19-100505-3. The importance of the Rigveda for the study of early Indo-Aryan historical linguistics cannot be underestimated. ... its language is ... notably similar in many respects to the most archaic poetic texts of related language families, the Old Avestan Gathas and Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, respectively the earliest poetic representatives of the Iranian and Greek language families. Moreover, its manner of preservation, by a system of oral transmission which has preserved the hymns almost without change for 3,000 years, makes it a very trustworthy witness to the Indo-Aryan language of North India in the second millennium BC. Its importance for the reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European, particularly in respect of the archaic morphology and syntax it preserves, ... is considerable. Any linguistic investigation into Old Indo-Aryan, Indo-Iranian, or Proto-Indo-European cannot avoid treating the evidence of the Rigveda as of vital importance. 978-0-19-100505-3 ↩

27. Staal 1986. - Staal, Frits (1986), The Fidelity of Oral Tradition and the Origins of Science, Mededelingen der Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie von Wetenschappen, Amsterdam: North Holland Publishing Company ↩

28. Filliozat 2004, pp. 360–375. - Filliozat, Pierre-Sylvain (2004), "Ancient Sanskrit Mathematics: An Oral Tradition and a Written Literature", in Chemla, Karine; Cohen, Robert S.; Renn, Jürgen; et al. (eds.), History of Science, History of Text (Boston Series in the Philosophy of Science), Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 360–375, doi:10.1007/1-4020-2321-9_7, ISBN 978-1-4020-2320-0 https://doi.org/10.1007%2F1-4020-2321-9_7 ↩

29. Filliozat 2004, p. 139. - Filliozat, Pierre-Sylvain (2004), "Ancient Sanskrit Mathematics: An Oral Tradition and a Written Literature", in Chemla, Karine; Cohen, Robert S.; Renn, Jürgen; et al. (eds.), History of Science, History of Text (Boston Series in the Philosophy of Science), Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 360–375, doi:10.1007/1-4020-2321-9_7, ISBN 978-1-4020-2320-0 https://doi.org/10.1007%2F1-4020-2321-9_7 ↩

30. Lowe, John J. (2015). Participles in Rigvedic Sanskrit: The Syntax and Semantics of Adjectival Verb Forms. Oxford University Press. pp. 2–. ISBN 978-0-19-100505-3. The importance of the Rigveda for the study of early Indo-Aryan historical linguistics cannot be underestimated. ... its language is ... notably similar in many respects to the most archaic poetic texts of related language families, the Old Avestan Gathas and Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, respectively the earliest poetic representatives of the Iranian and Greek language families. Moreover, its manner of preservation, by a system of oral transmission which has preserved the hymns almost without change for 3,000 years, makes it a very trustworthy witness to the Indo-Aryan language of North India in the second millennium BC. Its importance for the reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European, particularly in respect of the archaic morphology and syntax it preserves, ... is considerable. Any linguistic investigation into Old Indo-Aryan, Indo-Iranian, or Proto-Indo-European cannot avoid treating the evidence of the Rigveda as of vital importance. 978-0-19-100505-3 ↩

31. "In conclusion, there are strong systemic and paleographic indications that the Brahmi script derived from a Semitic prototype, which, mainly on historical grounds, is most likely to have been Aramaic. However, the details of this problem remain to be worked out, and in any case, it is unlikely that a complete letter-by-letter derivation will ever be possible; for Brahmi may have been more of an adaptation and remodeling, rather than a direct derivation, of the presumptive Semitic prototype, perhaps under the influence of a preexisting Indian tradition of phonetic analysis. However, the Semitic hypothesis is not so strong as to rule out the remote possibility that further discoveries could drastically change the picture. In particular, a relationship of some kind, probably partial or indirect, with the protohistoric Indus Valley script should not be considered entirely out of the question." Salomon 1998, p. 30 - Salomon, Richard (1998). Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-535666-3. Archived from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 16 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC ↩

32. Jain, Dhanesh (2007). "Sociolinguistics of the Indo-Aryan languages". In George Cardona; Dhanesh Jain (eds.). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. pp. 47–66, 51. ISBN 978-1-135-79711-9. In the history of Indo-Aryan, writing was a later development and its adoption has been slow even in modern times. The first written word comes to us through Asokan inscriptions dating back to the third century BC. Originally, Brahmi was used to write Prakrit (MIA); for Sanskrit (OIA) it was used only four centuries later (Masica 1991: 135). The MIA traditions of Buddhist and Jain texts show greater regard for the written word than the OIA Brahminical tradition, though writing was available to Old Indo-Aryans. 978-1-135-79711-9 ↩

33. Salomon, Richard (2007). "The Writing Systems of the Indo-Aryan Languages". In George Cardona; Dhanesh Jain (eds.). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. pp. 67–102. ISBN 978-1-135-79711-9. Although in modern usage Sanskrit is most commonly written or printed in Nagari, in theory, it can be represented by virtually any of the main Brahmi-based scripts, and in practice it often is. Thus scripts such as Gujarati, Bangla, and Oriya, as well as the major south Indian scripts, traditionally have been and often still are used in their proper territories for writing Sanskrit. Sanskrit, in other words, is not inherently linked to any particular script, although it does have a special historical connection with Nagari. 978-1-135-79711-9 ↩

34. Gazzola, Michele; Wickström, Bengt-Arne (2016). The Economics of Language Policy. MIT Press. pp. 469–. ISBN 978-0-262-03470-8. The Eighth Schedule recognizes India's national languages as including the major regional languages as well as others, such as Sanskrit and Urdu, which contribute to India's cultural heritage. ... The original list of fourteen languages in the Eighth Schedule at the time of the adoption of the Constitution in 1949 has now grown to twenty-two. 978-0-262-03470-8 ↩

35. Groff, Cynthia (2017). The Ecology of Language in Multilingual India: Voices of Women and Educators in the Himalayan Foothills. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 58–. ISBN 978-1-137-51961-0. As Mahapatra says: "It is generally believed that the significance for the Eighth Schedule lies in providing a list of languages from which Hindi is directed to draw the appropriate forms, style and expressions for its enrichment" ... Being recognized in the Constitution, however, has had significant relevance for a language's status and functions. 978-1-137-51961-0 ↩

36. Sreevastan, Ajai (10 August 2014). "Where are the Sanskrit speakers?". The Hindu. Chennai. Archived from the original on 24 December 2021. Retrieved 11 October 2020. Sanskrit is also the only scheduled language that shows wide fluctuations — rising from 6,106 speakers in 1981 to 49,736 in 1991 and then falling dramatically to 14,135 speakers in 2001. "This fluctuation is not necessarily an error of the Census method. People often switch language loyalties depending on the immediate political climate," says Prof. Ganesh Devy of the People's Linguistic Survey of India. ... Because some people "fictitiously" indicate Sanskrit as their mother tongue owing to its high prestige and Constitutional mandate, the Census captures the persisting memory of an ancient language that is no longer anyone's real mother tongue, says B. Mallikarjun of the Center for Classical Language. Hence, the numbers fluctuate in each Census. ... "Sanskrit has influence without presence," says Devy. "We all feel in some corner of the country, Sanskrit is spoken." But even in Karnataka's Mattur, which is often referred to as India's Sanskrit village, hardly a handful indicated Sanskrit as their mother tongue. https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/where-are-the-sanskrit-speakers/article6299433.ece ↩

37. "Indian village where people speak in Sanskrit". BBC News. 22 December 2014. Retrieved 30 September 2020. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-30446917 ↩

38. Sreevastan, Ajai (10 August 2014). "Where are the Sanskrit speakers?". The Hindu. Chennai. Archived from the original on 24 December 2021. Retrieved 11 October 2020. Sanskrit is also the only scheduled language that shows wide fluctuations — rising from 6,106 speakers in 1981 to 49,736 in 1991 and then falling dramatically to 14,135 speakers in 2001. "This fluctuation is not necessarily an error of the Census method. People often switch language loyalties depending on the immediate political climate," says Prof. Ganesh Devy of the People's Linguistic Survey of India. ... Because some people "fictitiously" indicate Sanskrit as their mother tongue owing to its high prestige and Constitutional mandate, the Census captures the persisting memory of an ancient language that is no longer anyone's real mother tongue, says B. Mallikarjun of the Center for Classical Language. Hence, the numbers fluctuate in each Census. ... "Sanskrit has influence without presence," says Devy. "We all feel in some corner of the country, Sanskrit is spoken." But even in Karnataka's Mattur, which is often referred to as India's Sanskrit village, hardly a handful indicated Sanskrit as their mother tongue. https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/where-are-the-sanskrit-speakers/article6299433.ece ↩

39. Ruppel, A. M. (2017). The Cambridge Introduction to Sanskrit. Cambridge University Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-107-08828-3. The study of any ancient (or dead) language is faced with one main challenge: ancient languages have no native speakers who could provide us with examples of simple everyday speech 978-1-107-08828-3 ↩

40. Annamalai, E. (2008). "Contexts of multilingualism". In Braj B. Kachru; Yamuna Kachru; S. N. Sridhar (eds.). Language in South Asia. Cambridge University Press. pp. 223–. ISBN 978-1-139-46550-2. Some of the migrated languages ... such as Sanskrit and English, remained primarily as a second language, even though their native speakers were lost. Some native languages like the language of the Indus valley were lost with their speakers, while some linguistic communities shifted their language to one or other of the migrants' languages. 978-1-139-46550-2 ↩

41. 6,106 Indians in 1981, 49,736 in 1991, 14,135 in 2001, and 24,821 in 2011, have reported Sanskrit to be their mother tongue.[8] ↩

42. McCartney, Patrick (10 May 2020). "Searching for Sanskrit Speakers in the Indian Census". The Wire. Retrieved 24 November 2020. Quote: "What this data tells us is that it is very difficult to believe the notion that Jhiri is a "Sanskrit village" where everyone only speaks fluent Sanskrit at a mother tongue level. It is also difficult to accept that the lingua franca of the rural masses is Sanskrit, when most the majority of L1, L2 and L3 Sanskrit tokens are linked to urban areas. The predominance of Sanskrit across the Hindi belt also shows a particular cultural/geographic affection that does not spread equally across the rest of the country. In addition, the clustering with Hindi and English, in the majority of variations possible, also suggests that a certain class element is involved. Essentially, people who identify as speakers of Sanskrit appear to be urban and educated, which possibly implies that the affiliation with Sanskrit is related in some way to at least some sort of Indian, if not, Hindu, nationalism." https://thewire.in/culture/india-census-sanskrit ↩

43. McCartney, Patrick (11 May 2020). "The Myth of 'Sanskrit Villages' and the Realm of Soft Power". The Wire. Retrieved 24 November 2020. Quote: "Consider the example of this faith-based development narrative that has evolved over the past decade in the state of Uttarakhand. In 2010, Sanskrit became the state's second official language. ... Recently, an updated policy has increased this top-down imposition of language shift, toward Sanskrit. The new policy aims to create a Sanskrit village in every "block" (administrative division) of Uttarakhand. The state of Uttarakhand consists of two divisions, 13 districts, 79 sub-districts and 97 blocks. ... There is hardly a Sanskrit village in even one block in Uttarakhand. The curious thing is that, while 70% of the state's total population live in rural areas, 100pc of the total 246 L1-Sanskrit tokens returned at the 2011 census are from Urban areas. No L1-Sanskrit token comes from any villager who identifies as an L1-Sanskrit speaker in Uttarakhand." https://thewire.in/society/sanskrit-soft-power ↩

44. Sreevastan, Ajai (10 August 2014). "Where are the Sanskrit speakers?". The Hindu. Chennai. Archived from the original on 24 December 2021. Retrieved 11 October 2020. Sanskrit is also the only scheduled language that shows wide fluctuations — rising from 6,106 speakers in 1981 to 49,736 in 1991 and then falling dramatically to 14,135 speakers in 2001. "This fluctuation is not necessarily an error of the Census method. People often switch language loyalties depending on the immediate political climate," says Prof. Ganesh Devy of the People's Linguistic Survey of India. ... Because some people "fictitiously" indicate Sanskrit as their mother tongue owing to its high prestige and Constitutional mandate, the Census captures the persisting memory of an ancient language that is no longer anyone's real mother tongue, says B. Mallikarjun of the Center for Classical Language. Hence, the numbers fluctuate in each Census. ... "Sanskrit has influence without presence," says Devy. "We all feel in some corner of the country, Sanskrit is spoken." But even in Karnataka's Mattur, which is often referred to as India's Sanskrit village, hardly a handful indicated Sanskrit as their mother tongue. https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/where-are-the-sanskrit-speakers/article6299433.ece ↩

45. Distribution of the 22 Scheduled Languages – India / States / Union Territories – Sanskrit (PDF), Census of India, 2011, p. 30, retrieved 4 October 2020 https://censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/C-16_25062018_NEW.pdf ↩

46. Seth 2007, pp. 171–. - Seth, Sanjay (2007). Subject lessons: the Western education of colonial India. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-4105-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=QU9glkC4ceMC&pg=PA172 ↩

47. Angus Stevenson & Maurice Waite 2011, p. 1275 - Angus Stevenson; Maurice Waite (2011). Concise Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-960110-3. Archived from the original on 14 April 2023. Retrieved 16 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=4XycAQAAQBAJ ↩

48. Shlomo Biderman 2008, p. 90. - Shlomo Biderman (2008). Crossing Horizons: World, Self, and Language in Indian and Western Thought. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-51159-9. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 16 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=xfTzz8EsEbAC ↩

49. Will Durant 1963, p. 406. - Will Durant (1963) [First published 1935]. Our oriental heritage. Simon & Schuster. OCLC 28553235. Retrieved 16 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=lSJxAAAAMAAJ ↩

50. Sir Monier Monier-Williams 2005, p. 1120. - Sir Monier Monier-Williams (2005). A Sanskrit-English Dictionary: Etymologically and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European Languages. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-3105-6. Archived from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 16 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=zUezTfym7CAC ↩

51. Louis Renou & Jagbans Kishore Balbir 2004, pp. 1–2. - Louis Renou; Jagbans Kishore Balbir (2004). A history of Sanskrit language. Ajanta. ISBN 978-8-1202-05291. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=QmtjAAAAMAAJ ↩

52. Shlomo Biderman 2008, p. 90. - Shlomo Biderman (2008). Crossing Horizons: World, Self, and Language in Indian and Western Thought. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-51159-9. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 16 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=xfTzz8EsEbAC ↩

53. Annette Wilke & Oliver Moebus 2011, pp. 62–66 with footnotes. - Annette Wilke; Oliver Moebus (2011). Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-024003-0. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 16 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=9wmYz_OtZ_gC ↩

54. Guy L. Beck 2006, pp. 117–123. - Guy L. Beck (2006). Sacred Sound: Experiencing Music in World Religions. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-88920-421-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=t-IeHbqAfSsC ↩

55. Southworth 2004, p. 45. - Southworth, Franklin (2004). Linguistic Archaeology of South Asia. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-31777-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=hTwuFUW5aEgC ↩

56. Klein, Joseph & Fritz 2017, pp. 318–320. - Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias (2017). Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics: An International Handbook. Walter De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-026128-8. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 16 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=cQA2DwAAQBAJ ↩

57. Roger D. Woodard (2008). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. The earliest form of this 'oldest' language, Sanskrit, is the one found in the ancient Brahmanic text called the Rigveda, composed c. 1500 BCE. The date makes Sanskrit one of the three earliest of the well-documented languages of the Indo-European family – the other two being Old Hittite and Myceanaean Greek – and, in keeping with its early appearance, Sanskrit has been a cornerstone in the reconstruction of the parent language of the Indo-European family – Proto-Indo-European. 978-0-521-68494-1 ↩

58. Bauer, Brigitte L. M. (2017). Nominal Apposition in Indo-European: Its forms and functions, and its evolution in Latin-romance. De Gruyter. pp. 90–92. ISBN 978-3-11-046175-6. For detailed comparison of the languages, see pp. 90–126. 978-3-11-046175-6 ↩

59. Ramat, Anna Giacalone; Ramat, Paolo (2015). The Indo-European Languages. Routledge. pp. 26–31. ISBN 978-1-134-92187-4. 978-1-134-92187-4 ↩

60. "Ancient tablet found: Oldest readable writing in Europe". National Geographic. 1 April 2011. Archived from the original on 1 April 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110401192141/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/03/110330-oldest-writing-europe-tablet-greece-science-mycenae-greek/ ↩

61. Rose, Jenny (18 August 2011). Zoroastrianism: A guide for the perplexed. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 75–76. ISBN 978-1-4411-2236-0. 978-1-4411-2236-0 ↩

62. Bauer, Brigitte L. M. (2017). Nominal Apposition in Indo-European: Its forms and functions, and its evolution in Latin-romance. De Gruyter. pp. 90–92. ISBN 978-3-11-046175-6. For detailed comparison of the languages, see pp. 90–126. 978-3-11-046175-6 ↩

63. Ramat, Anna Giacalone; Ramat, Paolo (2015). The Indo-European Languages. Routledge. pp. 26–31. ISBN 978-1-134-92187-4. 978-1-134-92187-4 ↩

64. Ramat, Anna Giacalone; Ramat, Paolo (2015). The Indo-European Languages. Routledge. pp. 26–31. ISBN 978-1-134-92187-4. 978-1-134-92187-4 ↩

65. Harmatta, J. (1992). "The Emergence of the Indo-Iranians: The Indo-Iranian Languages". In Dani, Ahmad Hasan; Masson, Vadim Mikhaĭlovich (eds.). History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Vol. I. UNESCO. pp. 357–358. ISBN 978-81-208-1407-3. 978-81-208-1407-3 ↩

66. Masica 1993, p. 34. - Masica, Colin P. (1993). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29944-2. Archived from the original on 1 February 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=J3RSHWePhXwC ↩

67. Levin, Saul (24 October 2002). Semitic and Indo-European. Current Issues in Linguistic Theory No. 226. Vol. II: Comparative morphology, syntax, and phonetics. John Benjamins Publishing Company. p. 431. ISBN 9781588112224. OCLC 32590410. ISBN 1588112225 9781588112224 ↩

68. Bryant & Patton 2005, p. 208. - Bryant, Edwin; Patton, Laurie (2005). The Indo-Aryan Controversy: Evidence and Inference in Indian History. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-7007-1463-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=fHYnGde4BS4C ↩

69. Robins, R. H. (2014). General Linguistics. Routledge. pp. 346–347. ISBN 978-1-317-88763-8. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. 978-1-317-88763-8 ↩

70. J. P. Mallory & D. Q. Adams 2006, p. 6. - J. P. Mallory; D. Q. Adams (2006). The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-928791-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=iNUSDAAAQBAJ ↩

71. William Jones (1786), quoted by Thomas Burrow in The Sanskrit Language:[64] "The Sanscrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and the forms of grammar, than could possibly have been produced by accident; so strong indeed, that no philologer could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which perhaps no longer exists. There is a similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for supposing that both the Gothick and the Celtick [sic], though blended with a very different idiom, had the same origin with the Sanscrit; and the Old Persian might be added to the same family." ↩

72. Masica 1993, pp. 36–38. - Masica, Colin P. (1993). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29944-2. Archived from the original on 1 February 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=J3RSHWePhXwC ↩

73. Burrow 1973, pp. 30–32. - Burrow, Thomas (1973). The Sanskrit Language (3rd, revised ed.). London: Faber & Faber. ↩

74. Burrow 1973, pp. 30–34. - Burrow, Thomas (1973). The Sanskrit Language (3rd, revised ed.). London: Faber & Faber. ↩

75. Meier-Brügger 2003, p. 20. - Meier-Brügger, Michael (2003). Indo-European Linguistics. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-017433-5. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 15 November 2015. https://books.google.com/books?id=49xq3UlKWckC ↩

76. MacDonell 2004. - MacDonell, Arthur (2004). A History Of Sanskrit Literature. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4179-0619-2. ↩

77. Keith 1996, pp. 3–4. - Keith, A. Berriedale (1996) [First published 1920]. A History of Sanskrit Literature. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1100-3. Archived from the original on 18 January 2024. Retrieved 15 November 2015. https://books.google.com/books?id=GNALtBMVbd0C ↩

78. Deshpande 1993, p. 165. - Deshpande, Madhav M. (1993). Sanskrit & Prakrit, Sociolinguistic Issues. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 118–124. ISBN 978-81-208-1136-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=NDrqaELkKTEC ↩

79. Bloomfield & Edgerton 1932, §163–170. - Bloomfield, Maurice; Edgerton, Franklin (1932). Vedic Variants - Part II - Phonetics. Linguistic Society of America. ↩

80. Deshpande 1993, pp. 130–196. - Deshpande, Madhav M. (1993). Sanskrit & Prakrit, Sociolinguistic Issues. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 118–124. ISBN 978-81-208-1136-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=NDrqaELkKTEC ↩

81. Barbara A. Holdrege 2012, pp. 229–230. - Barbara A. Holdrege (2012). Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-1-4384-0695-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=YlvikndgEmIC ↩

82. Bryant 2001, pp. 66–67. - Bryant, Edwin (2001). The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513777-4. ↩

83. Louis Renou & Jagbans Kishore Balbir 2004, pp. 5–6. - Louis Renou; Jagbans Kishore Balbir (2004). A history of Sanskrit language. Ajanta. ISBN 978-8-1202-05291. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=QmtjAAAAMAAJ ↩

84. Meier-Brügger 2003, p. 20. - Meier-Brügger, Michael (2003). Indo-European Linguistics. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-017433-5. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 15 November 2015. https://books.google.com/books?id=49xq3UlKWckC ↩

85. Cardona 2012. - Cardona, George (2012). Sanskrit Language. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 16 October 2023. Retrieved 13 July 2018. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sanskrit-language ↩

86. Witzel 1997, p. 9. - Witzel, M. (1997). Inside the texts, beyond the texts: New approaches to the study of the Vedas (PDF). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 November 2021. Retrieved 28 October 2014. http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/intro.pdf ↩

87. Witzel 1997, p. 16-17. - Witzel, M. (1997). Inside the texts, beyond the texts: New approaches to the study of the Vedas (PDF). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 November 2021. Retrieved 28 October 2014. http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/intro.pdf ↩

88. Harold G. Coward 1990, pp. 3–12, 36–47, 111–112, Note: Sanskrit was both a literary and spoken language in ancient India.. - Harold G. Coward (1990). Karl Potter (ed.). The Philosophy of the Grammarians, in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies. Vol. 5. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-81-208-0426-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=2CEj6wRqeRAC ↩

89. Cohen, Signe (2017). The Upanisads: A complete guide. Taylor & Francis. pp. 11–17. ISBN 978-1-317-63696-0. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. 978-1-317-63696-0 ↩

90. The Mitanni treaty is generally dated to the 16th century BCE, but this date and its significance remains much debated.[82] ↩

91. Cohen, Signe (2017). The Upanisads: A complete guide. Taylor & Francis. pp. 11–17. ISBN 978-1-317-63696-0. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. 978-1-317-63696-0 ↩

92. Robinson, Andrew (2014). India: A Short History. Thames & Hudson. pp. 56–57. ISBN 978-0-500-77195-2. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. 978-0-500-77195-2 ↩

93. Lowe, John Jeffrey (2015). Participles in Rigvedic Sanskrit: The syntax and semantics of adjectival verb forms. Oxford University Press. pp. 2–3. ISBN 978-0-19-870136-1. Archived from the original on 7 September 2023. Retrieved 18 July 2018. 978-0-19-870136-1 ↩

94. Stephanie W. Jamison & Joel P. Brereton 2014, pp. 10–11, 72. - Stephanie W. Jamison; Joel P. Brereton (2014). The Rigveda: 3-Volume Set, Volume I. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-972078-1. Archived from the original on 7 September 2023. Retrieved 19 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=fgzVAwAAQBAJ ↩

95. An example of the shared phrasal equations is the dyáuṣ pitṛ́ in Vedic Sanskrit, from Proto-Indo-European *dyḗws ph₂tḗr, meaning "sky father". The Mycenaean Greek equivalent is Zeus Pater, which evolved to Jupiter in Latin. Equivalent "paternal Heaven" phrasal equation is found in many Indo-European languages.[87] ↩

96. Stephanie W. Jamison & Joel P. Brereton 2014, pp. 66–67. - Stephanie W. Jamison; Joel P. Brereton (2014). The Rigveda: 3-Volume Set, Volume I. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-972078-1. Archived from the original on 7 September 2023. Retrieved 19 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=fgzVAwAAQBAJ ↩

97. Gombrich, Richard (2006). Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo. Routledge. pp. 24–25. ISBN 978-1-134-90352-8. Archived from the original on 3 July 2023. Retrieved 19 July 2018. 978-1-134-90352-8 ↩

98. Huet, Gérard; Kulkarni, Amba; Scharf, Peter (2009). Sanskrit Computational Linguistics: First and Second International Symposia Rocquencourt, France, October 29–31, 2007 Providence, RI, USA, May 15–17, 2008, Revised Selected Papers. Springer. pp. v–vi. ISBN 978-3-642-00154-3. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 19 July 2018. 978-3-642-00154-3 ↩

99. Harold G. Coward 1990, pp. 13–14, 111. - Harold G. Coward (1990). Karl Potter (ed.). The Philosophy of the Grammarians, in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies. Vol. 5. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-81-208-0426-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=2CEj6wRqeRAC ↩

100. Fortson, §10.26. ↩

101. Harold G. Coward 1990, pp. 13–14, 111. - Harold G. Coward (1990). Karl Potter (ed.). The Philosophy of the Grammarians, in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies. Vol. 5. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-81-208-0426-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=2CEj6wRqeRAC ↩

102. Pāṇini; Katre, Sumitra Mangesh (1989). Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. xix–xxi. ISBN 978-81-208-0521-7. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. 978-81-208-0521-7 ↩

103. Cardona 1997, p. 2. - Cardona, George (1997). Pāṇini - His work and its traditions. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-0419-8. ↩

104. Renou, Louis, and Filliozat, Jean. L'Inde Classique, manuel des etudes indiennes. Vol. II. pp. 86–90. École française d'Extrême-Orient, 2000 [1953]. ISBN 2-85539-903-3. /wiki/%C3%89cole_fran%C3%A7aise_d%27Extr%C3%AAme-Orient ↩

105. Angot, Michel (2001). L'Inde Classique. pp. 213–215. Paris: Les Belles Lettres. ISBN 2-251-41015-5 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

106. Fortson, §10.26. ↩

107. Kawaguchi, Yuji; Minegishi, Makoto; Viereck, Wolfgang (2011). Corpus-based Analysis and Diachronic Linguistics. John Benjamins. pp. 223–224. ISBN 978-90-272-7215-7. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. 978-90-272-7215-7 ↩

108. Bowman, John (2005). Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture. Columbia University Press. p. 728. ISBN 978-0-231-50004-3. 978-0-231-50004-3 ↩

109. Salomon 1998, p. 11. - Salomon, Richard (1998). Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-535666-3. Archived from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 16 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC ↩

110. Rhi, Juhyung (2009). "On the Peripheries of Civilizations: The Evolution of a Visual Tradition in Gandhāra". Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. 1: 5, 1–13. ↩

111. Sherma, Rita; Sharma, Arvind (2008). Hermeneutics and Hindu Thought: Toward a Fusion of Horizons. Springer. p. 235. ISBN 978-1-4020-8192-7. 978-1-4020-8192-7 ↩

112. Pāṇini's use of the term lipi has been a source of scholarly disagreements. Harry Falk in his 1993 overview states that ancient Indians neither knew nor used writing script, and Pāṇini's mention is likely a reference to Semitic and Greek scripts.[102] In his 1995 review, Salomon questions Falk's arguments and writes it is "speculative at best and hardly constitutes firm grounds for a late date for Kharoṣṭhī. The stronger argument for this position is that we have no specimen of the script before the time of Ashoka, nor any direct evidence of intermediate stages in its development; but of course this does not mean that such earlier forms did not exist, only that, if they did exist, they have not survived, presumably because they were not employed for monumental purposes before Ashoka".[103] According to Hartmut Scharfe, lipi of Pāṇini may be borrowed from the Old Persian dipi, in turn derived from Sumerian dup. Scharfe adds that the best evidence, at the time of his review, is that no script was used in India, aside from the Northwest Indian subcontinent, before c. 300 BCE because Indian tradition "at every occasion stresses the orality of the cultural and literary heritage".[104] Kenneth Norman states writing scripts in ancient India evolved over the long period of time like other cultures, that it is unlikely that ancient Indians developed a single complete writing system at one and the same time in the Maurya era. It is even less likely, states Norman, that a writing script was invented during Ashoka's rule, starting from nothing, for the specific purpose of writing his inscriptions and then it was understood all over South Asia where the Ashoka pillars are found.[105] Goody (1987) states that ancient India likely had a "very old culture of writing" along with its oral tradition of composing and transmitting knowledge, because the Vedic literature is too vast, consistent and complex to have been entirely created, memorized, accurately preserved and spread without a written system.[106] Falk disagrees with Goody, and suggests that it is a Western presumption and inability to imagine that remarkably early scientific achievements such as Pāṇini's grammar (5th to 4th century BCE), and the creation, preservation and wide distribution of the large corpus of the Brahmanic Vedic literature and the Buddhist canonical literature, without any writing scripts. Bronkhorst (2002) disagrees with Falk, and states, "Falk goes too far. It is fair to expect that we believe that Vedic memorisation—though without parallel in any other human society—has been able to preserve very long texts for many centuries without losing a syllable. ... However, the oral composition of a work as complex as Pāṇini's grammar is not only without parallel in other human cultures, it is without parallel in India itself. ... It just will not do to state that our difficulty in conceiving any such thing is our problem".[107] ↩

113. Louis Renou & Jagbans Kishore Balbir 2004, p. 53. - Louis Renou; Jagbans Kishore Balbir (2004). A history of Sanskrit language. Ajanta. ISBN 978-8-1202-05291. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=QmtjAAAAMAAJ ↩

114. Louis Renou & Jagbans Kishore Balbir 2004, pp. 53–54. - Louis Renou; Jagbans Kishore Balbir (2004). A history of Sanskrit language. Ajanta. ISBN 978-8-1202-05291. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=QmtjAAAAMAAJ ↩

115. Deshpande 1993, pp. 130–196. - Deshpande, Madhav M. (1993). Sanskrit & Prakrit, Sociolinguistic Issues. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 118–124. ISBN 978-81-208-1136-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=NDrqaELkKTEC ↩

116. Burrow 1973, pp. 33–34. - Burrow, Thomas (1973). The Sanskrit Language (3rd, revised ed.). London: Faber & Faber. ↩

117. A. M. Ruppel 2017, pp. 378–383. - A. M. Ruppel (2017). The Cambridge Introduction to Sanskrit. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-08828-3. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=eXQ3DgAAQBAJ ↩

118. A. M. Ruppel 2017, pp. 378–383. - A. M. Ruppel (2017). The Cambridge Introduction to Sanskrit. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-08828-3. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=eXQ3DgAAQBAJ ↩

119. A. M. Ruppel 2017, pp. 378–383. - A. M. Ruppel (2017). The Cambridge Introduction to Sanskrit. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-08828-3. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=eXQ3DgAAQBAJ ↩

120. A. M. Ruppel 2017, pp. 378–383. - A. M. Ruppel (2017). The Cambridge Introduction to Sanskrit. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-08828-3. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=eXQ3DgAAQBAJ ↩

121. Macdonell, Arthur Anthony (1997). A Sanskrit Grammar for Students. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 236–244. ISBN 978-81-208-0505-7. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 19 July 2018. 978-81-208-0505-7 ↩

122. Louis Renou & Jagbans Kishore Balbir 2004, pp. 1–59. - Louis Renou; Jagbans Kishore Balbir (2004). A history of Sanskrit language. Ajanta. ISBN 978-8-1202-05291. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=QmtjAAAAMAAJ ↩

123. Wright, J.C. (1990). "Reviewed Works: Pāṇini: His Work and Its Traditions. Vol. I. Background and Introduction by George Cardona; Grammaire sanskrite pâninéenne by Pierre-Sylvain Filliozat". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 53 (1). Cambridge University Press: 152–154. doi:10.1017/S0041977X0002156X. JSTOR 618999. The first reference to 'Sanskrit' in the context of language is in the Ramayana, Book 5 (Sundarkanda), Canto 28, Verse 17: अहं ह्यतितनुश्चैव वनरश्च विशेषतः // वाचंचोदाहरिष्यामि मानुषीमिह संस्कृताम् // १७ // Hanuman says, 'First, my body is very subtle, second I am a monkey. Especially as a monkey, I will use here the human-appropriate Sanskrit speech / language.' https://www.jstor.org/stable/618999 ↩

124. Woolner, Alfred C. (1986). Introduction to Prakrit. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 6, context: 1–10. ISBN 978-81-208-0189-9. 978-81-208-0189-9 ↩

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126. Shastri, Gaurinath Bhattacharyya (1987). A Concise History of Classical Sanskrit Literature. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 18–19. ISBN 978-81-208-0027-4. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 19 July 2018. 978-81-208-0027-4 ↩

127. Johansson, Rune Edvin Anders (1981). Pali Buddhist Texts: Explained to the beginner. Psychology Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-7007-1068-3. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 20 July 2018. Pali is known mainly as the language of Theravada Buddhism. ... very little is known about its origin. We do not know where it was spoken or if it originally was a spoken language at all. The ancient Ceylonese tradition says that the Buddha himself spoke Magadhi and that this language was identical to Pali. 978-0-7007-1068-3 ↩

128. Dundas, Paul (2003). The Jains. Routledge. pp. 69–70. ISBN 978-0-415-26606-2. Archived from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 20 July 2018. 978-0-415-26606-2 ↩

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134. Deshpande 2011, pp. 218–220. - Deshpande, Madhav (2011). "Efforts to vernacularize Sanskrit: Degree of success and failure". In Joshua Fishman; Ofelia Garcia (eds.). Handbook of Language and Ethnic Identity: The success-failure continuum in language and ethnic identity efforts. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-983799-1. ↩

135. Deshpande 2011, pp. 218–220. - Deshpande, Madhav (2011). "Efforts to vernacularize Sanskrit: Degree of success and failure". In Joshua Fishman; Ofelia Garcia (eds.). Handbook of Language and Ethnic Identity: The success-failure continuum in language and ethnic identity efforts. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-983799-1. ↩

136. Winternitz, Moriz (1996). A History of Indian Literature. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 42–46. ISBN 978-81-208-0264-3. Archived from the original on 26 December 2023. Retrieved 20 July 2018. 978-81-208-0264-3 ↩

137. Deshpande 2011, pp. 218–220. - Deshpande, Madhav (2011). "Efforts to vernacularize Sanskrit: Degree of success and failure". In Joshua Fishman; Ofelia Garcia (eds.). Handbook of Language and Ethnic Identity: The success-failure continuum in language and ethnic identity efforts. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-983799-1. ↩

138. Deshpande 2011, pp. 218–220. - Deshpande, Madhav (2011). "Efforts to vernacularize Sanskrit: Degree of success and failure". In Joshua Fishman; Ofelia Garcia (eds.). Handbook of Language and Ethnic Identity: The success-failure continuum in language and ethnic identity efforts. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-983799-1. ↩

139. Deshpande 2011, pp. 222–223. - Deshpande, Madhav (2011). "Efforts to vernacularize Sanskrit: Degree of success and failure". In Joshua Fishman; Ofelia Garcia (eds.). Handbook of Language and Ethnic Identity: The success-failure continuum in language and ethnic identity efforts. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-983799-1. ↩

140. Lamotte, Étienne (1976). "Histoire du buddhisme indien, des origines à l'ère saka". Institut orientaliste. Tijdschrift voor Filosofie (in French). 21 (3). Louvain-la-Neuve, France: Université de Louvain: 539–541. /wiki/%C3%89tienne_Lamotte ↩

141. Pollock, Sheldon (1996). "The Sanskrit cosmopolis, A.D. 300–1300: transculturation, vernacularization, and the question of ideology". In Houben, Jan (ed.). Ideology and Status of Sanskrit: Contributions to the history of the Sanskrit language. Leiden, New York: E. J. Brill. pp. 197–199, pp. 197–239 for context and details. ISBN 978-90-04-10613-0. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 22 March 2024. 978-90-04-10613-0 ↩

142. Reyar, Akrita (19 February 2019). "'Kashmir had an overwhelmingly Indic and Sanskritic identity and character'". timesnownews.com. Archived from the original on 8 January 2024. https://www.timesnownews.com/india/article/kashmir-had-an-overwhelmingly-indic-and-sanskritic-identity-and-character-shonaleeka-kaul-jnu/334839 ↩

143. P. 116 Sanskrit and Other Indian Languages By Śaśiprabhā Kumāra; "Their language was Vedic Sanskrit which is spoken by all Kashmiris presently." ↩

144. Kashmir: Its Aborigines and Their Exodus By Colonel Tej K Tikoo ↩

145. Reinöhl, Uta (2016). Grammaticalization and the Rise of Configurationality in Indo-Aryan. Oxford University Press. pp. 120–121. ↩

146. Ruzca, Ferenc (2013). "The influence of Dravidian on Indo-Aryan phonetics". In Klein, Jared S. (ed.). Indic Across the Millennia: from the Rigveda to Modern Indo-Aryans. Hempen Verlag. pp. 145–152. ISBN 9783934106055. 9783934106055 ↩

147. Hock, Hans Henrich; Bashir, E.; Subbarao, K. V. (2016). The languages and linguistics of South Asia a comprehensive guide. Berlin de Gruyter Mouton. pp. 94–95. ↩

148. Hart, George (1976). The relation between Tamil and classical Sanskrit literature. Wiesbaden: O. Harrassowitz. pp. 317–320. ISBN 3447017856. 3447017856 ↩

149. Reinöhl, Uta (2016). Grammaticalization and the Rise of Configurationality in Indo-Aryan. Oxford University Press. pp. 120–121. ↩

150. Shulman, David Dean (2016). Tamil : a biography. London, UK: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. pp. 12–14, 20. ↩

151. Burrow 1973, p. 386. - Burrow, Thomas (1973). The Sanskrit Language (3rd, revised ed.). London: Faber & Faber. ↩

152. Gaurinath Bhattacharyya Shastri (1987). A Concise History of Classical Sanskrit Literature. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0027-4. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 19 July 2018. 978-81-208-0027-4 ↩

153. Banerji 1989, pp. 618–632, see also the extended list of Sanskrit texts in Part II. - Banerji, Sures (1989). A Companion to Sanskrit Literature: Spanning a period of over three thousand years, containing brief accounts of authors, works, characters, technical terms, geographical names, myths, legends, and several appendices. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0063-2. ↩

154. Salomon 1998, pp. 86–87. - Salomon, Richard (1998). Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-535666-3. Archived from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 16 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC ↩

155. J.F. Staal (1976). Herman Parret (ed.). History of Linguistic Thought and Contemporary Linguistics. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 102–130. ISBN 978-3-11-005818-5. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 20 July 2018. 978-3-11-005818-5 ↩

156. Burrow 1973, pp. 57–64, 289, 319. - Burrow, Thomas (1973). The Sanskrit Language (3rd, revised ed.). London: Faber & Faber. ↩

157. J.F. Staal (1976). Herman Parret (ed.). History of Linguistic Thought and Contemporary Linguistics. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 102–130. ISBN 978-3-11-005818-5. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 20 July 2018. 978-3-11-005818-5 ↩

158. Madhav Deshpande (2010), Language and Testimony in Classical Indian Philosophy, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Source Link Archived 29 March 2024 at the Wayback Machine https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/language-india/ ↩

159. Madhav Deshpande (2010), Language and Testimony in Classical Indian Philosophy, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Source Link Archived 29 March 2024 at the Wayback Machine https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/language-india/ ↩

160. A celebrated work on the philosophy of language is the Vakyapadiya by the 5th-century Hindu scholar Bhartrhari.[141][144][145] ↩

161. J.F. Staal (1976). Herman Parret (ed.). History of Linguistic Thought and Contemporary Linguistics. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 102–130. ISBN 978-3-11-005818-5. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 20 July 2018. 978-3-11-005818-5 ↩

162. Wayman 1965, pp. 111–115. - Wayman, Alex (1965). "The Buddhism and the Sanskrit of Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 85 (1): 111–115. doi:10.2307/597713. JSTOR 597713. https://doi.org/10.2307%2F597713 ↩

163. John Kelly (1996). Jan E.M. Houben (ed.). Ideology and Status of Sanskrit: Contributions to the History of the Sanskrit Language. BRILL Academic. pp. 87–102. ISBN 978-90-04-10613-0. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 20 July 2018. 978-90-04-10613-0 ↩

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253. Jamison 2008, pp. 8–9. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

254. Jamison 2008, p. 9. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

255. Robert P. Goldman & Sally J Sutherland Goldman 2002, pp. 1–9. - Robert P. Goldman; Sally J Sutherland Goldman (2002). Devavāṇīpraveśikā: An Introduction to the Sanskrit Language. Center for South Asia Studies, University of California Press. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=65fqnQEACAAJ ↩

256. Jamison 2008, p. 9. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

257. Michael Coulson, Richard Gombrich & James Benson 2011, pp. 21–36. - Michael Coulson; Richard Gombrich; James Benson (2011). Complete Sanskrit: A Teach Yourself Guide. Mcgraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-175266-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=vLkRAUhzlkIC ↩

258. Masica 1993, pp. 163–165. - Masica, Colin P. (1993). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29944-2. Archived from the original on 1 February 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=J3RSHWePhXwC ↩

259. Robert P. Goldman & Sally J Sutherland Goldman 2002, pp. 13–19. - Robert P. Goldman; Sally J Sutherland Goldman (2002). Devavāṇīpraveśikā: An Introduction to the Sanskrit Language. Center for South Asia Studies, University of California Press. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=65fqnQEACAAJ ↩

260. Sanskrit is written in many scripts. Sounds in grey are not phonemic. ↩

261. ḹ is not an actual sound of Sanskrit, but rather a graphic convention included among the written vowels to maintain the symmetry of short–long pairs of letters.[221] ↩

262. Masica 1993, p. 146 notes of this diacritic that "there is some controversy as to whether it represents a homorganic nasal stop [...], a nasalised vowel, a nasalised semivowel, or all these according to context". - Masica, Colin P. (1993). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29944-2. Archived from the original on 1 February 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=J3RSHWePhXwC ↩

263. This visarga is a consonant, not a vowel. It is a post-vocalic voiceless glottal fricative [h], and an allophone of s (or less commonly r) usually in word-final position. Some traditions of recitation append an echo of the preceding vowel after the [h] (Wikner, Charles (1996). "A Practical Sanskrit Introductory". p. 6. Archived from the original on 18 June 2008. Retrieved 26 June 2020.): इः [ihi]. Masica 1993, p. 146 considers the visarga, along with letters ङ ṅa and ञ ña, for the "largely predictable" velar and palatal nasals, to be examples of "phonetic overkill in the [writing] system". /wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative ↩

264. Masica 1993, pp. 160–161. - Masica, Colin P. (1993). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29944-2. Archived from the original on 1 February 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=J3RSHWePhXwC ↩

265. Masica 1993, pp. 160–161. - Masica, Colin P. (1993). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29944-2. Archived from the original on 1 February 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=J3RSHWePhXwC ↩

266. Whitney, William Dwight (1993). Sanskrit grammar: including both the classical language, and the older dialects, of Veda and Brahmana (2. ed., 17. issue ed.). Cambridge, Mass: Harvard Univ. Pr. ISBN 978-0-674-78810-7. 978-0-674-78810-7 ↩

267. Jamison 2008, pp. 9–10. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

268. Robert P. Goldman & Sally J Sutherland Goldman 2002, pp. 13–19. - Robert P. Goldman; Sally J Sutherland Goldman (2002). Devavāṇīpraveśikā: An Introduction to the Sanskrit Language. Center for South Asia Studies, University of California Press. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=65fqnQEACAAJ ↩

269. Sanskrit is written in many scripts. Sounds in grey are not phonemic. ↩

270. Jamison 2008, pp. 9–10. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

271. Jamison 2008, pp. 9–10. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

272. Jamison 2008, p. 10. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

273. Jamison 2008, p. 10. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

274. Jamison 2008, pp. 9–10. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

275. Jamison 2008, p. 10. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

276. Jamison 2008, pp. 10–11. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

277. Jamison 2008, pp. 10–11. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

278. Jamison 2008, pp. 10–11. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

279. Jamison 2008, p. 11. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

280. Whitney §80 – 97 ↩

281. Jamison 2008, p. 15. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

282. Jamison 2008, pp. 15–16. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

283. Jamison 2008, p. 15. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

284. Jamison 2008, p. 15. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

285. Jamison 2008, p. 15. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

286. Jamison 2008, p. 20. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

287. A. M. Ruppel 2017, pp. 31–33. - A. M. Ruppel (2017). The Cambridge Introduction to Sanskrit. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-08828-3. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=eXQ3DgAAQBAJ ↩

288. A. M. Ruppel 2017, pp. 31–33. - A. M. Ruppel (2017). The Cambridge Introduction to Sanskrit. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-08828-3. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=eXQ3DgAAQBAJ ↩

289. The "root + affix" is called the "stem".[236] ↩

290. A. M. Ruppel 2017, pp. 31–33. - A. M. Ruppel (2017). The Cambridge Introduction to Sanskrit. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-08828-3. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=eXQ3DgAAQBAJ ↩

291. Other equivalents: bharāmi (I carry), bharati (he carries), bharāmas (we carry).[63] Similar morphology is found in some other Indo-European languages; for example, in the Gothic language, baira (I carry), bairis (you carry), bairiþ (he carries). ↩

292. Jamison 2008, pp. 19–20. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

293. Jamison 2008, pp. 19–20. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

294. Jamison 2008, p. 15. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

295. Jamison 2008, p. 15. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

296. Jamison 2008, pp. 15–16. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

297. Jamison 2008, pp. 15–16. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

298. Jamison 2008, pp. 16–17. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

299. Jamison 2008, pp. 16–17. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

300. Jamison 2008, pp. 17–18. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

301. Kiparsky, Paul (2014). Koerner, E. F. K.; Asher, R. E. (eds.). Concise History of the Language Sciences: From the Sumerians to the Cognitivists. Elsevier. pp. 59–65. ISBN 978-1-4832-9754-5. 978-1-4832-9754-5 ↩

302. Kiparsky, Paul (2014). Koerner, E. F. K.; Asher, R. E. (eds.). Concise History of the Language Sciences: From the Sumerians to the Cognitivists. Elsevier. pp. 59–65. ISBN 978-1-4832-9754-5. 978-1-4832-9754-5 ↩

303. Jamison 2008, pp. 15–16. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

304. Jamison 2008, pp. 15–16. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

305. A. M. Ruppel 2017, pp. 33–34. - A. M. Ruppel (2017). The Cambridge Introduction to Sanskrit. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-08828-3. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=eXQ3DgAAQBAJ ↩

306. A. M. Ruppel 2017, pp. 33–34. - A. M. Ruppel (2017). The Cambridge Introduction to Sanskrit. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-08828-3. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=eXQ3DgAAQBAJ ↩

307. Jamison 2008, p. 20. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

308. Jamison 2008, p. 20. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

309. Ruppel gives the following endings for the "present indicative active" in the Sanskrit language: 1st dual: -vaḥ, 1st plural: -maḥ, 2nd dual: -thaḥ, 2nd plural: -tha and so on.[111] ↩

310. Jamison 2008, p. 21. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

311. Jamison 2008, p. 21. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

312. Jamison 2008, pp. 20–21. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

313. A. M. Ruppel 2017, pp. 33–34. - A. M. Ruppel (2017). The Cambridge Introduction to Sanskrit. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-08828-3. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=eXQ3DgAAQBAJ ↩

314. Jamison 2008, pp. 16–17. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

315. Jamison 2008, pp. 16–17. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

316. Jamison 2008, pp. 16–17. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

317. A. M. Ruppel 2017, pp. 33–34. - A. M. Ruppel (2017). The Cambridge Introduction to Sanskrit. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-08828-3. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=eXQ3DgAAQBAJ ↩

318. Jamison 2008, p. 20. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

319. Jamison 2008, pp. 20–21. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

320. Jamison 2008, pp. 16–17. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

321. Jamison 2008, pp. 16–17. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

322. Jamison 2008, pp. 16–17. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

323. Robert P. Goldman & Sally J Sutherland Goldman 2002, pp. 59, 79, 91, 113. - Robert P. Goldman; Sally J Sutherland Goldman (2002). Devavāṇīpraveśikā: An Introduction to the Sanskrit Language. Center for South Asia Studies, University of California Press. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 17 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=65fqnQEACAAJ ↩

324. Burrow 1973, pp. 191–194. - Burrow, Thomas (1973). The Sanskrit Language (3rd, revised ed.). London: Faber & Faber. ↩

325. Jamison 2008, pp. 19–20. - Jamison, Stephanie (2008). Roger D. Woodard (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia and the Americas. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-68494-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 18 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=UQpAuNIP4oIC ↩

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328. James Lochtefeld, James (2002). "Chandas". In The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Vol. 1: A-M. Rosen. ISBN 0-8239-2287-1. p. 140 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

329. James Lochtefeld, James (2002). "Chandas". In The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Vol. 1: A-M. Rosen. ISBN 0-8239-2287-1. p. 140 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

330. Winternitz, Moriz (1988). A History of Indian Literature: Buddhist literature and Jaina literature. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 577. ISBN 978-81-208-0265-0. 978-81-208-0265-0 ↩

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333. Preminger, Alex; Warnke, Frank J.; Hardison Jr., O. B. (2015). Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics. Princeton University Press. pp. 394–395. ISBN 978-1-4008-7293-0. 978-1-4008-7293-0 ↩

334. Salomon 1998, p. 10. - Salomon, Richard (1998). Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-535666-3. Archived from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 16 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC ↩

335. Salomon 1998, pp. 7–10, 86. - Salomon, Richard (1998). Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-535666-3. Archived from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 16 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC ↩

336. Goody 1987, pp. 110–121. - Goody, Jack (1987). The Interface Between the Written and the Oral. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-33794-6. https://archive.org/details/interfacebetween00good ↩

337. Donald S. Lopez Jr. 1995, pp. 21–47 - Donald S. Lopez Jr. (1995). "Authority and Orality in the Mahāyāna" (PDF). Numen. 42 (1). Brill Academic: 21–47. doi:10.1163/1568527952598800. hdl:2027.42/43799. JSTOR 3270278. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 January 2011. Retrieved 29 August 2019. https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/43799/1/11076_1995_Article_1568527952598800.pdf ↩

338. N. J. Allen (2019). Arjuna–Odysseus: Shared Heritage in Indian and Greek Epic. Taylor & Francis. p. 364. ↩

339. Salomon 1998, p. 11. - Salomon, Richard (1998). Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-535666-3. Archived from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 16 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC ↩

340. Salomon 1998, p. 11. - Salomon, Richard (1998). Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-535666-3. Archived from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 16 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC ↩

341. Rhi, Juhyung (2009). "On the Peripheries of Civilizations: The Evolution of a Visual Tradition in Gandhāra". Journal of Central Eurasian Studies. 1: 5, 1–13. ↩

342. Rita Sherma; Arvind Sharma (2008). Hermeneutics and Hindu Thought: Toward a Fusion of Horizons. Springer. p. 235. ISBN 978-1-4020-8192-7.;Takao Hayashi (2008). Gavin Flood (ed.). The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. John Wiley & Sons. p. 365. ISBN 978-0-470-99868-7. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 3 August 2018. 978-1-4020-8192-7978-0-470-99868-7 ↩

343. The Buddhist text Lalitavistara Sūtra describes the young Siddhartha—the future Buddha—to have mastered philology and scripts at a school from Brahmin Lipikara and Deva Vidyasinha.[256] /wiki/Lalitavistara_S%C5%ABtra ↩

344. Salomon 1998, pp. 8–9 with footnotes. - Salomon, Richard (1998). Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-535666-3. Archived from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 16 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC ↩

345. A version of this list of sixty-four ancient Indian scripts is found in the Chinese translation of an Indian Buddhist text, and this translation has been dated to 308 CE.[258] ↩

346. Salomon 1998. - Salomon, Richard (1998). Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-535666-3. Archived from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 16 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC ↩

347. Salomon 1998, pp. 8–14. - Salomon, Richard (1998). Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-535666-3. Archived from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 16 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC ↩

348. The Greek Nearchos who visited ancient India with the army of Alexander the Great in the 4th century BCE, mentions that Indians wrote on cloth, but Nearchos could have confused Aramaic writers with the Indians.[261] /wiki/Nearchus ↩

349. Salomon 1998, pp. 8–14. - Salomon, Richard (1998). Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-535666-3. Archived from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 16 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC ↩

350. Salomon writes, in The World's Writing Systems (edited by Peter Daniels), that "many scholars feel that the origins of these scripts must have gone back further than this [mid-3rd century BCE Ashoka inscriptions], but there is no conclusive proof".[262] ↩

351. Daniels 1996, pp. 373–374, 376–378. - Daniels, Peter T. (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 4 August 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=ospMAgAAQBAJ ↩

352. Salomon 1998, pp. 14–16. - Salomon, Richard (1998). Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-535666-3. Archived from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 16 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC ↩

353. Daniels 1996, pp. 373–375. - Daniels, Peter T. (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 4 August 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=ospMAgAAQBAJ ↩

354. Daniels 1996, pp. 373–376. - Daniels, Peter T. (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 4 August 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=ospMAgAAQBAJ ↩

355. Daniels 1996, pp. 373–374. - Daniels, Peter T. (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 4 August 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=ospMAgAAQBAJ ↩

356. Minor inscriptions discovered in the 20th century may be older, but their dating is uncertain.[267] ↩

357. Salomon 1998, pp. 14–16. - Salomon, Richard (1998). Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-535666-3. Archived from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 16 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC ↩

358. Salomon 1998, pp. 14–16. - Salomon, Richard (1998). Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-535666-3. Archived from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 16 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC ↩

359. Daniels 1996, pp. 376–380. - Daniels, Peter T. (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 4 August 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=ospMAgAAQBAJ ↩

360. Salomon illustrates this for the consonant ka which is written as "" in the Brahmi script and "क" in the Devanagari script, the vowel is marked together with the consonant before as in "कि", after "का", above "के" or below "कृ".[264] /wiki/File:Brahmi_k.svg ↩

361. Salomon 1998, pp. 14–16. - Salomon, Richard (1998). Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-535666-3. Archived from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 16 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC ↩

362. Dhanesh Jain & George Cardona 2007, pp. 68–70 in Chapter 3 by Salomon. - Dhanesh Jain; George Cardona (2007). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-79711-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=OtCPAgAAQBAJ ↩

363. "Nandanagiri" (PDF). Unicode Standards (Report). 2013. 13002. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 March 2021. Retrieved 6 August 2018. https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2013/13002-nandinagari.pdf ↩

364. Kuiper, Kathleen (2010). The Culture of India. New York, NY: The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 83. ISBN 978-1615301492. 978-1615301492 ↩

365. Salomon, Richard (2014). Indian Epigraphy. Oxford University Press. pp. 33–47. ISBN 978-0195356663. 978-0195356663 ↩

366. Sures Chandra Banerji (1989). A Companion to Sanskrit Literature. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 671–672. ISBN 978-81-208-0063-2. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 6 August 2018. 978-81-208-0063-2 ↩

367. Dhanesh Jain & George Cardona 2007, pp. 70, 75–77 in Chapter 3 by Salomon. - Dhanesh Jain; George Cardona (2007). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-79711-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=OtCPAgAAQBAJ ↩

368. Dhanesh Jain & George Cardona 2007, pp. 75–77 in Chapter 3 by Salomon. - Dhanesh Jain; George Cardona (2007). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-79711-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=OtCPAgAAQBAJ ↩

369. Dhanesh Jain & George Cardona 2007, pp. 75–77 in Chapter 3 by Salomon. - Dhanesh Jain; George Cardona (2007). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-79711-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=OtCPAgAAQBAJ ↩

370. Dhanesh Jain & George Cardona 2007, pp. 68–70 in Chapter 3 by Salomon. - Dhanesh Jain; George Cardona (2007). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-79711-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=OtCPAgAAQBAJ ↩

371. Dhanesh Jain & George Cardona 2007, pp. 70–78 in Chapter 3 by Salomon. - Dhanesh Jain; George Cardona (2007). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-79711-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=OtCPAgAAQBAJ ↩

372. Dhanesh Jain & George Cardona 2007, pp. 70–71, 75–76 in Chapter 3 by Salomon. - Dhanesh Jain; George Cardona (2007). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-79711-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=OtCPAgAAQBAJ ↩

373. Salomon states that these shared graphic principles that combine syllabic and alphabetic writing are distinctive for Indic scripts when contrasted with other major world languages. The only known similarity is found in the Ethiopic scripts, but Ethiopic system lacks clusters and the Indic set of full vowels signs.[279] ↩

374. Salomon 1998, pp. 86–87. - Salomon, Richard (1998). Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-535666-3. Archived from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 16 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC ↩

375. Quintanilla 2007, pp. 260. - Quintanilla, Sonya Rhie (2007). History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: ca. 150 BCE – 100 CE. BRILL Academic. pp. 254–255. ISBN 978-90-04-15537-4. Archived from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 8 August 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=X7Cb8IkZVSMC ↩

376. Court 1996, pp. 445–448. ↩

377. Masica 1993, pp. 143–144. - Masica, Colin P. (1993). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29944-2. Archived from the original on 1 February 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=J3RSHWePhXwC ↩

378. Salomon 1998, pp. 92–93. - Salomon, Richard (1998). Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-535666-3. Archived from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 16 July 2018. https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC ↩

379. "Since the Renaissance there has been no event of such worldwide significance in the history of culture as the discovery of Sanskrit literature in the latter part of the eighteenth century" – Macdonell[284] ↩

380. Fortson, §10.23. ↩

381. 'The style of the [Vedic] works is more simple and spontaneous while that of the later works abounds in puns, conceits and long compounds. Rhetorical ornaments are more and more copious and complex and the rules of Poetic and Grammar more and more rigidly observed as time advances.' – Iyengar,[286] ↩

382. Keith, §1. ↩

383. Macdonnell, §1. ↩

384. Burrow, §2.9. ↩

385. Iyengar 1965, pp. xxx–xxxiii, 5. - Iyengar, V. Gopala (1965). A Concise History of Classical Sanskrit Literature. https://archive.org/details/AConciseHistoryOfClassicalSanskritLiterature ↩

386. Macdonell, p. ix., §1 ↩

387. Iyengar 1965, p. 5. - Iyengar, V. Gopala (1965). A Concise History of Classical Sanskrit Literature. https://archive.org/details/AConciseHistoryOfClassicalSanskritLiterature ↩

388. Banerji 1989, p. 672 with footnotes. - Banerji, Sures (1989). A Companion to Sanskrit Literature: Spanning a period of over three thousand years, containing brief accounts of authors, works, characters, technical terms, geographical names, myths, legends, and several appendices. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0063-2. ↩

389. Jan Gonda (1975), Vedic literature (Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇas), Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 3-447-01603-5 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

390. Teun Goudriaan, Hindu Tantric and Śākta Literature, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 3-447-02091-1 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

391. Dhanesh Jain & George Cardona 2007. - Dhanesh Jain; George Cardona (2007). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-79711-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=OtCPAgAAQBAJ ↩

392. Hartmut Scharfe, A history of Indian literature. Vol. 5, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 3-447-01722-8 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

393. Keith 1996. - Keith, A. Berriedale (1996) [First published 1920]. A History of Sanskrit Literature. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1100-3. Archived from the original on 18 January 2024. Retrieved 15 November 2015. https://books.google.com/books?id=GNALtBMVbd0C ↩

394. These are just generic names for works of law ↩

395. Duncan, J.; Derrett, M. (1978). Gonda, Jan (ed.). Dharmasastra and Juridical Literature: A history of Indian literature. Vol. 4. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 3-447-01519-5. 3-447-01519-5 ↩

396. Keith 1996, ch 22. - Keith, A. Berriedale (1996) [First published 1920]. A History of Sanskrit Literature. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1100-3. Archived from the original on 18 January 2024. Retrieved 15 November 2015. https://books.google.com/books?id=GNALtBMVbd0C ↩

397. Olivelle, Patrick (31 January 2013). King, Governance, and Law in Ancient India. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-989182-5. 978-0-19-989182-5 ↩

398. an account of Indian algebra ↩

399. Kim Plofker (2009), Mathematics in India, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-12067-6 /wiki/Mathematics_in_India_(book) ↩

400. Pingree, David (1970). A Census of the Exact Sciences in Sanskrit. Vol. 1–5. American Philosophical Society. ISBN 978-0-87169-213-9. 978-0-87169-213-9 ↩

401. Valiathan, M.S. (2003). The Legacy of Caraka. Orient Blackswan. ISBN 978-81-250-2505-4. 978-81-250-2505-4 ↩

402. Zysk, Kenneth (1998). Medicine in the Veda. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1401-1. 978-81-208-1401-1 ↩

403. Kāma·śāstra, 'the science of love' ↩

404. Meyer, J.J. (22 February 2013). Sexual Life in Ancient India. Vol. 1 & 2. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-1-4826-1588-3. 978-1-4826-1588-3 ↩

405. Keith 1996, ch 24. - Keith, A. Berriedale (1996) [First published 1920]. A History of Sanskrit Literature. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1100-3. Archived from the original on 18 January 2024. Retrieved 15 November 2015. https://books.google.com/books?id=GNALtBMVbd0C ↩

406. John L. Brockington 1998. - John L. Brockington (1998). The Sanskrit Epics. BRILL Academic. ISBN 978-90-04-10260-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=HR-_LK5kl18C ↩

407. Sures Chandra Banerji (1989). A Companion to Sanskrit Literature. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 1–4, with a long list in Part II. ISBN 978-81-208-0063-2. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 6 August 2018 – via Google Books. Spanning a period of over three thousand years; containing brief accounts of authors, works, characters, technical terms, geographical names, myths, [and] legends, [with] several appendices. 978-81-208-0063-2 ↩

408. Keith 1996, §4. - Keith, A. Berriedale (1996) [First published 1920]. A History of Sanskrit Literature. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1100-3. Archived from the original on 18 January 2024. Retrieved 15 November 2015. https://books.google.com/books?id=GNALtBMVbd0C ↩

409. Sternbach, Ludwik (1974). Subhāṣita: Gnomic and didactic literature. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-01546-2. 978-3-447-01546-2 ↩

410. Berriedale, Keith A. The Sanskrit Drama. Oxford University Press – via Archive.org. https://archive.org/details/SanskritDrama-KeithA.Berriedale ↩

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412. Khokar, Mohan (1981). Traditions of Indian Classical Dance. Peter Owen Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7206-0574-7. 978-0-7206-0574-7 ↩

413. te Nijenhuis, E. "Musicological literature". Scientific and Technical Literature. A History of Indian Literature. Vol. 6. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-01831-9. Fasc. 1. 978-3-447-01831-9 ↩

414. Lewis Rowell, Music and Musical Thought in Early India, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-73033-6 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

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418. Gyula Wojtilla (2006), History of Kr̥ṣiśāstra, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3-447-05306-8 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

419. Acharya, P.K. (1946). An Encyclopedia of Hindu Architecture. Vol. 7. Oxford University Press. Also see volumes 1–6. https://archive.org/stream/encyclopaediaofh07achauoft#page/n9/mode/2up ↩

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423. Most Tripiṭaka historic texts in the Pali language, but Sanskrit Tripiṭaka texts have been discovered.[325] ↩

424. Banerji 1989, pp. 634–635 with the list in Appendix IX. - Banerji, Sures (1989). A Companion to Sanskrit Literature: Spanning a period of over three thousand years, containing brief accounts of authors, works, characters, technical terms, geographical names, myths, legends, and several appendices. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0063-2. ↩

425. Eltschinger 2017. - Eltschinger, Vincent (2017). "Why Did the Buddhists Adopt Sanskrit?". Open Linguistics. 3 (1). doi:10.1515/opli-2017-0015. ISSN 2300-9969. https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fopli-2017-0015 ↩

426. Wayman 1965. - Wayman, Alex (1965). "The Buddhism and the Sanskrit of Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 85 (1): 111–115. doi:10.2307/597713. JSTOR 597713. https://doi.org/10.2307%2F597713 ↩

427. Paul Dundas (2003). The Jains. Routledge. pp. 68–76, 149, 307–310. ISBN 978-1-134-50165-6. Archived from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 20 July 2018. 978-1-134-50165-6 ↩

428. Wendy Doniger (1993). Purana Perennis: Reciprocity and transformation in Hindu and Jaina texts. State University of New York Press. pp. 192–193. ISBN 978-0-7914-1381-4. 978-0-7914-1381-4 ↩

429. Burrow 2001, p. 375. - Burrow, Thomas (2001). The Sanskrit Language. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-1767-2. ↩

430. Burrow 2001, pp. 39–40. - Burrow, Thomas (2001). The Sanskrit Language. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-1767-2. ↩

431. Burrow 2001, pp. 381–385. - Burrow, Thomas (2001). The Sanskrit Language. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-1767-2. ↩

432. Parpola 1994, p. 168. - Parpola, Asko (1994). Deciphering the Indus Script. Great Britain: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43079-8. ↩

433. Keith 1996, pp. 20–21. - Keith, A. Berriedale (1996) [First published 1920]. A History of Sanskrit Literature. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1100-3. Archived from the original on 18 January 2024. Retrieved 15 November 2015. https://books.google.com/books?id=GNALtBMVbd0C ↩

434. Pollock 2001. - Pollock, Sheldon (2001). "The Death of Sanskrit". Comparative Studies in Society and History. 43 (2). Cambridge University Press: 392–426. doi:10.1017/s001041750100353x (inactive 1 November 2024). JSTOR 2696659. S2CID 35550166. https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs001041750100353x ↩

435. Oberlies 2003, pp. xxvii–xxix. - Oberlies, Thomas (2003). A Grammar of Epic Sanskrit. Berlin New York: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-014448-2. ↩

436. Edgerton, Franklin (2004). Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit grammar and dictionary. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-215-1110-0. 978-81-215-1110-0 ↩

437. Staal 1963, p. 261. - Staal, J. F. (1963). "Sanskrit and Sanskritization". The Journal of Asian Studies. 22 (3). Cambridge University Press: 261–275. doi:10.2307/2050186. JSTOR 2050186. S2CID 162241490. https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2050186 ↩

438. Rao, Velcheru (2002). Classical Telugu poetry an anthology. Berkeley, Calif: University of California Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-520-22598-5. 978-0-520-22598-5 ↩

439. Sugam Marathi Vyakaran & Lekhana. 2007. Nitin publications. Author: M. R. Walimbe. ↩

440. Carey, William (1805). A Grammar of the Marathi Language. Serampur [sic]: Serampore Mission Press. ISBN 9781108056311. /wiki/Sic ↩

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442. Emeneau, M.; Burrow, T. (1962). Dravidian Borrowings from Indo-Aryan. University of California. ↩

443. Dalby, A (2004). Dictionary of languages : the definitive reference to more than 400 languages. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 155. ↩

444. Shulman, David Dean (2016). Tamil : a biography. London: The Belknap Press Of Harvard University Press. pp. 12–14. ↩

445. Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju (2003). The Dravidian languages. ‌. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 480. ↩

446. Grant, A (2019). The Oxford handbook of language. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. Section 23.2, 23.3. ↩

447. Strazny, Philipp (2005). Encyclopedia of linguistics. New York: Fitzroy Dearborn. pp. 501–502. ↩

448. Kachru, B.B.; Kachru, Yamuna; Sridhar, S.N, eds. (2008). Language in South Asia. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 331–332. ↩

449. George, K.M. (1998). Modern Indian Literature. Vol. 1. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi. p. 8. ↩

450. Lambert, H.M. (January 1958). [presentation title not cited]. Contemporary Indian Literature: A symposium. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Vol. 90, no. 1–2. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi. p. 89. doi:10.1017/s0035869x00116910. ISSN 1356-1863. Foreword by S. Radhakrishnan, Ministry of Information, Delhi, p. 8. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

451. Grant, A (2019). The Oxford handbook of language. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. Section 23.2, 23.3. ↩

452. Hock, Hans Henrich; Bashir, E.; Subbarao, K.V. (2016). The languages and linguistics of South Asia a comprehensive guide. Berlin De Gruyter Mouton. p. 95. ↩

453. Aiyar, R Swaminatha (1987). Dravidian theories. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 294. ISBN 8120803310. 8120803310 ↩

454. Hock, Hans Henrich; Bashir, E.; Subbarao, K.V. (2016). The languages and linguistics of South Asia a comprehensive guide. Berlin De Gruyter Mouton. p. 95. ↩

455. Shulman, David Dean (2016). Tamil : a biography. London: The Belknap Press Of Harvard University Press. pp. 12–14. ↩

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