Menu
Home Explore People Places Arts History Plants & Animals Science Life & Culture Technology
On this page
Indonesia
Country in Southeast Asia and Oceania

Indonesia, the world's largest archipelagic state with over 17,000 islands including Java—the most populous island—is located in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. Home to over 280 million people, it is the world's fourth-most-populous country and the largest Muslim-majority country. Indonesia operates as a presidential republic with 38 provinces and Jakarta as its capital, the world's second-most-populous urban area. With a rich history of trade since the Srivijaya and Majapahit kingdoms, Indonesia blends cultural diversity under the motto Bhinneka Tunggal Ika. It is a newly industrialised country with the 16th-largest nominal GDP, playing a key role in global affairs as a member of the G20, ASEAN, and the United Nations.

Related Image Collections Add Image
Profiles
1 Image
We don't have any YouTube videos related to Indonesia yet.
We don't have any PDF documents related to Indonesia yet.
We don't have any Books related to Indonesia yet.

Etymology

Main article: Names of Indonesia

The name Indonesia derives from the Greek words Indos (Ἰνδός) and nesos (νῆσος), meaning "Indian islands".3 The name dates back to the 19th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, Malayunesians—for the inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago or Malay Archipelago".45 In the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago.67 Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia. They preferred Malay Archipelago (Dutch: Maleische Archipel); the Netherlands East Indies (Nederlandsch Oost Indië), popularly Indië; the East (de Oost); and Insulinde.8

After 1900, Indonesia became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and native nationalist groups adopted it for political expression.9 Adolf Bastian of the University of Berlin popularised the name through his book Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894. The first native scholar to use the name was Ki Hajar Dewantara, who established a press bureau in the Netherlands, Indonesisch Pers-bureau, in 1913.10

History

Main article: History of Indonesia

Early history

Main article: Prehistoric Indonesia

The Indonesian archipelago has been inhabited since the time of homo erectus or "Java Man," with fossils dating back 2 million to 500,000 BCE.111213 Fossils of homo floresiensis, found on Flores, date around 700,000 to 60,000 BCE, while homo sapiens arrived around 43,000 BCE.141516 Sulawesi and Borneo are home to the world's oldest known cave paintings, dating back 40,000 to 60,000 years,1718 and megalithic sites such as western Java's Gunung Padang, Sulawesi's Lore Lindu, as well as Sumatra's Nias and Sumba reflect early human settlements and ceremonial practices.19

Around 2,000 BCE, Austronesian peoples began arriving in Southeast Asia from the island now known as Taiwan, gradually displacing native Melanesians to the far eastern part of the archipelago as they spread east,20 and would eventually form the majority of Indonesia's modern population. Favourable agricultural conditions and advancements like wet-field rice cultivation by the 8th century BCE21 enabled the growth of villages and kingdoms by the first century CE. The archipelago's strategic location fostered inter-island and international exchange with civilisations from the Indian subcontinent and mainland China, profoundly influencing Indonesian history and culture through trade.222324

By the 7th century CE, the Srivijaya naval kingdom thrived on trade, adopting Hindu and Buddhist influences. The 8th to 10th centuries saw the rise and decline of the Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties, leaving monumental legacies like the Borobudur and Prambanan temples. After the failed Mongol invasion of Java in the late 13th century, the Hindu Majapahit kingdom rose to dominate much of the archipelago under Gajah Mada's leadership—a period often called the "Golden Age" of Indonesian history.25 Islam arrived in the 13th century in northern Sumatra,26 and following gradual adoption in other islands, it became the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the 16th century, blending with pre-existing traditions to form a distinct Islamic culture, particularly in Java.27

Colonial era

Main article: Dutch East Indies

In 1512, Europeans began arriving in the archipelago, led by Portuguese traders under Francisco Serrão, to seek a monopoly of the lucrative spice trade in the Maluku Islands.28 Dutch and British traders soon followed, with the former establishing the Dutch East India Company (Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, VOC) in 1602, which eventually became the dominant European power for almost two centuries. After the VOC's dissolution in 1799 due to bankruptcy, the Dutch East Indies was established as a nationalised colony,29 marking the beginning of formal colonial rule by the Netherlands. Over the next century and a half, Dutch control over the archipelago was tenuous, as they faced continuous rebellions from local leaders like Prince Diponegoro in central Java, Imam Bonjol in central Sumatra, Pattimura in Maluku, and fighters in Aceh.303132 Dutch dominance only extended to Indonesia's modern boundaries in the early 20th century,33343536 with the establishment of Dutch posts in New Guinea.37

During World War II, the Japanese invasion and occupation of the Indies ended Dutch rule[42]3839 and encouraged Indonesia's independence movement.40 Only two days after Japan's surrender in August 1945, Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta issued the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence, and they became the country's first president and vice-president, along with Sutan Sjahrir as Prime Minister.41424344 The Netherlands attempted to re-establish their rule, prompting the start of Indonesia's war of independence against the Dutch. The conflict lasted until 1949, when the Dutch recognised Indonesian independence in the Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference following international pressure.4546 Despite political, social, and sectarian divisions, Indonesians found unity in their fight for independence.4748

Post-World War II

Sukarno shifted Indonesia from democracy to authoritarianism and maintained power by balancing the opposing forces of political Islam, the military, and the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI).49 Tensions between the latter two culminated in an attempted coup in 1965, leading to a violent anti-communist purge led by the Army's Major General Suharto that killed at least 500,000 people and imprisoned around a million more.50515253 The PKI was blamed for the coup and destroyed,545556 weakening Sukarno's power. Suharto capitalised on this, becoming President in 1968 and establishing a US-backed "New Order" administration,57585960 which fostered foreign direct investment616263 and drove three decades of substantial economic growth.

Indonesia was the country worst affected by the 1997 Asian financial crisis,64 which brought out widespread discontent with the New Order's corruption and political suppression and ultimately ended Suharto's rule.[42][68][69]65 In 1999, East Timor seceded after a controversial 25-year occupation following Indonesia's 1975 invasion.6667 Since 1998, Indonesia has strengthened democracy by granting regional autonomy and holding the first direct presidential election in 2004.68

Political, economic and social instability and terrorism were persistent in the 2000s.6970 The economy has performed strongly since 2007, although corruption remains a chronic issue.71 Relations among the diverse population are mostly harmonious, but sectarian discontent and violence remain problematic in some areas.72 A political settlement to a separatist insurgency in Aceh was achieved in 2005.73

Geography

Main articles: Geography of Indonesia, Indonesian archipelago, and List of islands of Indonesia

The southernmost country in Asia, Indonesia lies between latitudes 11°S and 6°N and longitudes 95°E and 141°E. It is also a transcontinental country, spanning Southeast Asia and Oceania and is the world's largest archipelagic state, stretching 5,120 kilometres (3,181 mi) from east to west and 1,760 kilometres (1,094 mi) from north to south.74 The exact number of Indonesia's islands varies according to different sources, usually ranging from 13,000 to 17,000, with around 922 permanently inhabited.7576 Its five largest islands are Sumatra, Java, Borneo (shared with Brunei and Malaysia), Sulawesi, and New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea).77

The country features diverse topography, including towering mountains, vast lakes, and extensive river systems. At 4,884 metres (16,024 ft), Puncak Jaya is Indonesia's highest peak, while Lake Toba in Sumatra, covering 1,145 km2 (442 sq mi), is the largest lake. The country's major rivers, primarily in Kalimantan, include Kapuas, Barito and Mahakam, serving as vital transportation and communication routes for remote riverine communities.78

Climate

Main articles: Climate of Indonesia and Climate change in Indonesia

Indonesia's equatorial position ensures a relatively stable climate year-round,79 characterised by two main seasons: the dry season from May to October and the wet season from November to April, with no extremes of summer and winter.80 The climate is predominantly tropical rainforest, with cooler climates in mountainous areas over 1,300 to 1,500 metres (4,300 to 4,900 feet) above sea level. The oceanic climate (Köppen Cfb) prevails in highland areas adjacent to rainforest climates, with uniform precipitation year-round. In highland areas near the tropical monsoon and tropical savanna climates, the subtropical highland climate (Köppen Cwb) is more pronounced during the dry season.81 There is a variation in rainfall patterns, with regions like western Sumatra, Java, and the interiors of Kalimantan and Papua receiving more precipitation, while areas closer to Australia, such as Nusa Tenggara, are drier. The warm waters covering 81% of Indonesia's area keep land temperatures stable, with high humidity (70-90%) and moderate, predictable winds influenced by monsoon cycles. Major weather hazards include strong currents in straits, such as the Lombok and Sape Straits,82 rather than typhoons or storms.

Several studies consider Indonesia to be at severe risk from the projected effects of climate change,83 including a temperature rise of 1.5 °C (3 °F) by 2050 due to unreduced emissions.8485 This warming could intensify droughts, disrupt rainfall patterns critical to agriculture,86 and increase occurrences of food shortages, diseases, and wildfires.87 Rising sea levels would also threaten densely populated coastal regions,8889 and impoverished communities are expected to be disproportionately affected by climate change.90

Geology

Main article: Geology of Indonesia

See also: List of volcanoes in Indonesia

Indonesia's geology is shaped by its position on the Pacific Ring of Fire, where the Indo-Australian and Pacific plates subduct beneath the Eurasian plate, where they melt at about 100 kilometres (62 miles) deep. This tectonic activity makes the region highly unstable with volcanoes and earthquakes.91 A chain of volcanoes stretches from Sumatra through Java, Bali and the Lesser Sunda Islands, and the Banda Islands of Maluku to northeastern Sulawesi.92 Of the 400 volcanoes, around 130 are active.93 While volcanic ash has made agriculture unpredictable in some areas,94 it has also created fertile soils that have historically sustained the high population densities of Java and Bali.95 Between 1972 and 1991, Java experienced a total of 29 volcanic eruptions.96

The archipelago has witnessed several powerful volcanic eruptions with global repercussions. A massive supervolcano erupted with a maximum volcanic explosivity index (VEI) of 8 at present-day Lake Toba around 74,000 BCE, causing a global volcanic winter, cooling the climate, and possibly influencing human evolution.97 The eruption of Mount Tambora in 1815, the most recently confirmed VEI-7 eruption, made much of the Northern Hemisphere without summer in 1816.98 The eruption of Mount Krakatoa in 1883, a VEI-6 eruption, produced the loudest sound in recorded history, with additional effects around the world years after the event.99 Recent catastrophic disasters due to seismic activity include the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the 2018 Sulawesi earthquake.100

Biodiversity

Main articles: Fauna of Indonesia, Flora of Indonesia, and Environment of Indonesia

Recognised by Conservation International as one of 17 megadiverse countries, Indonesia hosts one of the world's highest levels of biodiversity due to its tropical climate, large size, and archipelagic geography. The country's flora and fauna include a mix of Asian and Australasian species.101 The Sunda Shelf islands (Sumatra, Java, and Borneo) have a wealth of Asian fauna as they were once linked to mainland Asia, while Sulawesi, Lesser Sunda Islands, Maluku and Papua evolved unique ecosystems due to their separation from the continental landmasses.102103 In terms of total endemic species, the Indonesian archipelago ranks among the highest globally.104

The country also boasts 80,000 kilometres (50,000 miles) of coastline, featuring diverse sea and coastal ecosystems, such as dunes and mangroves,105 as well as coral reefs in the Coral Triangle that harbour the highest diversity of coral reef fish globally, with over 2,000 species.106 The Wallace Line, described by English naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace, marks the biogeographical divide between Asian and Australasian species, with the region between the Wallace and Weber Lines (called Wallacea) hosting unique biodiversity as described in Wallace's 1869 book, The Malay Archipelago.107108 Indonesia's extensive forests, comprising 83% of Southeast Asia's old-growth forests,109 are deemed crucial for the region's ecological balance and carbon storage.

Indonesia faces severe environmental challenges due to extensive deforestation,110 peatland destruction, and over-exploitation of resources, driven by industries such as logging, plantations and agriculture since the 1970s,111 and in most recent years, palm oil.112113114 Forest cover declined from 87% in 1950 to 48% in 2022,115116 highlighting the country as a leading forest-based emitter of greenhouse gases.117 These issues are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance.118 They also threaten indigenous and endemic species, with the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) listing many as critically endangered, such as the Bali myna,119 Sumatran orangutan,120 and Javan rhinoceros.121 Environmental degradation has prompted some academics to label these activities as ecocide.122123

Conservation

Main articles: Conservation in Indonesia, Protected areas of Indonesia, List of national parks of Indonesia, and List of biosphere reserves of Indonesia

As of 2023, Indonesia has designated 21.3% of its land as protected areas and aims to align its strategy with the 2022 Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework.124 Additionally, 411 marine reserves account for 9% of the country's maritime area, with a target to increase this to 30% by 2045. However, a recent study highlights that the current efforts are off track and existing marine reserves are poorly managed.125 Approximately 390 marine areas are managed by government bodies, communities, and other sectors, with potential for classification as other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs), though there is no national mechanism for reporting them.126

Indonesia's conservation framework includes 55 national parks, covering around 9% of the country's surface area. Among these, nine are predominantly marine parks,127 with six recognised as World Heritage Sites, seven as part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves128 and five wetlands of international importance under the 1971 Ramsar Convention. Notably, Indonesia has over 100 marine protected areas spanning 15.7 million hectares as of 2012, and these are managed by the Ministry of Forestry and local governments. Previous targets included reaching 20 million hectares by 2020 under former President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono's 2009 initiative and 10% of territorial waters, or 31 million hectares.129

Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Indonesia

See also: Government of Indonesia

Indonesia is a presidential republic. Following the fall of the New Order in 1998, sweeping amendments to the Constitution of Indonesia restructured the state's executive, legislative, and judicial branches while maintaining a balance between its unitary state framework and greater decentralisation to regional governments.130131 The president serves as head of state, head of government, and commander-in-chief of the Indonesian National Armed Forces (Tentara Nasional Indonesia, TNI) and oversees domestic and foreign policies. Presidents may serve up to two consecutive five-year terms.132

The People's Consultative Assembly (Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat, MPR) is Indonesia's highest representative body, responsible for amending the constitution, inaugurating and impeaching the president, and formalising state policies.133134 It consists of two houses: the People's Representative Council (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat, DPR), which has 580 members and handles legislation and executive oversight, and the Regional Representative Council (Dewan Perwakilan Daerah, DPD), which has 152 members and focuses on regional matters.135 Since 1998, reforms have significantly enhanced the DPR's governance functionality.136 The DPD represents the interests of the diverse regions of Indonesia.137138

Indonesia’s judiciary includes several key institutions. The Supreme Court (Mahkamah Agung) is the highest judicial authority, handling final appeals and case reviews.139 The Constitutional Court (Mahkamah Konstitusi) addresses constitutional and political matters,140 while the country's Religious Court (Pengadilan Agama) oversees Islamic personal law cases.141 Additionally, the Judicial Commission (Komisi Yudisial) monitors judicial performance.142

Parties and elections

Main articles: List of political parties in Indonesia and Elections in Indonesia

Since 1999, Indonesia has operated under a multi-party system, wherein no single political party has secured an outright majority of seats in the legislative elections. Political parties are generally classified into two categories: secular and nationalist parties, which include the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P), the Party of the Functional Groups (Golkar), and the Great Indonesia Movement Party (Gerindra Party); and Islamic parties, such as the centrist National Awakening Party (PKB) and the Islamist Prosperous Justice Party (PKS). Indonesia's political spectrum is characterised by a preference for pragmatism over ideological orthodoxy to fit the prevailing political climate,143 and by what are called cartel parties, with extensive power-sharing among parties and limited accountability to voters.144 Unlike many other democracies, pre-election party alliances are the norm in Indonesia.145

In 1955, the first general election was held to elect members of the DPR and the Constitutional Assembly (Konstituante). The most recent elections in 2024 brought eight political parties to the DPR, with a parliamentary threshold of 4% of the national vote.146 At the national level, Indonesians did not elect a President until 2004. Since then, the President has been elected for a five-year term, as are the party-aligned members of the DPR and the non-partisan DPD.147148 Beginning with the 2015 local elections, elections for governors and mayors have occurred on the same date. In 2013, the Constitutional Court ruled that legislative and presidential elections would be held simultaneously, starting in 2019.149

Administrative divisions

Main article: Subdivisions of Indonesia

Indonesia is divided into several administrative levels. At the first level are the provinces, each with a legislature (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah, DPRD) and an elected governor. The number of provinces has grown from 8 in 1945150 to 38 today, with the most recent one, Southwest Papua, established in 2022.151 The second level includes regencies (kabupaten) and cities (kota), led by regents (bupati) and mayors (walikota), respectively, both supported by legislatures (DPRD Kabupaten/Kota). Below this are districts (kecamatan, called distrik in Papua), and the fourth level comprises villages, known by various names like desa, kelurahan, kampung, nagari (in West Sumatra), or gampong (in Aceh). Villages are subdivided into community groups (rukun warga, RW) and neighbourhood groups (rukun tetangga, RT), with further subdivisions like hamlets (dusun or dukuh) in Java.152

The village level is the lowest administrative unit but significantly influences daily life. Village governments are led by elected heads (lurah or kepala desa) and handle local matters.153 Since the implementation of regional autonomy in 2001, regencies and cities have become key administrative units responsible for most government services. Nine provinces (Aceh, Jakarta, Yogyakarta, and the six provinces in Papua) are granted a special autonomous status (otonomi khusus) from the central government. A conservative Islamic territory, Aceh has the right to apply aspects of sharia law.154 Yogyakarta uniquely retains its pre-colonial monarchy, with its Sultan and Duke serving as governor and vice governor,155 while the provinces in Papua are granted special autonomy to address separatist tensions, accelerate development, and provide Papuans with greater self-governance, aiming to integrate the region more equally with the rest of Indonesia.156

This section is transcluded from Template:Indonesia provinces labelled map. (edit | history)

Aceh NorthSumatra WestSumatra Riau RiauIslands BangkaBelitung Jambi SouthSumatra Bengkulu Lampung Banten Jakarta↓ WestJava CentralJava ↑Yogyakarta EastJava Bali WestNusaTenggara East NusaTenggara WestKalimantan CentralKalimantan NorthKalimantan EastKalimantan SouthKalimantan NorthSulawesi NorthMaluku CentralSulawesi Gorontalo↓ WestSulawesi SouthSulawesi SoutheastSulawesi Maluku SouthwestPapua WestPapua CentralPapua Papua HighlandPapua SouthPapua

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Indonesia

Indonesia follows an "independent and active" (bebas aktif) foreign policy, a term coined in 1948 by the country's first vice-president, Mohammad Hatta.157 This policy aims to navigate great power politics, maintain autonomy, and avoid alignment with major powers.158 The President holds the ultimate authority in determining foreign policy directions,159160 while the Foreign Affairs Ministry is responsible for formulating and implementing foreign policy. Meanwhile, the Parliament (DPR) provides oversight and ratifies international treaties. Indonesia is considered to be a middle power in global politics.161

As the largest country in Southeast Asia and a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Indonesia considers ASEAN the cornerstone of its foreign policy.162 Indonesia has actively supported Palestine while refraining from formal diplomatic relations with Israel. However, the two countries maintain discreet ties.163 Since the start of the 21st century, Indonesia has built deep relations with China, primarily relating to investments in infrastructure and trade,164 while at the same time maintaining a strategic partnership with the United States, focusing on economic cooperation, security, and counterterrorism efforts.165

Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950166 and is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) and the East Asia Summit.167 Indonesia is also a signatory to the ASEAN Free Trade Area agreement, the Cairns Group, and the World Trade Organization (WTO). Indonesia has been a humanitarian and development aid recipient since the late 1960s,168 but it recently established its own foreign aid agency in 2019.169 The country also plays a role in maintaining international peace and security, deploying thousands of military and police personnel to multiple United Nations peacekeeping missions since 1957, including in Lebanon, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Mali.170

Military

Main articles: Indonesian National Armed Forces and Military history of Indonesia

The Indonesian National Armed Forces (TNI) consists of the Army (TNI-AD), Navy (TNI-AL) (including the Marine Corps), and Air Force (TNI-AU), with active personnel numbering approximately 300,400 in the Army, 65,000 in the Navy, and 30,100 in the Air Force.171 Established during the Indonesian National Revolution, the TNI initially engaged in guerrilla warfare alongside informal militias. Its territorial structure focuses on maintaining domestic stability and deterring foreign threats.172 Though political reforms in 1998 removed TNI's formal legislative role, it continues to wield political influence, albeit reduced from its peak during the New Order.173 Defence spending in 2023 was 0.7% of GDP,174 with controversies surrounding military-owned commercial ventures.175

Since independence, Indonesia has struggled to maintain unity against separatist movements and insurgencies, notably in Aceh and Papua.176177 While the former ended peacefully in 2005,178 the latter has continued amid the implementation of regional autonomy179 and well-documented human rights abuses by the TNI, including extrajudicial killings, forced disappearances and restrictions on freedom of expression, as reported by Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, and the UNHRC.180 Indonesia's historical military engagements include conflicts with the Netherlands over Dutch New Guinea, opposition to the British-backed creation of Malaysia (Konfrontasi), the anti-communist mass killings, and the invasion of East Timor, which was Indonesia's largest military operation.181182

Law enforcement and human rights

Main articles: Indonesian National Police and Human rights in Indonesia

Law enforcement in Indonesia is primarily handled by the Indonesian National Police (POLRI), supported by other agencies under the President, ministries, or state-owned companies. These agencies perform specific policing duties and are supervised and trained by the POLRI, which serves as the country's national civilian police force responsible for maintaining law and order.

Indonesia has a documented history of racial discrimination and conflicts, particularly against Chinese Indonesians and Papuans,183184 which have at times escalated into violence, notably the anti-Chinese riots in 1998 and the ongoing Papua conflict since 1962. Other minorities, such as the LGBTQ, also face challenges, where a rapid surge of anti-LGBTQ rhetoric has been observed since the mid-2010s185 after relative obscurity on the topic in the decades prior.186 Discrimination against religious minorities is also common.187188

Issues regarding free speech and the right to assembly are prevalent despite constitutional protections.189190 Laws such as the Electronic Information and Transactions (Informasi dan Transaksi Elektronik, ITE) Law are often used to criminalise dissent, with critics and activists facing charges for expressing opinions online.191 Peaceful protests, particularly those addressing sensitive issues such as indigenous rights in Papua or environmental concerns, are frequently met with a heavy-handed response from law enforcement.192 The government occasionally imposes restrictions on assembly permits, particularly for those critical of authorities or advocating rights.193

Economy

Main articles: Economy of Indonesia, Agriculture in Indonesia, and Poverty in Indonesia

Indonesia operates a mixed economy where the private sector and the government play significant roles.194 As the only G20 member state in Southeast Asia,195 it has the region's largest economy and is classified as a newly industrialised country. In 2024, its nominal GDP was US$1.402 trillion, ranking 16th globally, while its GDP at purchasing power parity (PPP) was US$4.658 trillion, ranking 7th. Per capita GDP in PPP is US$16,542, while nominal per capita GDP is US$4,980.196 In 2021, services dominate the economy in terms of employment (49.2%), followed by agriculture (28.9%) and industry (21.7%), while in terms of share of GDP in 2022, both services and industry dominate (roughly 41% each), followed by manufacturing (18.3%) and agriculture (12.4%).197

The economic structure has shifted significantly over time, transitioning from agriculture in the 1950s and 1960s to gradual industrialisation and urbanisation from the late 1960s to the 1980s.198 Falling oil prices in the 1980s prompted diversification into manufactured exports, resulting in substantial economic growth (the GDP rose at an average rate of 7.1%) and poverty reduction from 40% to 11%.199 However, the economy took a severe hit during the Asian economic crisis in the late 1990s, when the GDP fell by 13%, inflation reached 78%, and GDP grew by only 0.8% in 1999.200 Recovery began in the early 2000s, with prudent banking regulations, better monetary and fiscal policies and flexible exchange rates,201202 resulting in growth rates between 4% and 6% since 2004.203 These factors, coupled with strong domestic consumption, helped Indonesia weather the 2008 financial crisis.204 The COVID-19 pandemic in the early 2020s caused a recession, but the economy rebounded within just a year.205

Indonesia's abundant natural resources, including nickel, coal, and petroleum, dominate its export portfolio.206 It imports refined and crude petroleum and vehicle parts, with major trade partners including China, the United States, Japan, Singapore, India, Malaysia, South Korea, and Thailand.207 Owing to plentiful rainfall, sunshine and fertile soil, Indonesia is a major agricultural country, ranking among the leading producers of palm oil, rubber, coffee, tea, cassava, rice, wheat, coconut oil, and tobacco.208 Despite these resources and decades of development, disparities in wealth, employment and economic opportunities persist between densely populated and economically advantaged regions in the western islands like Java and Sumatra and sparsely populated, underdeveloped areas in the east like Maluku and Papua.209210

Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Indonesia

Tourism plays a significant role in Indonesia's economy, contributing US$14 billion to GDP and drawing 11.6 million international visitors in 2023.211 Australia, Singapore, Malaysia, China, and India are among the top five sources of visitors to Indonesia.212

The tourism industry thrives on Indonesia's natural and cultural wealth. The country boasts a well-preserved natural ecosystem, with rainforests covering 57% of its land area (225 million acres). Popular natural destinations include the rainforests of Sumatra and Kalimantan, particularly the Orangutan wildlife reserves. Indonesia also has one of the world's longest coastlines, stretching 54,716 kilometres (33,999 mi). Cultural tourism features prominently, with attractions like the ancient Borobudur and Prambanan temples, the Toraja highlands, and the traditional festivities of Bali.213

Indonesia is home to ten UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including Komodo National Park and the Cosmological Axis of Yogyakarta. Additionally, 18 other sites are on the tentative list, such as Bunaken National Park and the Raja Ampat Islands. Historical tourism is also a major draw, with attractions like the colonial heritage of the Dutch East Indies in Jakarta and Semarang, as well as the royal palaces of Pagaruyung and Ubud.214

Science and technology

Main article: Science and technology in Indonesia

Government spending on research and development is relatively low at 0.28% of GDP in 2020.215 Despite being ranked 54th among 133 countries on the 2024 Global Innovation Index, the country performs above expectations for its upper middle-income status.216 Historical innovations include terasering, the terracing techniques for rice cultivation, and the pinisi boats of the Bugis and Makassar people.217 In the 1980s, Tjokorda Raka Sukawati developed the Sosrobahu road construction technique that is now used internationally.218 Indonesia also produces passenger trains and freight wagons through its state-owned Indonesian Railway Industry (Industri Kereta Api, INKA), which exports trains abroad.219

Indonesia has a history of manufacturing military and commuter aircraft and is the only country in Southeast Asia to do so. Its state-owned aerospace company, Indonesian Aerospace (PT. Dirgantara Indonesia, PTDI), has supplied components to Boeing and Airbus220 and co-developed the CN-235 with Spain's CASA.221 Former President B. J. Habibie, an aerospace engineer before getting into politics, played a key role in advancing the country's aerospace research.222 Recently, Indonesia has been collaborating with South Korea on the 4.5-generation fighter jet KAI KF-21 Boramae.223

Indonesia's space program, managed by the National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (Lembaga Penerbangan dan Antariksa Nasional, LAPAN), launched its first satellite (Palapa) in 1976 with assistance from the United States,224 making Indonesia the first developing country with a satellite system. As of 2024, Indonesia has launched 19 satellites for communication and other purposes.225 Recently, the government licensed Starlink to provide internet connectivity to rural and underserved regions.226

Infrastructure

See also: List of main infrastructure projects in Indonesia

Transport

Main article: Transport in Indonesia

Indonesia's transport system reflects its archipelagic geography and population distribution, which is heavily concentrated on Java.227 As of 2022, the predominant road network spanned 548,097 kilometres (340,572 miles),228 including Transjakarta, which operates the world's longest bus rapid transit system.229 Common urban transport includes rickshaws like bajaj and becak and shared taxis such as angkot and minibuses.230231

Railways are primarily located in Java and parts of Sumatra and Sulawesi,232 serving freight and passenger transport, including commuter and inter-city rail services like those in Greater Jakarta and Yogyakarta. In the late 2010s, rapid transit systems were introduced in Jakarta and Palembang, with more planned for other cities.233 In collaboration with China, Indonesia inaugurated its first high-speed rail (Whoosh) in 2023, connecting Jakarta and Bandung. It was the first such system in Southeast Asia and the Southern Hemisphere.234

Air and sea transport also play significant roles. Soekarno–Hatta International Airport, Indonesia's largest, served 54 million passengers in 2024, followed by Ngurah Rai and Juanda International Airports. Garuda Indonesia, the national flag carrier since 1949, is one of the world's leading airlines and a member of the global airline alliance SkyTeam.235 The Port of Tanjung Priok, the country's busiest and most advanced,236 handles over 50% of Indonesia's trans-shipment cargo traffic.237

Energy

Main article: Energy in Indonesia

Indonesia is a major energy producer and consumer, producing 5,500 terawatt-hours (18.8 quadrillion British thermal units) and consuming 3,081 terawatt-hours (10.514 quadrillion British thermal units) worth of energy in 2023.238 The country's total installed power generation capacity in 2022 is approximately 83.8 gigawatts (GW),239 primarily from coal (61%).240 Other significant sources include natural gas, oil, and renewables such as geothermal, hydropower, and solar.241 The state-owned State Electricity Company (Perusahaan Listrik Negara, PLN) holds a monopoly on electric power distribution in the country.242

Indonesia's energy mix is still dominated by non-renewable sources, with coal being the majority, followed by natural gas and oil.243 Renewables, including geothermal (5%), hydropower (7%), and solar (1%), make up a smaller but growing share.244 The potential for renewable energy is immense, particularly geothermal, where the country ranks as one of the world's largest producers.245 The country is one of the world's largest producers and exporters of coal246247 and a significant exporter of liquefied natural gas (LNG).248

The government plans to transition towards greener energy sources249 and achieve net-zero carbon emissions by 2050.250 In the latest energy plan in early 2025, the government aims for a 71-gigawatt expansion in power capacity by 2034, with a focus on renewables.251 However, the country has insufficient infrastructure for renewable energy, faces difficulties in providing electricity access to remote areas,252 and continues to rely heavily on coal.253

Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Indonesia and Indonesians

See also: List of Indonesian cities by population and List of metropolitan areas in Indonesia

According to the 2020 census, Indonesia had a population of 270.2 million, making it the world's fourth most populous country. The population grew at a rate of 1.25% between 2010 and 2020.254 Java, the world's most populated island, is home to 56% of Indonesia's population.255 The overall population density stands at 141 people per square kilometre (370 people/sq mi),256 but Java's density is significantly higher, reaching 1,171 people per square kilometre (3,030 people/sq mi).257 Indonesia's first post-colonial census in 1961 recorded a population of 97 million,258 and projections estimate it will grow to 321 million by 2050.259 The country maintains a relatively young demographic, with a median age of 31.5 years as of 2024.260

Indonesia's population distribution is highly uneven, reflecting its diverse geography and varying levels of development. It ranges from the bustling megacity of Jakarta to remote and uncontacted tribes in Papua.261 As of 2023, approximately 59% of Indonesians live in urban areas,262 with Jakarta as the country's primate city and the second-most populous urban area globally, housing over 34 million people.263 Additionally, about 8 million Indonesians reside overseas, with large communities in Malaysia, the Netherlands, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Taiwan, Hong Kong, the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia.264

 
  • v
  • t
  • e
Largest cities in Indonesia2023 BPS estimate
RankNameProvince Pop.RankNameProvince Pop.
1JakartaSpecial Capital Region11,135,19111South TangerangBanten1,429,529
2SurabayaEast Java3,017,38212BatamRiau Islands1,294,548
3BandungWest Java2,579,83713PekanbaruRiau1,138,530
4MedanNorth Sumatra2,539,82914BogorWest Java1,137,018
5BekasiWest Java2,526,13315Bandar LampungLampung1,073,451
6DepokWest Java1,967,83116PadangWest Sumatra939,851
7TangerangBanten1,927,81517MalangEast Java885,271
8PalembangSouth Sumatra1,781,67218SamarindaEast Kalimantan868,499
9SemarangCentral Java1,699,58519TasikmalayaWest Java761,080
10MakassarSouth Sulawesi1,477,86120DenpasarBali670,210

Ethnic groups and languages

Main articles: Ethnic groups in Indonesia, Native Indonesians, and Languages of Indonesia

Indonesia is home to around 600 distinct native ethnic groups,265 predominantly descended from Austronesian peoples speaking Proto-Austronesian languages, likely from modern-day Taiwan. The Melanesians, who inhabit eastern Indonesia, represent another significant ethnic grouping.266267268269 The Javanese, making up 40% of the population,270 are the largest ethnic group and the politically dominant one,271 primarily residing in central and eastern Java, with sizeable numbers in other provinces. Other major groups include the Sundanese, Malay, Batak, Madurese, Betawi, Minangkabau, and Bugis.272273 A sense of Indonesian nationhood exists alongside strong regional identities.274

The official language, Indonesian, is a variant of Malay based on its prestige dialect, which became the archipelago's lingua franca over the course of centuries.275 It was first promoted by nationalists in the 1920s and gained official status in 1945, following independence, under the name Bahasa Indonesia, and has since been widely adopted due to its use in education, media, business, and governance.276 While nearly all Indonesians speak Bahasa, most also speak one of over 700 local languages, often as their first language.277 These are predominantly from the Austronesian family, with over 270 Papuan languages in eastern Indonesia.278 Javanese is the most widely spoken local language279 and holds co-official status in Yogyakarta.280

The Dutch and other European-descended populations like the Indos, though significant during colonial times, always represented a small fraction of the population, numbering only around 200,000 in 1930.281 The Dutch language never gained substantial traction due to the Dutch colonial focus on commerce rather than cultural integration.282283 Dutch fluency exists today in small numbers among some older generations and legal professionals,284 as specific legal codes remain available only in that language.285

Religion

Main article: Religion in Indonesia

Indonesia officially recognises six religions: Islam, Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism,286287 while acknowledging religious freedom in the constitution288289 and indigenous religions for administrative purposes.290291 As of 2023, 87.1% of the population (248 million Indonesians) are Muslims, making Indonesia the world's most populous Muslim-majority country,292293 with Sunnis constituting 99% of the Muslim population.294295 Christians, comprising 10% of the population, form majorities in several eastern provinces,296 while Hindus and Buddhists are primarily Balinese and Chinese Indonesians, respectively.297298

Before the arrival of major world religions, Indonesia's natives practised animism and dynamism, worshipping ancestral spirits and believing in the supernatural (hyang) inhabiting natural elements, such as large trees, mountains and forests.299 Such beliefs are common to the Austronesian peoples.300 These indigenous traditions, such as Sundanese Sunda Wiwitan, Javanese Kejawèn and Dayak's Kaharingan, have profoundly influenced modern religious practices, resulting in a less orthodox and syncretic form of faith like Javanese abangan, Balinese Hinduism and Dayak Christianity.301

Hinduism reached the archipelago in the 1st century CE,302 followed by Buddhism in the 6th century.303 Both religions shaped Indonesia's religious history through influential empires like Majapahit, Srivijaya, and Sailendra, leaving a lasting cultural impact that remains today despite both no longer being the majority.304305 Islam arrived as early as the 8th century306307 through Sunni and Sufi traders from the Indian subcontinent and southern Arabian peninsula, mixing with local cultural and religious traditions to form a distinct Islamic culture (santri).308309 By the 16th century, Islam had become the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra, resulting from the blend of trade, dawah, such as by the Wali Sanga and Chinese explorer Zheng He, and military campaigns by several sultanates.310311

Catholicism and Protestantism were later introduced through missionary efforts during European colonisation, such as by Jesuit Francis Xavier,312313 though the spread of the former faced challenges under the VOC and Dutch colonial era policies. The latter's primary branches include Calvinism and Lutheranism,314315316 though a multitude of other denominations exist in the country.317 A small Jewish presence has existed in the archipelago, primarily descendants of Dutch and Iraqi Jews, though their numbers have dwindled since independence in 1945. Only a few Jews remain today, mostly in major cities like Jakarta, Manado and Surabaya.318 One of the remaining synagogues, Sha'ar Hashamayim, is located in Tondano, North Sulawesi, around 31 km from Manado.319320

Religion is central to the lives of the overwhelming majority of Indonesians, reflecting its integral role in the country's society, culture, and identity.321322 Interfaith relations are significantly shaped by political leadership and civil society, guided by the first principle of Pancasila, which emphasises belief in a supreme deity and religious tolerance.323324 While it promotes harmony,325 religious intolerance continues to be a recurring issue.326327

Education

Main article: Education in Indonesia

Indonesia has one of the largest education systems in the world, with over 50 million students, 4 million teachers, and more than 250,000 schools spanning the archipelago.328 Overseen by the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education, the Ministry of Higher Education, Science, and Technology and the Ministry of Religious Affairs for Islamic schools,329 the system follows a 6-3-3-4 structure: six years of elementary school, three years each of junior and senior secondary school, and four years of tertiary education.330 While the literacy rate is high (96%),331 it is lower in rural and remote areas. Enrolment rates vary across educational levels, with near-universal enrolment in primary education (97.9%), but drop to 81.7% and 64.2% in lower and upper secondary education and around 42.6% for tertiary education.332333

Government spending on education accounted for approximately 1.3% of GDP in 2023.334 In the same year, there were 4,481 higher education institutions in the country, including universities, Islamic institutions, and open universities.335 The University of Indonesia, Gadjah Mada University, and the Bandung Institute of Technology are the top three universities in the country, all of which rank within the world's top 300 universities.336

Issues regarding quality and equity are persistent, particularly urban-rural disparities, inadequate school infrastructure, and a lack of qualified teachers.337 The system also lags behind international benchmarks, such as the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), where Indonesian students consistently rank near the bottom in reading, mathematics, and science.338 The higher education sector has been struggling with underfunding, low quality, limited research output and a mismatch between graduates' skills and labour market needs.339340

Healthcare

Main article: Healthcare in Indonesia

Indonesia has made significant progress in developing its healthcare system since 1945. Initially, healthcare services were limited, with a shortage of doctors, hospitals, and infrastructure.341 In the late 1960s, the government began establishing community health centres (puskesmas) to provide basic services in rural areas.342 With the help of the World Health Organization in the 1970s and 1980s, Indonesia implemented an immunisation program to combat diseases like polio and measles.343 The system experienced a major transformation in 2014 with the launch of Jaminan Kesehatan Nasional (JKN), a universal health care managed by the Social Security Agency on Health (BPJS Kesehatan).344 It is one of the world's largest single-payer systems, covering over 83% of the population (225.9 million) in 2021.345

Government spending on healthcare accounted for 2.69% of GDP in 2022.346 Primary healthcare is delivered through puskesmas, hospitals, and private clinics. While the healthcare system lags behind those in ASEAN neighbours like Malaysia and Singapore,347 significant public health outcomes have been achieved, such as an increase in life expectancy (from 54.9 years in 1973 to 71.1 years in 2023),348 a decline in child mortality (from 15.5 deaths per 100 live births in 1972 to 2.1 deaths in 2022),349 polio eradication in 2014,350 and decreasing cases of malaria.351

Some chronic health issues persist, including child stunting that affects 21.6% of children under five according to a 2022 data.352 Low air quality, particularly in major cities,353 contributes to respiratory illnesses, while maternal and child health indicators remain areas of concern, with a maternal mortality rate the third highest in the region.354 Additionally, Indonesia has one of the highest smoking rates globally (34.8% of adults), contributing to a high prevalence of non-communicable diseases like cardiovascular issues and lung cancer.355

Culture

Main article: Culture of Indonesia

See also: National Intangible Cultural Heritage of Indonesia and Public holidays in Indonesia

The cultural history of Indonesia spans over two thousand years and has been influenced by the Indian subcontinent, China, the Middle East, Europe,356357 Melanesian, and Austronesian peoples. These influences have shaped the country's multicultural, multilingual, and multi-ethnic identity,358359 distinct from its indigenous roots. Indonesia holds 16 items recognised by UNESCO as Intangible Cultural Heritage, including wayang puppet theatre, batik, angklung, the saman dance, and pencak silat. Recent joint nominations added pantun, kebaya, and kolintang to the list.360

Art and architecture

Main articles: Indonesian art and Architecture of Indonesia

Further information: Indonesian painting

Indonesian arts encompass traditional and contemporary forms shaped by influences from India, the Arab world, China, and Europe, driven by cultural exchange and trade.361 Bali's artistic traditions, such as classical Kamasan and Wayang-style painting, are renowned, originating from visual narratives depicted on candi bas-reliefs from eastern Java.362 Traditional architecture reflects ethnic diversity, with iconic and traditional houses (rumah adat) like Toraja's Tongkonan, Minangkabau's Rumah Gadang, Java's Pendopo, and Dayak longhouses each showcasing unique customs and histories.363 Other traditional crafts, including carpentry and masonry, showcase intricate decorations and techniques passed down through generations.

Discoveries of megalithic sculptures led to the flourishing of tribal art among the Nias, Batak, Asmat, Dayak, and Toraja communities,364365366 who utilised wood and stone as primary sculpting materials. From the 8th to the 15th centuries, the Javanese civilisation excelled in sophisticated stone sculpting and architecture, heavily influenced by the Hindu-Buddhist Dharmic culture. This period produced monumental works like the Borobudur and Prambanan temples,367 which today remain celebrated as masterpieces of Indonesia's sophisticated artistic and architectural heritage.

Music, dance and clothing

Main articles: Music of Indonesia, Dance in Indonesia, and National costume of Indonesia

Indonesia's musical heritage predates historical records, with indigenous tribes using chants and traditional instruments like the angklung, gamelan, and sasando in rituals. Influences from other cultures have enriched Indonesian music, such as the gambus and qasida from the Middle East,368 keroncong from Portugal,369 and dangdut (one of the country's most popular music genres), which incorporates Hindi, Malay, and Middle Eastern elements.370 Today, Indonesian music enjoys regional popularity in Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei due to cultural similarities and language intelligibility.371372373

With over 3,000 traditional dances, Indonesian dance forms have their origins in rituals and religious worship,374 such as the dance of witch doctors and Hudoq, as well as periods of Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic influence. While modern and urban dances shaped by Western, Japanese, and South Korean cultures are gaining popularity, traditional dances like those of Java, Bali, and Dayak remain a living tradition.375

Indonesia's rich cultural history is also reflected in its diverse clothing styles. National costumes like batik and kebaya are widely recognised, with roots in Javanese, Sundanese, and Balinese cultures.376377 Traditional attire varies by region and province, such as the Batak ulos, Malay and Minangkabau songket, and Sasak ikat, and is commonly worn for ceremonies, weddings, and formal events.378

Indonesian music and dance. Clockwise from top: A gamelan player, Angklung, Sundanese Jaipongan Mojang Priangan dance, Balinese Pendet dance.

Theatre and cinema

Main articles: Cinema of Indonesia and Theatre of Indonesia

Further information: List of highest-grossing films in Indonesia

Traditional Indonesian theatre, such as wayang shadow puppetry, often depicts Hindu epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata.379 Other forms of drama, such as Ludruk, Ketoprak, Sandiwara, Lenong,380381 and Balinese dance dramas, often incorporate humour, music, and audience interaction.382 Unique traditions like the Minangkabau Randai combine music, dance, and martial arts (silat), telling semi-historical legends during traditional ceremonies and festivals.383384 Modern theatre, exemplified by Teater Koma, addresses social and political themes through satire.385

The first film produced in the archipelago was Loetoeng Kasaroeng (1926), a silent film by Dutch director L. Heuveldorp, and the film industry expanded post-independence with Usmar Ismail's pioneering work in the 1950s.386 During the latter part of the Sukarno era in the 1960s, films were used to promote nationalism and anti-Western sentiment, while Suharto's New Order imposed censorship to maintain social order.387 Film productions peaked in the 1980s with notable titles such as Pengabdi Setan (1980), Tjoet Nja' Dhien (1988) and Warkop comedy films, but the industry declined in the next decade.388

In the post-Suharto era, the industry saw a resurgence.389 Independent filmmakers tackled previously censored themes like race, religion, and love,390 producing notable films such as Kuldesak (1999) and Ada Apa dengan Cinta? (2002).391 The 2022 film KKN di Desa Penari set box office records, becoming the most-watched Indonesian film with 9.2 million tickets sold.392 The Indonesian Film Festival (Festival Film Indonesia), which gives out the Citra Award, has celebrated cinematic achievements since 1955.

Mass media and literature

Main articles: Mass media in Indonesia and Indonesian literature

Media freedom in Indonesia significantly improved after the fall of Suharto's rule, during which the Ministry of Information tightly controlled the media.393 The television landscape shifted from a monopoly by the public broadcaster TVRI (1962–1989) to a competitive market with national and provincial networks. By the 21st century, television signals have reached every village, offering up to 11 channels.394 Private radio stations provide news, while foreign broadcasters offer diverse programming. Print publications also expanded significantly after 1998.395 Indonesia's internet development began in the early 1990s, with the first commercial Internet service provider, PT. Indo Internet, starting operations in 1994.396 By 2023, the country had 210 million internet users, with mobile phones as the primary point of access.397 Internet penetration continues to grow annually.

Indonesian literature has roots in Sanskrit inscriptions from the 5th century and a strong oral tradition,398 while early modern literature originates in the Sumatran tradition.399400 Traditional forms such as syair, pantun, hikayat, and babad dominate early prose and poetry, with notable works such as Syair Abdul Muluk, Hikayat Hang Tuah, Sulalatus Salatin, and Babad Tanah Jawi. The establishment of Balai Pustaka in 1917 marked a push to develop indigenous literature, leading to a literary Golden Age in the 1950s and 1960s.401 Influenced by the country's political and social landscape dynamics,402403 modern literature includes works from notable figures like Chairil Anwar, Pramoedya Ananta Toer, and Ayu Utami.

Cuisine

Main article: Indonesian cuisine

Indonesian cuisine has many regional cuisines, often based upon indigenous culture and foreign influences such as Chinese, African, European, Middle Eastern, and Indian precedents.404 Rice is the leading staple food and is served with side dishes of meat and vegetables. Spices (notably chilli), coconut milk, fish, and chicken are fundamental ingredients.405

Some popular dishes, such as nasi goreng, gado-gado, mie ayam, bakso, sate, and soto, are ubiquitous and considered national dishes. The Ministry of Tourism, however, chose tumpeng as the official national dish in 2014, describing it as binding the diversity of various culinary traditions.406 Other popular dishes include rendang, one of the many Minangkabau cuisines, along with dendeng and gulai. Another fermented food is oncom, which is similar in some ways to tempeh but uses a variety of bases (not only soy), created by different fungi, and is prevalent in West Java.407

Sports

Main articles: Sport in Indonesia and Indonesian martial arts

Badminton and football are the most popular sports in Indonesia. Indonesia is among the few countries that have won the Thomas and Uber Cup, the world team championship of men's and women's badminton. Along with weightlifting, badminton is the sport that contributes the most to Indonesia's Olympic medal tally. Liga 1 is the country's premier football league. On the international stage, Indonesia was the first Asian team to participate in the FIFA World Cup in 1938 as the Dutch East Indies.408 On a regional level, Indonesia won a bronze medal at the 1958 Asian Games as well as three gold medals at the 1987, 1991, and 2023 Southeast Asian Games (SEA Games). Indonesia's first appearance at the AFC Asian Cup was in 1996.409

Other popular sports include boxing and basketball, which were part of the first National Games (Pekan Olahraga Nasional, PON) in 1948.410 Sepak takraw and karapan sapi (bull racing) in Madura are some examples of Indonesia's traditional sports. In areas with a history of tribal warfare, mock fighting contests are held, such as caci in Flores and pasola in Sumba. Pencak silat is an Indonesian martial art that, in 2018, became one of the sporting events in the Asian Games, with Indonesia appearing as one of the leading competitors. In Southeast Asia, Indonesia topped the SEA Games medal table ten times since 1977,411 most recently in 2011.412

See also

Notes

Citations

Bibliography

Government

History

  • "History" – Indonesian history at Repositori Institusi

Tourism

Maps

5°S 120°E / 5°S 120°E / -5; 120

References

  1. UK: /ˌɪndəˈniːziə, -ʒə/ IN-də-NEE-zee-ə, -⁠zhə US: /ˌɪndəˈniːʒə, -ʃə/ ⓘ IN-də-NEE-zhə, -⁠shə;[8][9] Indonesian pronunciation: [ɪndoˈnesia] /wiki/British_English ↩

  2. Republik Indonesia ([reˈpublik ɪndoˈnesia] ⓘ) is the most used official name, though the name Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia (Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesia, NKRI) also appears in some official documents. /wiki/Help:IPA/Malay ↩

  3. Tomascik, Tomas; Mah, Anmarie Janice; Nontji, Anugerah; Moosa, Mohammad Kasim (1996). The Ecology of the Indonesian Seas – Part One. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions. ISBN 978-962-593-078-7. 978-962-593-078-7 ↩

  4. Earl 1850, p. 119. - Earl, George SW (1850). "On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian and Malay-Polynesian Nations". Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia. ↩

  5. Anshory, Irfan (16 August 2004). "The origin of Indonesia's name" (in Indonesian). Pikiran Rakyat. Archived from the original on 12 January 2013. Retrieved 15 December 2006. http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/0804/16/0802.htm ↩

  6. Logan, James Richardson (1850). "The Ethnology of the Indian Archipelago: Embracing Enquiries into the Continental Relations of the Indo-Pacific Islanders". Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia. 4: 252–347. ↩

  7. Earl 1850, pp. 254, 277–278. - Earl, George SW (1850). "On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian and Malay-Polynesian Nations". Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia. ↩

  8. van der Kroef, Justus M (1951). "The Term Indonesia: Its Origin and Usage". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 71 (3): 166–171. doi:10.2307/595186. ISSN 0003-0279. JSTOR 595186. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  9. van der Kroef, Justus M (1951). "The Term Indonesia: Its Origin and Usage". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 71 (3): 166–171. doi:10.2307/595186. ISSN 0003-0279. JSTOR 595186. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  10. Anshory, Irfan (16 August 2004). "The origin of Indonesia's name" (in Indonesian). Pikiran Rakyat. Archived from the original on 12 January 2013. Retrieved 15 December 2006. http://www.pikiran-rakyat.com/cetak/0804/16/0802.htm ↩

  11. Pope, G.G. (1988). "Recent advances in far eastern paleoanthropology". Annual Review of Anthropology. 17: 43–77. doi:10.1146/annurev.an.17.100188.000355. cited in Whitten, T.; Soeriaatmadja, R.E.; Suraya, A.A. (1996). The Ecology of Java and Bali. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions. pp. 309–412. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  12. Pope, G.G. (1983). "Evidence on the age of the Asian Hominidae". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 80 (16): 4988–4992. Bibcode:1983PNAS...80.4988P. doi:10.1073/pnas.80.16.4988. PMC 384173. PMID 6410399. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC384173 ↩

  13. de Vos, J.P.; Sondaar, P.Y. (1994). "Dating hominid sites in Indonesia". Science. 266 (16): 4988–4992. Bibcode:1994Sci...266.1726D. doi:10.1126/science.7992059. https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.7992059 ↩

  14. Brown, P.; Sutikna, T.; Morwood, M. J.; Soejono, R. P.; Jatmiko; Wayhu Saptomo, E.; Rokus Awe Due; et al. (27 October 2004). "A new small-bodied hominin from the Late Pleistocene of Flores, Indonesia" (PDF). Nature. 431 (7012): 1055–1061. Bibcode:2004Natur.431.1055B. doi:10.1038/nature02999. PMID 15514638. S2CID 26441. http://doc.rero.ch/record/15287/files/PAL_E2586.pdf ↩

  15. Brumm, Adam; Jensen, Gitte M.; van den Bergh, Gert D.; Morwood, Michael J.; Kurniawan, Iwan; Aziz, Fachroel; Storey, Michael (2010). "Hominins on Flores, Indonesia, by one million years ago". Nature. 464 (7289): 748–752. Bibcode:2010Natur.464..748B. doi:10.1038/nature08844. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 20237472. S2CID 205219871. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  16. Gugliotta, Guy (July 2008). "The Great Human Migration". Smithsonian Maganize. Archived from the original on 16 September 2017. Retrieved 21 August 2011. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/human-migration.html ↩

  17. Oktaviana, Adhi Agus; Joannes-Boyau, Renaud; Hakim, Budianto; Burhan, Basran; Sardi, Ratno; Adhityatama, Shinatria; Hamrullah; Sumantri, Iwan; Tang, M.; Lebe, Rustan; Ilyas, Imran; Abbas, Abdullah; Jusdi, Andi; Mahardian, Dewangga Eka; Noerwidi, Sofwan (3 July 2024). "Narrative cave art in Indonesia by 51,200 years ago". Nature. 631 (8022): 814–818. Bibcode:2024Natur.631..814O. doi:10.1038/s41586-024-07541-7. ISSN 0028-0836. PMC 11269172. PMID 38961284. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11269172 ↩

  18. Harris, Garreth (4 July 2024). "Oldest example of figurative art found in Indonesian cave". The Art Newspaper. Archived from the original on 5 July 2024. Retrieved 5 July 2024. https://www.theartnewspaper.com/2024/07/04/oldest-example-of-figurative-art-found-in-indonesian-cave ↩

  19. Prasetyo, Bagyo (2015). Megalithic: A phenomenon that flourished in Indonesia. Jakarta: Pusat Penelitian Arkeologi Nasional. p. 61. ISBN 9786020818252. 9786020818252 ↩

  20. Taylor 2003, pp. 5–7. - Taylor, Jean Gelman (2003). Indonesia. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-09709-2. https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean ↩

  21. Taylor 2003, pp. 8–9. - Taylor, Jean Gelman (2003). Indonesia. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-09709-2. https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean ↩

  22. Taylor 2003, pp. 3, 9–11, 13–15, 18–20, 22–23. - Taylor, Jean Gelman (2003). Indonesia. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-09709-2. https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean ↩

  23. Vickers 2005, pp. 18–20, 60, 133–134. - Vickers, Adrian (2005). A History of Modern Indonesia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-54262-6. https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni00adri ↩

  24. Taylor 2003, pp. 15–18. - Taylor, Jean Gelman (2003). Indonesia. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-09709-2. https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean ↩

  25. Lewis, Peter (1982). "The next great empire". Futures. 14 (1): 47–61. doi:10.1016/0016-3287(82)90071-4. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  26. Ricklefs 1991, pp. 3–14. - Ricklefs, Merle Calvin (1991). A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1300 (2nd ed.). Basingstoke; Stanford, CA: Palgrave; Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-333-57690-X. ↩

  27. Ricklefs 1991, pp. 12–14. - Ricklefs, Merle Calvin (1991). A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1300 (2nd ed.). Basingstoke; Stanford, CA: Palgrave; Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-333-57690-X. ↩

  28. Ricklefs 1991, pp. 22–24. - Ricklefs, Merle Calvin (1991). A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1300 (2nd ed.). Basingstoke; Stanford, CA: Palgrave; Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-333-57690-X. ↩

  29. Ricklefs 1991, p. 24. - Ricklefs, Merle Calvin (1991). A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1300 (2nd ed.). Basingstoke; Stanford, CA: Palgrave; Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-333-57690-X. ↩

  30. Schwarz 1994, pp. 3–4. - Schwarz, A. (1994). A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s. Westview Press. ISBN 1-86373-635-2. https://archive.org/details/nationinwaitingi00schw ↩

  31. Ricklefs 1991, p. 142. - Ricklefs, Merle Calvin (1991). A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1300 (2nd ed.). Basingstoke; Stanford, CA: Palgrave; Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-333-57690-X. ↩

  32. Friend 2003, p. 21. - Friend, T. (2003). Indonesian Destinies. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01137-6. https://archive.org/details/indonesiandestin00theo ↩

  33. Friend 2003, p. 21. - Friend, T. (2003). Indonesian Destinies. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01137-6. https://archive.org/details/indonesiandestin00theo ↩

  34. Ricklefs 1991, pp. 61–147. - Ricklefs, Merle Calvin (1991). A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1300 (2nd ed.). Basingstoke; Stanford, CA: Palgrave; Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-333-57690-X. ↩

  35. Taylor 2003, pp. 209–278. - Taylor, Jean Gelman (2003). Indonesia. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-09709-2. https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean ↩

  36. Vickers 2005, pp. 10–14. - Vickers, Adrian (2005). A History of Modern Indonesia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-54262-6. https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni00adri ↩

  37. Bilveer Singh (2008). Papua: geopolitics and the quest for nationhood. Transaction Publishers. p. 26. ISBN 978-1-4128-1206-1. 978-1-4128-1206-1 ↩

  38. Gert Oostindie; Bert Paasman (1998). "Dutch Attitudes towards Colonial Empires, Indigenous Cultures, and Slaves" (PDF). Eighteenth-Century Studies. 31 (3): 349–355. doi:10.1353/ecs.1998.0021. hdl:20.500.11755/c467167b-2084-413c-a3c7-f390f9b3a092. S2CID 161921454. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 September 2017. https://pure.knaw.nl/portal/files/488440/16390.pdf ↩

  39. "Indonesia: World War II and the Struggle for Independence, 1942–50; The Japanese Occupation, 1942–45". Library of Congress. November 1992. Archived from the original on 20 January 2025. Retrieved 11 February 2013. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+id0029%29 ↩

  40. Robert Elson, The idea of Indonesia: A history (2008) pp 1–12 ↩

  41. Taylor 2003, p. 325. - Taylor, Jean Gelman (2003). Indonesia. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-09709-2. https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean ↩

  42. H. J. Van Mook (1949). "Indonesia". Royal Institute of International Affairs. 25 (3): 274–285. doi:10.2307/3016666. JSTOR 3016666. /wiki/Hubertus_Johannes_van_Mook ↩

  43. Charles Bidien (5 December 1945). "Independence the Issue". Far Eastern Survey. 14 (24): 345–348. doi:10.2307/3023219. JSTOR 3023219. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  44. Taylor 2003, p. 325. - Taylor, Jean Gelman (2003). Indonesia. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-09709-2. https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean ↩

  45. Friend 2003, p. 35. - Friend, T. (2003). Indonesian Destinies. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01137-6. https://archive.org/details/indonesiandestin00theo ↩

  46. Charles Bidien (5 December 1945). "Independence the Issue". Far Eastern Survey. 14 (24): 345–348. doi:10.2307/3023219. JSTOR 3023219. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  47. Friend 2003, pp. 21, 23. - Friend, T. (2003). Indonesian Destinies. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01137-6. https://archive.org/details/indonesiandestin00theo ↩

  48. Ricklefs 1991, pp. 211–213. - Ricklefs, Merle Calvin (1991). A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1300 (2nd ed.). Basingstoke; Stanford, CA: Palgrave; Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-333-57690-X. ↩

  49. Ricklefs 1991, pp. 237–280. - Ricklefs, Merle Calvin (1991). A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1300 (2nd ed.). Basingstoke; Stanford, CA: Palgrave; Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-333-57690-X. ↩

  50. Melvin 2018, p. 1. - Melvin, Jess (2018). The Army and the Indonesian Genocide: Mechanics of Mass Murder. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-57469-4. https://www.routledge.com/The-Army-and-the-Indonesian-Genocide-Mechanics-of-Mass-Murder/Melvin/p/book/9781138574694 ↩

  51. Robinson 2018, p. 3. - Robinson, Geoffrey B. (2018). The Killing Season: A History of the Indonesian Massacres, 1965–66. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-8886-3. https://press.princeton.edu/titles/11135.html ↩

  52. Robert Cribb (2002). "Unresolved Problems in the Indonesian Killings of 1965–1966". Asian Survey. 42 (4): 550–563. doi:10.1525/as.2002.42.4.550. S2CID 145646994.; "Indonesia massacres: Declassified US files shed new light". BBC. 17 October 2017. Archived from the original on 18 November 2018. Retrieved 19 September 2018. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  53. Bevins 2020, pp. 168, 185. - Bevins, Vincent (2020). The Jakarta Method: Washington's Anticommunist Crusade and the Mass Murder Program that Shaped Our World. PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1-5417-4240-6. ↩

  54. Friend 2003, pp. 107–109. - Friend, T. (2003). Indonesian Destinies. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01137-6. https://archive.org/details/indonesiandestin00theo ↩

  55. Chris Hilton (writer and director) (2001). Shadowplay (Television documentary). Vagabond Films and Hilton Cordell Productions. ↩

  56. Ricklefs 1991, pp. 280–283, 284, 287–290. - Ricklefs, Merle Calvin (1991). A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1300 (2nd ed.). Basingstoke; Stanford, CA: Palgrave; Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-333-57690-X. ↩

  57. John D. Legge (1968). "General Suharto's New Order". Royal Institute of International Affairs. 44 (1): 40–47. doi:10.2307/2613527. JSTOR 2613527. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  58. Melvin 2018, pp. 9–10. - Melvin, Jess (2018). The Army and the Indonesian Genocide: Mechanics of Mass Murder. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-57469-4. https://www.routledge.com/The-Army-and-the-Indonesian-Genocide-Mechanics-of-Mass-Murder/Melvin/p/book/9781138574694 ↩

  59. Vickers 2005, p. 163. - Vickers, Adrian (2005). A History of Modern Indonesia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-54262-6. https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni00adri ↩

  60. David Slater, Geopolitics and the Post-Colonial: Rethinking North–South Relations, London: Blackwell, p. 70 ↩

  61. Farid, Hilmar (2005). "Indonesia's original sin: mass killings and capitalist expansion, 1965–66". Inter-Asia Cultural Studies. 6 (1): 3–16. doi:10.1080/1462394042000326879. S2CID 145130614. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  62. Robinson 2018, p. 206. - Robinson, Geoffrey B. (2018). The Killing Season: A History of the Indonesian Massacres, 1965–66. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-8886-3. https://press.princeton.edu/titles/11135.html ↩

  63. Bevins 2020, pp. 167–168. - Bevins, Vincent (2020). The Jakarta Method: Washington's Anticommunist Crusade and the Mass Murder Program that Shaped Our World. PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1-5417-4240-6. ↩

  64. Delhaise, Philippe F. (1998). Asia in Crisis: The Implosion of the Banking and Finance Systems. Willey. p. 123. ISBN 978-0-471-83450-2. 978-0-471-83450-2 ↩

  65. Jonathan Pincus; Rizal Ramli (1998). "Indonesia: from showcase to basket case". Cambridge Journal of Economics. 22 (6): 723–734. doi:10.1093/cje/22.6.723. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  66. "Situation of human rights in East Timor". Relief Web. 10 December 1999. Archived from the original on 20 January 2025. Retrieved 20 November 2019. https://reliefweb.int/report/indonesia/situation-human-rights-east-timor ↩

  67. Burr, W. (6 December 2001). "East Timor Revisited, Ford, Kissinger, and the Indonesian Invasion, 1975–76". National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 62. Washington, DC: National Security Archive, George Washington University. Archived from the original on 27 November 2019. Retrieved 17 September 2006. https://archive.today/20191127081609/https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB62/ ↩

  68. Dagg, Christopher J. (April 2007). "The 2004 elections in Indonesia: Political reform and democratisation". Asia Pacific Viewpoint. 48 (1). Wiley Online Library: 47–59. doi:10.22146/ijg.12792. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  69. R. William, Liddle (1 February 2001). "Indonesia in 2000: A Shaky Start for Democracy". Asian Survey. 41 (1). University of California Press: 208–220. doi:10.1525/as.2001.41.1.208. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  70. Julie Chernov, Hwang (September 2012). "Terrorism in Perspective: An Assessment of 'Jihad Project' Trends in Indonesia". Asia Pacific Issues (104). East-West Center. ISSN 1522-0966. /wiki/ISSN_(identifier) ↩

  71. Mukartono, Ali; Hartiwiningsih, Hartiwiningsih; Rustamaji, Muhammad (October 2019). "The Development of Corruption in Indonesia (Is Corruption a Culture of Indonesia?)". Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Globalization of Law and Local Wisdom (ICGLOW 2019). Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research. Vol. 358. Atlantis Press. doi:10.2991/icglow-19.2019.36. ISBN 978-94-6252-819-2. 978-94-6252-819-2 ↩

  72. Harsono, Andreas (May 2019). Race, Islam and Power: Ethnic and Religious Violence in Post-Suharto Indonesia. Monash University Publishing. ISBN 978-1-925835-09-0. 978-1-925835-09-0 ↩

  73. Parks, Thomas; et al. (7 October 2013), "The Case of Aceh, Indonesia", The Contested Corners of Asia: Subnational Conflict and International Development Assistance, The Asia Foundation, ISBN 978-616-91408-1-8 978-616-91408-1-8 ↩

  74. Frederick, William H.; Worden, Robert L. (1993). Indonesia: A Country Study. Area Handbook Series. Vol. 550. Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. p. 98. ISBN 978-0-8444-0790-6. 978-0-8444-0790-6 ↩

  75. Sukendra, Martha (December 2017). "The Analysis of Geospatial Information for Validating Some Numbers of Islands in Indonesia". Indonesian Journal of Geography. 49 (2): 204–211. doi:10.22146/ijg.12792. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  76. "The World Factbook: Indonesia". Central Intelligence Agency. 29 April 2025. Retrieved 8 May 2025. https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/indonesia/ ↩

  77. "Facts & Figures". Embassy of the Republic of Indonesia, Washington, D.C. Archived from the original on 20 January 2025. Retrieved 14 March 2021. https://www.embassyofindonesia.org/index.php/basic-facts/ ↩

  78. Lubis, M.S.; Susanto, D.; Harjoko, T.Y. (25 October 2021). "Understanding Riverine Urbanism in Kalimantan through Diachronic Approach: Case Study of Lanting Settlements in Sintang, Indonesia". Journal of Architectural Design and Urbanism. 4 (1). ISOMAse: 12–26. doi:10.14710/jadu.v4i1.12133. https://doi.org/10.14710%2Fjadu.v4i1.12133 ↩

  79. "Climate: Observations, projections and impacts" (PDF). Met Office Hadley Centre. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 August 2017. Retrieved 16 August 2017. http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/binaries/content/assets/mohippo/pdf/8/f/indonesia.pdf ↩

  80. "Indonesia and Climate Change: Current Status and Policies" (PDF). World Bank. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 December 2016. Retrieved 27 December 2016. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTINDONESIA/Resources/Environment/ClimateChange_Full_EN.pdf ↩

  81. "Indonesia's Climate and Precipitation". indonesia.mfa.gov.ir. Retrieved 29 March 2024.[permanent dead link] https://indonesia.mfa.gov.ir/en/generalcategoryservices/13009/indonesia.mfa.gov.ir ↩

  82. Pang, C.; Nikurashin, M.; Pena-Molino, B.; et al. (1 November 2022). "Remote energy sources for mixing in the Indonesian Seas". Nature Communications. 13 (6535). doi:10.1038/s41467-022-34046-6. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  83. Leiserowitz, A.; et al. (3 October 2023). Climate Change in the Indonesian Mind. Yale Program on Climate Change Communication (Report). Yale School of the Environment. ↩

  84. Mercogliano, Paola; Reder, Alfredo; Ellena, Marta; et al. (2021). G20 Climate Risk Atlas. Impacts, policy and economics in the G20 (Report). doi:10.25424/cmcc/g20_climaterisk. https://www.g20climaterisks.org/indonesia/ ↩

  85. Case M, Ardiansyah F, Spector E (14 November 2007). "Climate Change in Indonesia: Implications for Humans and Nature" (PDF). WWF. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 February 2018. Retrieved 18 November 2018. http://awsassets.panda.org/downloads/inodesian_climate_change_impacts_report_14nov07.pdf ↩

  86. Case M, Ardiansyah F, Spector E (14 November 2007). "Climate Change in Indonesia: Implications for Humans and Nature" (PDF). WWF. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 February 2018. Retrieved 18 November 2018. http://awsassets.panda.org/downloads/inodesian_climate_change_impacts_report_14nov07.pdf ↩

  87. Case M, Ardiansyah F, Spector E (14 November 2007). "Climate Change in Indonesia: Implications for Humans and Nature" (PDF). WWF. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 February 2018. Retrieved 18 November 2018. http://awsassets.panda.org/downloads/inodesian_climate_change_impacts_report_14nov07.pdf ↩

  88. "Report: Flooded Future: Global vulnerability to sea level rise worse than previously understood". Climate Central. 29 October 2019. Archived from the original on 25 December 2021. Retrieved 5 November 2019. https://climatecentral.org/news/report-flooded-future-global-vulnerability-to-sea-level-rise-worse-than-previously-understood ↩

  89. Widodo, A. (October 2017). "Analyzing Indonesia's NCICD Project to Stop the Capital City Sinking". Otoritas: Jurnal Ilmu Pemerintahan. 7 (2): 54–56. doi:10.26618/ojip.v7i2.769. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  90. "Indonesia: Climate Risk and Adaptation Country Profile" (PDF). World Bank. April 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 December 2017. Retrieved 18 November 2018. http://sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportal/countryprofile/doc/GFDRRCountryProfiles/wb_gfdrr_climate_change_country_profile_for_IDN.pdf ↩

  91. "Indonesia: Volcano nation". BBC. 5 November 2015. Archived from the original on 20 January 2025. Retrieved 28 November 2017. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-26167897 ↩

  92. Witton 2003, p. 38. - Witton, Patrick (2003). Indonesia. Melbourne: Lonely Planet. ISBN 978-1-74059-154-6. ↩

  93. "Indonesia: Volcano nation". BBC. 5 November 2015. Archived from the original on 20 January 2025. Retrieved 28 November 2017. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-26167897 ↩

  94. Sylviane L. G. Lebon (January 2009). "Volcanic activity and environment: Impacts on agriculture and use of geological data to improve recovery processes" (PDF). University of Iceland. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 December 2016. Retrieved 27 December 2016. http://skemman.is/stream/get/1946/3303/10384/1/Sylviane_Lebon_fixed.pdf ↩

  95. Whitten, T.; Soeriaatmadja, R. E.; Suraya A. A. (1996). The Ecology of Java and Bali. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions. pp. 95–97. ↩

  96. World and Its Peoples: Eastern and Southern Asia, Volume 10. Marshall Cavendish. 2007. p. 1306. ISBN 978-0-7614-7631-3. 978-0-7614-7631-3 ↩

  97. Ge, Yong; Gao, Xing (10 September 2020). "Understanding the overestimated impact of the Toba volcanic super-eruption on global environments and ancient hominins". Quaternary International. 559: 24–33. Bibcode:2020QuInt.559...24G. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2020.06.021. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  98. Gertisser, Ralf; Self, Stephen (31 July 2015). "The great 1815 eruption of Tambora and future risks from large-scale volcanism". Geology Today. 31 (4). Wiley Online Library: 132–136. Bibcode:2015GeolT..31..132G. doi:10.1111/gto.12099. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  99. Harbowo, Danni Gathot (30 June 2023). "An Assessment of the Scientific Value of Krakatoa, Indonesia from a Geoheritage Perspective". Journal of Applied Geoscience and Engineering. 2 (1): 11–25. doi:10.34312/jage.v2i1.19360 (inactive 13 February 2025).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of February 2025 (link) /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  100. Rachmatin, Dewi; Hidayat, Asep Syarif; Priatna Martadiputra, Bambang Avip (November 2020). "Analysis of Characteristics of Earthquake Area in Indonesia in 2020 with Cluster Analysis as Natural Disaster". International Journal of Science and Research. 9 (11): 1243–1250. doi:10.21275/SR201122121148 (inactive 23 March 2025).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of March 2025 (link) /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  101. Brody, Jedediah F.; et al. (24 August 2017). "Crossing the (Wallace) line: local abundance and distribution of mammals across biogeographic barriers". Biotropica. 50 (1). Wiley Online Library: 116–124. doi:10.1111/btp.12485. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  102. Whitten, T.; Henderson, G.; Mustafa, M. (1996). The Ecology of Sulawesi. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. ISBN 978-962-593-075-6. 978-962-593-075-6 ↩

  103. Monk, K.A.; Fretes, Y.; Reksodiharjo-Lilley, G. (1996). The Ecology of Nusa Tenggara and Maluku. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. ISBN 978-962-593-076-3. 978-962-593-076-3 ↩

  104. Voigt, Maria; et al. (7 September 2021). "Emerging threats from deforestation and forest fragmentation in the Wallacea centre of endemism". Environmental Research Letters. 16 (9). IOP Publishing Ltd. Bibcode:2021ERL....16i4048V. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ac15cd. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  105. Tomascik, Tomas; Mah, Anmarie Janice; Nontji, Anugerah; Moosa, Mohammad Kasim (1996). The Ecology of the Indonesian Seas – Part One. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions. ISBN 978-962-593-078-7. 978-962-593-078-7 ↩

  106. Sari, Keysa Puspita; Putri, Cinta Radila; Ningsih, Kiki Afriana; Edelwis, T.W.; Alexis, Andrew (28 October 2024). "Colorful Life on Indonesia's: Coral Reefs Reveals Fish". BIO Web of Conferences. 134 (6013). EDP Sciences: 06013. doi:10.1051/bioconf/202413406013. https://doi.org/10.1051%2Fbioconf%2F202413406013 ↩

  107. Wallace, A.R. (2000) [1869]. The Malay Archipelago. Periplus Editions. ISBN 978-962-593-645-1. 978-962-593-645-1 ↩

  108. Severin, Tim (1997). The Spice Island Voyage: In Search of Wallace. Great Britain: Abacus Travel. ISBN 978-0-349-11040-0. 978-0-349-11040-0 ↩

  109. Estoque, Ronald C.; Ooba, Makoto; Avitabile, Valerio; Hijioka, Yasuaki; DasGupta, Rajarshi; Togawa, Takuya; Murayama, Yuji (23 April 2019). "The future of Southeast Asia's forests". Nature Communications. 10 (1): 1829. Bibcode:2019NatCo..10.1829E. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-09646-4. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 6478739. PMID 31015425. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6478739 ↩

  110. Santoro, Antonio; Piras, Francesco; Yu, Qingyi (17 July 2023). "Spatial analysis of deforestation in Indonesia in the period 1950–2017 and the role of protected areas". Biodiversity and Conservation. Springer Nature Link. doi:10.1007/s10531-023-02679-8. hdl:2158/1323316. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  111. Tsujino, Riyou; Yumoto, Takakazu; Kitamura, Shumpei; Djamaluddin, Ibrahim; Darnaedi, Dedy (November 2016). "History of forest loss and degradation in Indonesia". Land Use Policy. 57: 335–347. Bibcode:2016LUPol..57..335T. doi:10.1016/j.landusepol.2016.05.034. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  112. Austin, Kemen G; Schwantes, Amanda; Gu, Yaofeng; Kasibhatla, Prasad D (1 February 2019). "What causes deforestation in Indonesia?". Environmental Research Letters. 14 (2): 024007. Bibcode:2019ERL....14b4007A. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/aaf6db. https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1748-9326%2Faaf6db ↩

  113. Limaho, Handoko; Sugiarto; Pramono, Rudy; Christiawan, Rio (14 July 2022). "The Need for Global Green Marketing for the Palm Oil Industry in Indonesia". Sustainability. 14 (14): 8621. Bibcode:2022Sust...14.8621L. doi:10.3390/su14148621. https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fsu14148621 ↩

  114. Colchester, Marcus; et al. (6 November 2006). Promised Land: Palm Oil and Land Acquisition in Indonesia - Implications for Local Communities and Indigenous Peoples. Forest Peoples Programme. ISBN 979-15188-0-7. 979-15188-0-7 ↩

  115. "Forest area (% of land area) – Indonesia". World Bank. Retrieved 19 January 2025. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.FRST.ZS?locations=ID ↩

  116. Tsujino, Riyou; Yumoto, Takakazu; Kitamura, Shumpei; Djamaluddin, Ibrahim; Darnaedi, Dedy (November 2016). "History of forest loss and degradation in Indonesia". Land Use Policy. 57: 335–347. Bibcode:2016LUPol..57..335T. doi:10.1016/j.landusepol.2016.05.034. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  117. Adinugroho, W.C. (2019). "Contribution of forest degradation in Indonesia's GHG emissions: Profile and opportunity to improve its estimation accuracy". IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 399 (12025). IOP Publishing Ltd: 012025. Bibcode:2019E&ES..399a2025A. doi:10.1088/1755-1315/399/1/012025. https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1755-1315%2F399%2F1%2F012025 ↩

  118. Setyadharma, A. (2020). "The trade-off between Poverty and Environmental Degradation: Evidence from Indonesia". IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 448 (12065). IOP Publishing Ltd: 012065. Bibcode:2020E&ES..448a2065S. doi:10.1088/1755-1315/448/1/012065. https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1755-1315%2F448%2F1%2F012065 ↩

  119. BirdLife International (2016). "Leucopsar rothschildi". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016: e.T22710912A94267053. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22710912A94267053.en. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22710912/94267053 ↩

  120. "Extinction crisis escalates: Red List shows apes, corals, vultures, dolphins all in danger". International Union for Conservation of Nature. 12 September 2007. Archived from the original on 20 January 2025. Retrieved 16 October 2016. https://www.iucn.org/content/extinction-crisis-escalates-red-list-shows-apes-corals-vultures-dolphins-all-danger ↩

  121. van Strien, N.J.; et al. (2008). "Rhinoceros sondaicus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2008: e.T19495A8925965. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T19495A8925965.en. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/19495/8925965 ↩

  122. Aida, Melly; Muthalib Tahar, Abdul; Davey, Orima (2 May 2023). "Ecocide in the International Law: Integration Between Environmental Rights and International Crime and Its Implementation in Indonesia". Proceedings of the 3rd Universitas Lampung International Conference on Social Sciences (ULICoSS 2022). Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research. Vol. 740. Atlantis Press. pp. 572–584. doi:10.2991/978-2-38476-046-6_57. ISBN 978-2-38476-045-9. 978-2-38476-045-9 ↩

  123. Setiyono, Joko; Natalis, Aga (30 December 2021). "Ecocides as a Serious Human Rights Violation: A Study on the Case of River Pollution by the Palm Oil Industry in Indonesia". International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning. 16 (8): 1465–1471. doi:10.18280/ijsdp.160807. ISSN 1743-7601. S2CID 245606762. https://doi.org/10.18280%2Fijsdp.160807 ↩

  124. Pusparini, Wulan; et al. (16 January 2023). "A bolder conservation future for Indonesia by prioritising biodiversity, carbon and unique ecosystems in Sulawesi". Scientific Reports. 13 (1): 842. Bibcode:2023NatSR..13..842P. doi:10.1038/s41598-022-21536-2. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 9842766. PMID 36646696. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9842766 ↩

  125. Gokkon, Basten (19 May 2023). "Study: Indonesia's extensive network of marine reserves are poorly managed". Mongabay Environmental News. Archived from the original on 22 January 2025. Retrieved 2 January 2024. https://news.mongabay.com/2023/05/indonesia-maritime-marine-reserve-mpa-protected-area-management-funding/ ↩

  126. Estradivari; et al. (1 March 2022). "Marine conservation beyond MPAs: Towards the recognition of other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs) in Indonesia". Marine Policy. 137: 104939. Bibcode:2022MarPo.13704939E. doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2021.104939. ISSN 0308-597X. https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.marpol.2021.104939 ↩

  127. "National Parks in Indonesia". Archived from the original on 5 December 2013. Retrieved 5 December 2013. https://archive.today/20131205073144/http://www.dephut.go.id/uploads/INFORMASI/TN%20INDO-ENGLISH/tn_index.htm ↩

  128. "Ecological Sciences for Sustainable Development". UNESCO. October 2013. Archived from the original on 22 January 2025. Retrieved 22 October 2013. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/ecological-sciences/biosphere-reserves/asia-and-the-pacific/ ↩

  129. "Spatial Analysis to Achieve 20 Million Hectares of Marine Protected Areas by 2020". Wildlife Conservation Society. 24 December 2013. Archived from the original on 24 December 2013. Retrieved 5 February 2017. http://indonesia.wcs.org/DesktopModules/Bring2mind/DMX/Download.aspx?EntryId=15154&PortalId=137&DownloadMethod=attachment ↩

  130. Dwi Harijanti, Susi; Lindsey, Tim (1 January 2006). "Indonesia: General elections test the amended Constitution and the new Constitutional Court". International Journal of Constitutional Law. 4 (1): 138–150. doi:10.1093/icon/moi055. https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ficon%2Fmoi055 ↩

  131. Ardiansyah, Fitrian; Marthen, Andri; Amalia, Nur (2015), Forest and land-use governance in a decentralized Indonesia, doi:10.17528/cifor/005695, hdl:10535/9986 /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  132. (2002), The Fourth Amendment of 1945 Indonesia Constitution, Chapter III – The Executive Power, Article 7. ↩

  133. Chapter II, Article 3, 3rd Clause of the 1945 Constitution. ↩

  134. "The 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia" (PDF). International Labour Organization. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2017. http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/---ilo_aids/documents/legaldocument/wcms_174556.pdf ↩

  135. Sinukaban, Alexander J. (30 January 2020). "The Existence of Regional Representative Boards in the Indonesian Representative Institution System". Journal of Law Science. 2 (1): 15–23. doi:10.35335/jls.v2i1.1607. https://doi.org/10.35335%2Fjls.v2i1.1607 ↩

  136. Dwi Harijanti, Susi; Lindsey, Tim (1 January 2006). "Indonesia: General elections test the amended Constitution and the new Constitutional Court". International Journal of Constitutional Law. 4 (1): 138–150. doi:10.1093/icon/moi055. https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ficon%2Fmoi055 ↩

  137. Chapter VIIA, Article 22D of the 1945 Constitution. ↩

  138. "The 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia" (PDF). International Labour Organization. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2017. http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/---ilo_aids/documents/legaldocument/wcms_174556.pdf ↩

  139. Hamzah, Hanim; Narang, Agnesya M.; Yusari, Anggi (2021), "Legal systems in Indonesia: overview", YPFS Resource Library, no. 11551, EliScholar ↩

  140. Hamzah, Hanim; Narang, Agnesya M.; Yusari, Anggi (2021), "Legal systems in Indonesia: overview", YPFS Resource Library, no. 11551, EliScholar ↩

  141. Cammack, Mark E.; Feener, R. Michael (1 January 2012). "The Islamic Legal System in Indonesia". Washington International Law Journal. 21 (1). University of Washington School of Law: 327–330. Retrieved 30 January 2025. https://digitalcommons.law.uw.edu/wilj/vol21/iss1/5/ ↩

  142. Adolf, Huala; et al. (2018). "Strengthening the Position and Function of the Judicial Commission in the Constitutional System of the Republic of Indonesia". Journal of Liberty and International Affairs. 4 (3). Institute for Research and European Studies. ISSN 1857-9760. /wiki/ISSN_(identifier) ↩

  143. Bayuni, Endy (15 September 2023). "These unholy alliances undermine Indonesian democracy". The Jakarta Post. Archived from the original on 23 January 2025. Retrieved 23 January 2025. https://www.thejakartapost.com/opinion/2023/09/15/these-unholy-alliances-undermine-indonesian-democracy.html ↩

  144. Slater, Dan (2018). "Party Cartelization, Indonesian-Style: Presidential Powersharing and the Contingency of Democratic Opposition". Journal of East Asian Studies. 18 (1): 23–46. doi:10.1017/jea.2017.26. ISSN 1598-2408. https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fjea.2017.26 ↩

  145. Bayuni, Endy (15 September 2023). "These unholy alliances undermine Indonesian democracy". The Jakarta Post. Archived from the original on 23 January 2025. Retrieved 23 January 2025. https://www.thejakartapost.com/opinion/2023/09/15/these-unholy-alliances-undermine-indonesian-democracy.html ↩

  146. Simatupang, Karmel Hebron (January 2025). "Multi–party Systems and Parliamentary Thresholds: The Case of Indonesia's Presidential System with Comparisons to Germany and Taiwan". Journal of Political Issues. 6 (2): 99–109. doi:10.33019/jpi.v6i2.291. https://doi.org/10.33019%2Fjpi.v6i2.291 ↩

  147. Sinukaban, Alexander J. (30 January 2020). "The Existence of Regional Representative Boards in the Indonesian Representative Institution System". Journal of Law Science. 2 (1): 15–23. doi:10.35335/jls.v2i1.1607. https://doi.org/10.35335%2Fjls.v2i1.1607 ↩

  148. Dwi Harijanti, Susi; Lindsey, Tim (1 January 2006). "Indonesia: General elections test the amended Constitution and the new Constitutional Court". International Journal of Constitutional Law. 4 (1): 138–150. doi:10.1093/icon/moi055. https://doi.org/10.1093%2Ficon%2Fmoi055 ↩

  149. Wahdini, Muhammad (29 April 2022). "The Effectiveness of Simultaneous Election 2019". Journal of Home Affairs Governance. 14 (1): 123–134. doi:10.21787/jbp.14.2022.123-134. https://doi.org/10.21787%2Fjbp.14.2022.123-134 ↩

  150. Riadi, Bambang; Patmasari, Tri (November 2018). "The Progress of Indonesia's Administrative Boundaries Mapping after 72 years of Independence". International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Science. 5 (11): 153–162. doi:10.22161/ijaers.5.11.22. https://doi.org/10.22161%2Fijaers.5.11.22 ↩

  151. Assegaf, Fardah (9 December 2022). "Southwest Papua officially becomes Indonesia's 38th province". Antara. Archived from the original on 20 January 2025. Retrieved 7 February 2023. https://en.antaranews.com/news/264759/southwest-papua-officially-becomes-indonesias-38th-province ↩

  152. Setiawan, Irfan (2014). Rekonstruksi Birokrasi Pemerintahan Daerah. Institut Pemerintahan Dalam Negeri. pp. 187–188. Archived from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 5 January 2021. https://books.google.com/books?id=LYgpDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA188 ↩

  153. Ward, Berenschot; Capri, Wigke; Dhian, Devy (3 February 2021). "A quiet revolution? Village head elections and the democratization of rural Indonesia". Critical Asian Studies. 53 (1). Routledge: 126–146. doi:10.1080/14672715.2021.1871852. hdl:11245.1/8ca40666-5d31-4898-8da0-369f324a68e3. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  154. Michelle Ann Miller (2004). "The Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam law: a serious response to Acehnese separatism?". Asian Ethnicity. 5 (3): 333–351. doi:10.1080/1463136042000259789. S2CID 143311407. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  155. Wiszowaty, Marcin M.; Wahyuni, Indria (27 December 2023). "Monarchy in the Republic – Sultanate of Yogyakarta in the Republic of Indonesia". Constitutional Law Review. 76 (6). Adam Marszałek Publishing House: 321–336. doi:10.15804/ppk.2023.06.23. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  156. Emilianus, J. E.; Lumbuun, T Gayus; Latif, Abdul; Sinaga, Parbuntian (2024). "Protection of local wisdom of papua's original people by the papua people's assembly in Indonesia". International Journal of Judicial Law. 3 (4). All Law Journal: 10–15. doi:10.54660/IJJL.2024.3.4.10-15. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  157. Laksamana, Evan; Alexandra, Lina (August 2023). "Hatta and Indonesia's Independent and Active Foreign Policy: Retrospect and Prospect". Contemporary Southeast Asia. 45 (2). ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute: 327–330. doi:10.1355/cs45-2k. JSTOR 27241198. Retrieved 23 January 2025. https://www.jstor.org/stable/27241198 ↩

  158. Vibhanshu Shekhar (26 October 2022). Indonesia's Great-Power Management in the Indo-Pacific, The Balancing Behavior of a "Dove State". Vol. 17. The National Burreau of Asian Research. p. 53. https://www.nbr.org/publication/indonesias-great-power-management-in-the-indo-pacific-the-balancing-behavior-of-a-dove-state/ ↩

  159. Chapter III - The Executive Power, Articles 4, 11 and 13 of the Amended 1945 Constitution ↩

  160. "The 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia" (PDF). International Labour Organization. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2017. http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/---ilo_aids/documents/legaldocument/wcms_174556.pdf ↩

  161. Nandyatama, Randy W.; Ardhani, Irfan; Alvian, Rizky Alif (2 July 2023). "Middle power legitimation strategies: the case of Indonesia and the ASEAN Outlook on the Indo-Pacific". Australian Journal of International Affairs. 77 (4). Routledge: 359–379. doi:10.1080/10357718.2023.2228709. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  162. Dewi Fortuna Anwar (1 January 2020). "Indonesia and the ASEAN outlook on the Indo-Pacific". International Affairs. 96 (1). Oxford Academic: 111–129. doi:10.1093/ia/iiz223. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  163. Muhammad Zulfikar Rakhmat (11 March 2015). "The Quiet Growth in Indonesia-Israel Relations". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 10 March 2016. Retrieved 8 September 2018. https://thediplomat.com/2015/03/the-quiet-growth-in-indonesia-israel-relations/ ↩

  164. Peterson, Daniel (2023). "China's Power Play in Indonesia: Infrastructure Investment and Territorial Incursions". Social Science Research on Southeast Asia. 43 (41). Open Edition Journals: 223–247. doi:10.4000/moussons.10736. https://doi.org/10.4000%2Fmoussons.10736 ↩

  165. Ordaniel, Jeffrey (September 2021). The United States and Indonesia: Re-converging Security Interests in the Indo-Pacific. Issues & Insights (Report). Vol. 21. Pacific Forum. ↩

  166. During the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation, Indonesia withdrew from the UN due to the latter's election to the United Nations Security Council, although it returned 18 months later. It marked the first time in UN history that a member state had attempted a withdrawal.[160] /wiki/Indonesia%E2%80%93Malaysia_confrontation ↩

  167. Roberts, C.; Habir, A.; Sebastian, L. (25 February 2015). Indonesia's Ascent: Power, Leadership, and the Regional Order. Springer. doi:10.1057/9781137397416. ISBN 978-1-137-39741-6. 978-1-137-39741-6 ↩

  168. Chowdhury, Anis; Sugema, Iman (January 2005). "How Significant and Effective has Foreign Aid to Indonesia been?". Centre for International Economic Studies Working Papers. IDEAS. ↩

  169. Ariyanto Azis, Aswin; Rizky Satriawangsa, Baiq Namira (29 April 2024). "From Recipient to Donor: Indonesia's Motives in Giving Foreign Aid to South Pacific 2015-2023". Proceedings of the World Conference on Governance and Social Sciences (WCGSS 2023). Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research. Vol. 843. Atlantis Press. pp. 49–63. doi:10.2991/978-2-38476-236-1_7. ISBN 978-2-38476-235-4. 978-2-38476-235-4 ↩

  170. "Summary of Contributions to UN Peacekeeping by Country, Mission and Post" (PDF). United Nations Peacekeeping. 31 August 2019. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 September 2024. Retrieved 23 January 2025. https://peacekeeping.un.org/sites/default/files/3-country-and-mission.pdf ↩

  171. International Institute for Strategic Studies (15 February 2023). The Military Balance 2023. London: Routledge. p. 254. ISBN 978-1-032-50895-5. 978-1-032-50895-5 ↩

  172. Lowry, Bob (29 June 1999). "Indonesian Armed Forces (Tentara Nasional Indonesia-TNI)". Parliament of Australia. Archived from the original on 20 January 2025. Retrieved 29 July 2019. https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/rp9899/99rp23 ↩

  173. Djiwandono, J. Soedjati (1998). Civil-Military Relations in Indonesia: The Case of ABRI's Dual Function (1 ed.). Routledge. pp. 45–58. doi:10.4324/9780429501579-4. ISBN 9780429501579. 9780429501579 ↩

  174. "Military expenditure (% of GDP) - Indonesia". World Bank. Retrieved 8 May 2025. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/MS.MIL.XPND.GD.ZS?end=2023&locations=ID&start=2007&view=chart ↩

  175. Kosandi, Meidi; Angela, Deni (October 2019). "Military Business in Indonesia: Army Cooperative after Acquisition Policy 2009 and Its Impact on Civil-military Relations". International Journal of Social Science and Economic Research. 4 (10). ISSN 2455-8834. /wiki/ISSN_(identifier) ↩

  176. Friend 2003, pp. 270–273, 477–480. - Friend, T. (2003). Indonesian Destinies. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01137-6. https://archive.org/details/indonesiandestin00theo ↩

  177. Rabasa, Angel; Haseman, John (2002), "Separatist Movements in Aceh and Papua", The Military and Democracy in Indonesia: Challenges, Politics, and Power (1st ed.), RAND Corporation, pp. 99–110, ISBN 978-0-8330-3402-1 978-0-8330-3402-1 ↩

  178. Parks, Thomas; et al. (7 October 2013), "The Case of Aceh, Indonesia", The Contested Corners of Asia: Subnational Conflict and International Development Assistance, The Asia Foundation, ISBN 978-616-91408-1-8 978-616-91408-1-8 ↩

  179. Rusdianto, Abu; et al. (June 2023). "Implementation of Special Autonomy Policy in Papua Province". International Journal of Progressive Sciences and Technologies. 39 (1): 457–464. doi:10.52155/ijpsat.v39.1.5404. https://doi.org/10.52155%2Fijpsat.v39.1.5404 ↩

  180. Baird, Natalie (1 April 2024). "The Universal Periodic Review and West Papua: Beyond Invisibility?". International Journal on Minority and Group Rights. 32 (1). Brill: 24–60. doi:10.1163/15718115-bja10158. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  181. Indonesia. Department of Foreign Affairs. Decolonization in East Timor. Jakarta: Department of Information, Republic of Indonesia, 1977. OCLC 4458152. /wiki/OCLC_(identifier) ↩

  182. Budiardjo, Carmel; Liong, Liem Soei (1984). The War against East Timor. London: Zed Books. p. 22. ISBN 0-86232-228-6. 0-86232-228-6 ↩

  183. Tanasaldy, Taufiq (12 July 2022). "From Official to Grassroots Racism: Transformation of Anti-Chinese Sentiment in Indonesia". The Political Quarterly. 93 (2). Wiley Online Library: 460–468. doi:10.1111/1467-923X.13148. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  184. Kusumaryati, Veronika (19 August 2021). "#Papuanlivesmatter: black consciousness and political movements in West Papua". Critical Asian Studies. 53 (4). Routledge: 453–475. doi:10.1080/14672715.2021.1963794. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  185. Rodríguez, Diego García; Murtagh, Ben (9 March 2022). "Situating anti-LGBT moral panics in Indonesia: Homophobia, criminalisation, acceptance, and religiosity" (PDF). Indonesia and the Malay World. 50 (146). Routledge: 1–9. doi:10.1080/13639811.2022.2038871. https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/36786/1/Introduction%2030.01.2022%20bm%20and%20dgr%20edit.pdf ↩

  186. Tumanan, Perdian (2020). "The History of LGBTQ Discourses in Indonesia" (PDF). InterViews. 7 (1): 73–80. doi:10.36061/IV.7.1.20.73.80 (inactive 13 March 2025).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of March 2025 (link) http://repository.petra.ac.id/18851/2/Publikasi4_15019_6485.pdf ↩

  187. Harsono, Andreas (May 2019). Race, Islam and Power: Ethnic and Religious Violence in Post-Suharto Indonesia. Monash University Publishing. ISBN 978-1-925835-09-0. 978-1-925835-09-0 ↩

  188. Sumaktoyo, Nathanael Gratias (26 March 2020). "A Price for Democracy? Religious Legislation and Religious Discrimination in Post-Soeharto Indonesia". Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies. 56 (1): 23–42. doi:10.1080/00074918.2019.1661354. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  189. Chapter XA, Article 28E, 3rd Clause of the Amended 1945 Constitution. ↩

  190. "The 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia" (PDF). International Labour Organization. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2017. http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/---ilo_aids/documents/legaldocument/wcms_174556.pdf ↩

  191. Afisa, Afisa; et al. (29 October 2024). "Analysis of the ITE Law on Digital Rights and Democratic Values in Indonesia". The Journal of Society and Media. 8 (2): 424–444. doi:10.26740/jsm.v8n2.p424-444. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  192. "Indonesia 2023". Amnesty International. 2023. Archived from the original on 16 May 2024. Retrieved 27 January 2025. https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/asia-and-the-pacific/south-east-asia-and-the-pacific/indonesia/report-indonesia/ ↩

  193. Mispansyah; Nurunnisa; Tiya Erniyati (17 June 2023). "Criminalization of Freedom of Assembly in Indonesia". Islamic Politics, Law, and Governance. 6 (2). Islamic Research: 93–103. doi:10.47076/jkpis.v6i2.192. https://doi.org/10.47076%2Fjkpis.v6i2.192 ↩

  194. "Economy of Indonesia". Indonesia Investments. Archived from the original on 19 July 2013. Retrieved 4 May 2017. https://www.indonesia-investments.com/culture/economy/item177 ↩

  195. "G20 Members". G20. Retrieved 20 January 2025. https://g20.org/about-g20/g20-members/ ↩

  196. "World Economic Outlook Database, April 2025 Edition. (Indonesia)". www.imf.org. International Monetary Fund. 22 April 2025. Retrieved 26 May 2025. https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2025/april/weo-report?c=536,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2023&ey=2030&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 ↩

  197. "Indonesia: Economy". Global Edge. 2022. Archived from the original on 22 January 2025. Retrieved 23 March 2025. https://globaledge.msu.edu/countries/indonesia/economy/ ↩

  198. Elias, Stephen; Noone, Clare (December 2011). "The Growth and Development of the Indonesian Economy" (PDF). Reserve Bank of Australia. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 December 2016. Retrieved 27 December 2016. http://www.rba.gov.au/publications/bulletin/2011/dec/pdf/bu-1211-4.pdf ↩

  199. Nugroho, Anda; Amir, Hidayat; Maududy, Irsyan; Marlina, Irma (7 December 2021). "Poverty eradication programs in Indonesia: Progress, challenges and reforms". Journal of Policy and Modeling. 43 (6). Elsevier Ltd: 1204–1224. doi:10.1016/j.jpolmod.2021.05.002. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  200. Titiheruw, Ira S.; Atje, Raymond (2008). "Managing Capital Flows: The Case of Indonesia". Asian Development Bank Institute Discussion Paper. 94: 9–10. ↩

  201. Chatib Basri, Muhammad; Rahardja, Sjamsu (April 2010). "The Indonesian Economy amidst the Global Crisis: Good Policy and Good Luck". ASEAN Economic Bulletin. 27 (1). ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute: 77–97. doi:10.1355/ae27-le (inactive 13 February 2025).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of February 2025 (link) /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  202. Temple, Jonathan (15 August 2001). "Growing into trouble: Indonesia after 1966" (PDF). University of Bristol. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 December 2016. Retrieved 27 December 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20161227202512/http://www.efm.bris.ac.uk/economics/working_papers/pdffiles/dp01522.pdf ↩

  203. "World Economic Outlook Database: Report for Selected Countries and Subjects – Indonesia". International Monetary Fund. October 2024. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 21 January 2025. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2017/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=42&pr.y=11&sy=2007&ey=2017&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=536&s=NGDP_RPCH&grp=0&a= ↩

  204. Chatib Basri, Muhammad; Rahardja, Sjamsu (April 2010). "The Indonesian Economy amidst the Global Crisis: Good Policy and Good Luck". ASEAN Economic Bulletin. 27 (1). ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute: 77–97. doi:10.1355/ae27-le (inactive 13 February 2025).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of February 2025 (link) /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  205. Indonesia Economic Prospects, June 2022: Financial Deepening for Stronger Growth and Sustainable Recovery. WorldBank. 31 May 2022. hdl:10986/37584. /wiki/Hdl_(identifier) ↩

  206. "Indonesia". The Observatory of Economic Complexity. 2023. Retrieved 8 May 2025. https://oec.world/en/profile/country/idn ↩

  207. "Indonesia". The Observatory of Economic Complexity. 2023. Retrieved 8 May 2025. https://oec.world/en/profile/country/idn ↩

  208. Siahaan, Mona (26 August 2024). "Agriculture in Indonesia - statistics & facts". Statista. Retrieved 6 February 2025. https://www.statista.com/topics/7732/agriculture-industry-in-indonesia// ↩

  209. Tjahja Nugraha, Achmad; Prayitno, Gunawan (2020). "Regional Disparity in Western and Eastern Indonesia". International Journal of Economics and Business Administration. 8 (4): 101–110. doi:10.35808/ijeba/572. https://doi.org/10.35808%2Fijeba%2F572 ↩

  210. "Indonesia's Rising Divide". World Bank. 7 December 2015. Archived from the original on 20 January 2025. Retrieved 14 December 2016. http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2015/12/08/indonesia-rising-divide ↩

  211. Dávid, Lóránt Dénes; Rahmat, Al Fauzi; Priatmoko, Setiawan (9 October 2024). "Main trends in the tourism industry in Indonesia between 2020–2023". Journal of Infrastructure, Policy and Development. 8 (11). EnPress Publisher, LLC: 8162. doi:10.24294/jipd.v8i11.8162. https://doi.org/10.24294%2Fjipd.v8i11.8162 ↩

  212. "Number of Foreign Tourist Visits to Indonesia by Nationality (Visit), 2024". Statistics Indonesia. Retrieved 8 May 2025. https://www.bps.go.id/en/statistics-table/2/MTgyMSMy/number-of-foreign-tourist-visits-to-indonesia-by-nationality.html ↩

  213. Informasi Pariwisata Nusantara (Not for sale) (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Ministry of Tourism of the Republic of Indonesia. 2014. /wiki/Ministry_of_Tourism_(Indonesia) ↩

  214. Informasi Pariwisata Nusantara (Not for sale) (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Ministry of Tourism of the Republic of Indonesia. 2014. /wiki/Ministry_of_Tourism_(Indonesia) ↩

  215. "Research and development expenditure (% of GDP) - Indonesia". World Bank. Retrieved 30 January 2025. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/GB.XPD.RSDV.GD.ZS?locations=ID ↩

  216. Dutta, Soumitra; Lanvin, Bruno; Rivera León, Lorena; Wunsch-Vincent, Sacha (2024). Global Innovation Index 2024: Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship. World Intellectual Property Organization. p. 18. doi:10.34667/tind.50062. ISBN 978-92-805-3681-2. Retrieved 6 October 2024. 978-92-805-3681-2 ↩

  217. Yunus Ali, Muhammad; et al. (October 2022). "The Process of Making a Pinisi Boat in Bantobahari District, Bulukumba Regency, Indonesia". European Journal of Engineering and Technology Research. 7 (5). European Open Science: 70–75. doi:10.24018/ejeng.2022.7.5.2837. https://doi.org/10.24018%2Fejeng.2022.7.5.2837 ↩

  218. Sertori, Trisha (11 December 2014). "Man of 1000 shoulders". The Jakarta Post. Archived from the original on 20 January 2025. Retrieved 20 March 2015. https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2014/12/11/man-1000-shoulders.html ↩

  219. Prinanda, Devita; Prasodjo, Haryo (March 2023). "Indonesia's Trade Policy Strategy through the Rail Industry for The Train Market in Africa". Periodical Review of Economics and Development Studies (in Indonesian). 18 (1). Media Trend: 102–109. doi:10.21107/mediatrend.v18i1.17337. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  220. Pandapotan, B.Y.; Arief, D.S.; Fridawaty, S.; Firdaus, M. (30 March 2023). "Production Process of D-Nose Panel Components for A-350 Airplane Wings, PT Dirgantara Indonesia". Journal of Ocean, Mechanical and Aerospace. 67 (1). ISOMAse: 15–22. doi:10.36842/jomase.v67i1.276. ISSN 2527-6085. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  221. Steenhuis, Harm-Jan; de Bruin, Erik J.; Heerkens, Hans (2007). "Technology transfer and catch-up; Lessons from the commercial aircraft industry". International Journal of Technology Transfer and Commercialisation. 3 (2, 3, 4). Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.: 250. doi:10.1504/IJTTC.2007.017809. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  222. Amir, Sulfikar (August 2007). "Nationalist rhetoric and technological development: The Indonesian aircraft industry in the New Order regime". Technology in Society. 29 (3): 261–368. doi:10.1016/j.techsoc.2007.04.010. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  223. Laksamana, Evan A.; Mantong, Andrew W. (30 December 2021). "Missing Pillars of Strategic Autonomy? Security Cooperation Between Korea and ASEAN". The New Southern Policy Plus: Progress and Way Forward. Korea Institute for International Economic Policy. ISBN 978-89-322-0148-1. 978-89-322-0148-1 ↩

  224. Ibrahim, Marwah (July 2021). "Planning and Development of Indonesia's Domestic Communications Satellite System PALAPA". Online Journal of Space Communication. 4 (8). OHIO Open Library. Retrieved 11 February 2025. https://ohioopen.library.ohio.edu/spacejournal/vol4/iss8/2/ ↩

  225. "Satellites by countries and organizations: Indonesia". N2YO. Retrieved 7 May 2024. https://www.n2yo.com/satellites/?c=INDO&t=country ↩

  226. Teresia, Ananda (8 May 2024). "SpaceX's unit Starlink secures Indonesia operating permit". Yahoo News. Archived from the original on 20 January 2025. Retrieved 9 May 2024. https://www.yahoo.com/news/spacexs-unit-starlink-secures-indonesia-122755897.html ↩

  227. Legge, John D. (April 1990). "Review: Indonesia's Diversity Revisited". Indonesia. 49 (49): 127–131. doi:10.2307/3351057. hdl:1813/53928. JSTOR 3351057. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  228. "Length of Road by Surface, 2002–2022 (Km)" (in Indonesian). Statistics Indonesia. Retrieved 21 January 2025. https://www.bps.go.id/id/statistics-table/2/NTEjMg==/panjang-jalan-menurut-jenis-permukaan.html ↩

  229. Kreindler, Gabriel; et al. (June 2023). "Optimal Public Transportation Networks: Evidence from the World's Largest Bus Rapid Transit System in Jakarta". Working Paper (31369). National Burreau of Economic Research. doi:10.3386/w31369. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  230. Resdiansyah (2021). Sustainability Assessment of Urban Transport System in Greater Jakarta. Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (Report). United Nations. hdl:20.500.12870/4280. /wiki/Hdl_(identifier) ↩

  231. Kuntadi, Cris; Lestari, Humannisa R.; Nurlaela, Siti (December 2022), The Public Preferences of Public Transportation in Indonesia, International CEO Communication, Economics, Organization & Social Sciences Congress https://www.researchgate.net/publication/389683055 ↩

  232. Ahmad, Ifan (29 October 2022). "Sulawesi's First Trains Begin Transporting Passengers in Trial". Jakarta Globe. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 23 October 2023. https://jakartaglobe.id/vision/sulawesis-first-trains-begin-transporting-passengers-in-trial ↩

  233. Coca, Nithin (14 April 2019). "At Last, Light Rail Comes to Jakarta". Overture. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 22 November 2019. https://www.overtureglobal.io/story/at-last-light-rail-comes-to-jakarta ↩

  234. Mochammad Noor, Emyr; Yiming, Song (30 June 2024). "China's Economic Diplomacy Towards Indonesia's Development: A Case Study of Jakarta-Bandung High Speed Railway". Journal of Indonesian Social Sciences and Humanities. 14 (1). National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN): 15–29. ISSN 2656-7512. /wiki/ISSN_(identifier) ↩

  235. "Garuda Indonesia Becomes 20th Member of SkyTeam Alliance". SkyTeam. 5 March 2014. Archived from the original on 5 March 2014. Retrieved 6 March 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140305104028/https://www.skyteam.com/en/About-us/Press/News/2014/Garuda-Indonesia-Becomes-20th-Member-of-SkyTeam-Alliance/ ↩

  236. "The 13,466-island problem". The Economist. 27 February 2016. Archived from the original on 12 March 2023. Retrieved 16 June 2017. https://www.economist.com/news/special-report/21693404-after-decades-underinvestment-infrastructure-spending-picking-up-last ↩

  237. Suprata, F; Sugioko, A; Natalia, C (2020). "Analysing the cause of idle time in loading and unloading operation at Indonesian international port container terminal: Port of Tanjung Priok case study". IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering. 847 (1). IOP Publishing Ltd: 012090. Bibcode:2020MS&E..847a2090S. doi:10.1088/1757-899X/847/1/012090. https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1757-899X%2F847%2F1%2F012090 ↩

  238. "Overview: Indonesia". U.S. Energy Information Administration. 24 September 2021. Retrieved 25 January 2025. https://www.eia.gov/beta/international/country.php?iso=IDN ↩

  239. Power in Indonesia: Investment and Taxation Guide 2023 (Report) (7 ed.). PwC. 2023. https://www.pwc.com/id/en/pwc-publications/industries-publications/energy--utilities---mining-publications/power-guide-2023.htm ↩

  240. Power in Indonesia: Investment and Taxation Guide 2023 (Report) (7 ed.). PwC. 2023. https://www.pwc.com/id/en/pwc-publications/industries-publications/energy--utilities---mining-publications/power-guide-2023.htm ↩

  241. Summary of Indonesia's Energy Sector Assessment. ADB Papers on Indonesia (Report). Asian Development Bank. December 2015. https://www.adb.org/publications/summary-indonesias-energy-sector-assessment ↩

  242. Apriliyanti, Indri Dwi; Nugraha, Diwangkara Bagus; Kristiansen, Stein; Overland, Indri (December 2024). "To reform or not reform? Competing energy transition perspectives on Indonesia's monopoly electricity supplier Perusahaan Listrik Negara (PLN)". Energy Research & Social Science. 118. doi:10.1016/j.erss.2024.103797. https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.erss.2024.103797 ↩

  243. Siregar, Yudha Irmansyah (27 August 2024). "Pathways towards net-zero emissions in Indonesia's energy sector". Energy. 308. Elsevier Ltd. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2024.133014. https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.energy.2024.133014 ↩

  244. "Indonesia - Energy Supply". International Energy Agency. 2022. Retrieved 24 January 2025. https://www.iea.org/countries/indonesia/energy-mix ↩

  245. Summary of Indonesia's Energy Sector Assessment. ADB Papers on Indonesia (Report). Asian Development Bank. December 2015. https://www.adb.org/publications/summary-indonesias-energy-sector-assessment ↩

  246. Ambya, Ambya; Hamzah, Lies Maria (15 December 2021). "Indonesian Coal Exports: Dynamic Panel Analysis Approach". International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy. 12 (1). Econ Journals: 390–395. doi:10.32479/ijeep.11978. https://doi.org/10.32479%2Fijeep.11978 ↩

  247. "Indonesia". The Observatory of Economic Complexity. 2023. Retrieved 8 May 2025. https://oec.world/en/profile/country/idn ↩

  248. Choi, Jeanne; Herberg, Mikkal E.; Palti-Guzman, Leslie; Smith, Riley; Tsafos, Nikos (October 2019). Revolutionizing LNG and Natural Gas in the Indo-Pacific. NBR Special Report (Report). The National Burreau of Asian Research. pp. 26–29. ↩

  249. "Indonesia to Add 71 GW of Renewable Energy as Part of Long-Term Power Plan". Jakarta Globe. The Jakarta Globe. 24 December 2024. Archived from the original on 25 January 2025. Retrieved 25 January 2025. https://jakartaglobe.id/business/indonesia-to-add-71-gw-of-renewable-energy-as-part-of-longterm-power-plan ↩

  250. Siregar, Yudha Irmansyah (27 August 2024). "Pathways towards net-zero emissions in Indonesia's energy sector". Energy. 308. Elsevier Ltd. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2024.133014. https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.energy.2024.133014 ↩

  251. "Indonesia to Add 71 GW of Renewable Energy as Part of Long-Term Power Plan". Jakarta Globe. The Jakarta Globe. 24 December 2024. Archived from the original on 25 January 2025. Retrieved 25 January 2025. https://jakartaglobe.id/business/indonesia-to-add-71-gw-of-renewable-energy-as-part-of-longterm-power-plan ↩

  252. Wirawan, Hanni; Gultom, Yohanna M. L. (June 2021). "The effects of renewable energy-based village grid electrification on poverty reduction in remote areas: The case of Indonesia". Energy for Sustainable Development. 62: 186–194. Bibcode:2021ESusD..62..186W. doi:10.1016/j.esd.2021.04.006. /wiki/Bibcode_(identifier) ↩

  253. Gielen, Dolf; Saygin, Deger; Rigter, Jasper (March 2017). "Renewable Energy Prospects: Indonesia, a REmap analysis". International Renewable Energy Agency. ISBN 978-92-95111-19-6. 978-92-95111-19-6 ↩

  254. "Hasil Sensus Penduduk 2020" (PDF) (in Indonesian). Statistics Indonesia. 21 January 2021. p. 9. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 January 2021. Retrieved 21 January 2021. https://www.bps.go.id/website/materi_ind/materiBrsInd-20210121151046.pdf ↩

  255. "Hasil Sensus Penduduk 2020" (PDF) (in Indonesian). Statistics Indonesia. 21 January 2021. p. 9. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 January 2021. Retrieved 21 January 2021. https://www.bps.go.id/website/materi_ind/materiBrsInd-20210121151046.pdf ↩

  256. "Hasil Sensus Penduduk 2020" (PDF) (in Indonesian). Statistics Indonesia. 21 January 2021. p. 9. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 January 2021. Retrieved 21 January 2021. https://www.bps.go.id/website/materi_ind/materiBrsInd-20210121151046.pdf ↩

  257. Mardiansjah, Fadjar H.; et al. (2023). "Analyzing Urban Population Growth in the Towns of Non-urban Regions in Java, Indonesia, Using Spatial Analysis". IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 1264 (1). IOP Publishing Ltd: 012012. Bibcode:2023E&ES.1264a2012M. doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1264/1/012012. https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1755-1315%2F1264%2F1%2F012012 ↩

  258. Nitisastro, Widjojo (1970). "Population Trends in Indonesia". The Journal of Asian Studies. Cornell University Press: 187. doi:10.1017/S0021911800147916 (inactive 13 February 2025).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of February 2025 (link) /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  259. "World Population Prospect: 2017 Revision" (PDF). United Nations Department of Economics and Social Affairs – Population Division. 21 June 2017. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 December 2017. Retrieved 20 December 2017. https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Publications/Files/WPP2017_DataBooklet.pdf ↩

  260. "The World Factbook: Indonesia". Central Intelligence Agency. 29 April 2025. Retrieved 8 May 2025. https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/indonesia/ ↩

  261. "BBC: First contact with isolated tribes?". Survival International. 25 January 2007. Archived from the original on 19 September 2012. Retrieved 30 July 2017. http://www.survivalinternational.org/news/2191 ↩

  262. "Share of people living in urban areas, 2023". Our World in Data. Retrieved 21 January 2025. https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/share-of-population-urban ↩

  263. "Demographia World Urban Areas, 15th Annual Edition" (PDF). Demographia. April 2019. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 February 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200207210003/http://www.demographia.com/db-worldua.pdf ↩

  264. Setijadi, Charlotte (December 2017). Harnessing the Potential of the Indonesian Diaspora. ISEAS Publishing. doi:10.1355/9789814786928. ISBN 9789814786928. 9789814786928 ↩

  265. Na'im, Akhsan; Syaputra, Hendry (2010). "Nationality, Ethnicity, Religion, and Languages of Indonesians" (PDF) (in Indonesian). Statistics Indonesia. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 23 September 2015. http://www.bps.go.id/website/pdf_publikasi/watermark%20_Kewarganegaraan%2C%20Suku%20Bangsa%2C%20Agama%20dan%20Bahasa_281211.pdf ↩

  266. Taylor 2003, pp. 5–7. - Taylor, Jean Gelman (2003). Indonesia. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-09709-2. https://archive.org/details/indonesia00jean ↩

  267. Witton 2003, pp. 139, 181, 251, 435. - Witton, Patrick (2003). Indonesia. Melbourne: Lonely Planet. ISBN 978-1-74059-154-6. ↩

  268. Dawson, B.; Gillow, J. (1994). The Traditional Architecture of Indonesia. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-500-34132-2. 978-0-500-34132-2 ↩

  269. Truman Simanjuntak; Herawati Sudoyo; Multamia R.M.T. Lauder; Allan Lauder; Ninuk Kleden Probonegoro; Rovicky Dwi Putrohari; Desy Pola Usmany; Yudha P.N. Yapsenang; Edward L. Poelinggomang; Gregorius Neonbasu (2015). Diaspora Melanesia di Nusantara (in Indonesian). Direktorat Sejarah, Direktorat Jenderal Kebudayaan, Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan. ISBN 978-602-1289-19-8. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 24 August 2022. 978-602-1289-19-8 ↩

  270. Ananta, Aris; Arifin, Evi Nurvidya; Hasbullah, M Sairi; Handayani, Nur Budi; Pramono, Agus (2015). Demography of Indonesia's Ethnicity. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-981-4519-87-8. 978-981-4519-87-8 ↩

  271. Kingsbury, Damien (2003). Autonomy and Disintegration in Indonesia. Routledge. p. 131. ISBN 0-415-29737-0. 0-415-29737-0 ↩

  272. Ananta, Aris; Arifin, Evi Nurvidya; Hasbullah, M Sairi; Handayani, Nur Budi; Pramono, Agus (2015). Demography of Indonesia's Ethnicity. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-981-4519-87-8. 978-981-4519-87-8 ↩

  273. Small but significant populations of ethnic Chinese, Indians, Europeans, and Arabs are concentrated mostly in urban areas. /wiki/Overseas_Chinese ↩

  274. Ricklefs 1991, p. 256. - Ricklefs, Merle Calvin (1991). A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1300 (2nd ed.). Basingstoke; Stanford, CA: Palgrave; Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-333-57690-X. ↩

  275. Due to significant contact with other languages, it is rich in local and foreign influences, which include Javanese, Sundanese, Minangkabau, Makassarese, Sanskrit, Chinese, Arabic, Dutch, Portuguese, and English.[253][254][255] ↩

  276. Ridwan, Muhammad (June 2018). "National and Official Language: The Long Journey of Indonesian Language". Budapest International Research and Critics Institute (BIRCI-Journal): Humanities and Social Sciences. 1 (2): 72–78. doi:10.33258/birci.v1i2.14. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  277. Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D. "Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Twenty-first edition". Ethnologue. SIL International. Archived from the original on 26 June 2019. Retrieved 20 September 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20190626224541/https://www.ethnologue.com/country/ID/languages ↩

  278. Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D. "Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Twenty-first edition". Ethnologue. SIL International. Archived from the original on 26 June 2019. Retrieved 20 September 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20190626224541/https://www.ethnologue.com/country/ID/languages ↩

  279. "The World Factbook: Indonesia". Central Intelligence Agency. 29 April 2025. Retrieved 8 May 2025. https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/indonesia/ ↩

  280. Peraturan Daerah Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta Nomor 2 Tahun 2021 tentang Pemeliharaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa, Sastra, dan Aksara Jawa (Regional Regulation 2) (in Indonesian). Governor of Special Region of Yogyakarta. 2021. https://peraturan.bpk.go.id/Home/Details/162614/perda-no-2-tahun-2021 ↩

  281. van Imhoff, Evert; Beets, Gijs (March 2004). "A demographic history of the Indo-Dutch population, 1930–2001". Journal of Population Research. 21 (2). Springer: 47–72. doi:10.1007/BF03032210. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  282. Baker & Prys Jones 1998, p. 202. - Baker, Colin; Prys Jones, Sylvia (1998), Encyclopedia of bilingualism and bilingual education, Multilingual Matters, ISBN 978-1-85359-362-8, retrieved 19 May 2010 https://books.google.com/books?id=YgtSqB9oqDIC ↩

  283. Ward, Kerry (2009). Networks of Empire: Forced Migration in the Dutch East India Company. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 322–342. ISBN 978-0-521-88586-7. 978-0-521-88586-7 ↩

  284. Ammon et al. 2006, p. 2017. - Ammon, Ulrich; Dittmar, Norbert; Mattheier, Klaus J.; Trudgill, Peter, eds. (2006). Sociolinguistics: an international handbook of the science of language and society. Vol. 3 (2nd, revised and extended ed.). Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-018418-1. Retrieved 29 June 2010. https://books.google.com/books?id=mZtDIhWzFeUC ↩

  285. Booij 1999, p. 2. - Booij, Geert (1999), "The Phonology of Dutch.", Oxford Linguistics, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-823869-X, retrieved 24 May 2010 https://books.google.com/books?id=LT6E6YdAh-MC ↩

  286. Shah, Dian A. H. (25 October 2017). Constitutions, Religion and Politics in Asia: Indonesia, Malaysia and Sri Lanka. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781316869635. ISBN 978-1-107-18334-6. 978-1-107-18334-6 ↩

  287. Marshall, Paul (2018). "The Ambiguities of Religious Freedom in Indonesia". The Review of Faith & International Affairs. 16 (1): 85–96. doi:10.1080/15570274.2018.1433588. https://doi.org/10.1080%2F15570274.2018.1433588 ↩

  288. Chapter XA, Article 28E, 1st Clause of the 1945 Constitution. ↩

  289. "The 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia" (PDF). International Labour Organization. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2017. http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/---ilo_aids/documents/legaldocument/wcms_174556.pdf ↩

  290. Marshall, Paul (2018). "The Ambiguities of Religious Freedom in Indonesia". The Review of Faith & International Affairs. 16 (1): 85–96. doi:10.1080/15570274.2018.1433588. https://doi.org/10.1080%2F15570274.2018.1433588 ↩

  291. Media, Kompas Cyber (7 December 2017). "Penjelasan Pemerintah Terkait Pentingnya Kolom Agama di KK dan KTP". KOMPAS.com (in Indonesian). Kompas. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 29 February 2024. https://nasional.kompas.com/read/2016/12/07/09405241/penjelasan.pemerintah.terkait.pentingnya.kolom.agama.di.kk.dan.ktp ↩

  292. Ricklefs 2001, p. 379. - Ricklefs, Merle Calvin (2001). A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1200 (3rd ed.). Basingstoke; Stanford, CA: Palgrave; Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-4480-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=0GrWCmZoEBMC ↩

  293. "Population Geographic Information System" (in Indonesian). Ministry of Home Affairs of the Republic of Indonesia. Archived from the original on 5 July 2022. Retrieved 23 March 2025 – via Directorate General of Population and Civil Registration. https://web.archive.org/web/20220705211227/http://gis.dukcapil.kemendagri.go.id/peta/ ↩

  294. "Sunni and Shia Muslims". Pew Research Center. 27 January 2011. Archived from the original on 14 March 2014. Retrieved 6 May 2017. https://www.pewforum.org/2011/01/27/future-of-the-global-muslim-population-sunni-and-shia/ ↩

  295. The rest consists of the Shias and Ahmadis, who form 1% (1–3 million) and 0.2% (200,000–400,000) of the Muslim population.[265][270] /wiki/Shia_Islam_in_Indonesia ↩

  296. International Religious Freedom Report for 2023, Indonesia, U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, 2014, archived from the original on 21 January 2025, retrieved 21 January 2025 https://www.state.gov/reports/2023-report-on-international-religious-freedom/indonesia/ ↩

  297. Oey, Eric (1997). Bali (3rd ed.). Singapore: Periplus Editions. ISBN 978-962-593-028-2. 978-962-593-028-2 ↩

  298. Suryadinata, Leo, ed. (2008). Ethnic Chinese in Contemporary Indonesia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-981-230-835-1. 978-981-230-835-1 ↩

  299. Ooi, Keat Gin, ed. (2004). Southeast Asia: A historical encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor (3 volume set). ABC-CLIO. p. 177. ISBN 978-1-57607-770-2. 978-1-57607-770-2 ↩

  300. Ooi, Keat Gin, ed. (2004). Southeast Asia: A historical encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor (3 volume set). ABC-CLIO. p. 177. ISBN 978-1-57607-770-2. 978-1-57607-770-2 ↩

  301. Magnis-Suseno, F. 1981, Javanese Ethics and World-View: The Javanese Idea of the Good Life, PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta, 1997, pp. 15–18 ISBN 979-605-406-X, "2003 International Religious Freedom Report". U.S. Department of State. 2003. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 13 January 2012. /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  302. Jan Gonda, The Indian Religions in Pre-Islamic Indonesia and their survival in Bali, in Handbook of Oriental Studies. Section 3 Southeast Asia, Religions at Google Books /wiki/Jan_Gonda ↩

  303. "Buddhism in Indonesia". Buddha Dharma Education Association. 2005. Archived from the original on 20 December 2012. Retrieved 3 October 2006. https://archive.today/20121220201034/http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhistworld/indo-txt.htm ↩

  304. Rachman, T. (2013). "'Indianization' of Indonesia in an Historical Sketch". International Journal of Nusantara Islam. 1 (2). ↩

  305. Tandon, Pradeep (January–March 2017). "Indianised Indonesia: A Cultural Understanding". The Indian Journal of Political Science. 78 (1). Indian Political Science Association: 151–158. ISSN 0019-5510. /wiki/ISSN_(identifier) ↩

  306. Martin, Richard C. (2004). Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. Vol. 2: M–Z. Macmillan. ↩

  307. Gerhard Bowering et al. (2012), The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-13484-0, pp. xvi /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  308. Ricklefs 1991, pp. 12–14. - Ricklefs, Merle Calvin (1991). A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1300 (2nd ed.). Basingstoke; Stanford, CA: Palgrave; Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-333-57690-X. ↩

  309. "Indonesia – Bhineka Tunggal Ika". Centre Universitaire d'Informatique. Archived from the original on 23 February 2013. Retrieved 20 October 2006. https://archive.today/20130223214506/http://web.archive.org/web/20060914023845/http://cui.unige.ch/~luthi/download/indo.html ↩

  310. Taufiq Tanasaldy, Regime Change and Ethnic Politics in Indonesia, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-90-04-26373-4 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  311. Gerhard Bowering et al., The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-13484-0 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  312. Ricklefs 1991, pp. 25, 26, 28. - Ricklefs, Merle Calvin (1991). A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1300 (2nd ed.). Basingstoke; Stanford, CA: Palgrave; Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-333-57690-X. ↩

  313. Georg Schurhammer, S. J. (1 July 1980). "Francis Xavier. His Life, His Times". Missiology: An International Review. 8 (3). Sage Journals: 353–357. doi:10.1177/009182968000800307. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  314. Ricklefs 1991, pp. 28, 62. - Ricklefs, Merle Calvin (1991). A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1300 (2nd ed.). Basingstoke; Stanford, CA: Palgrave; Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-333-57690-X. ↩

  315. Vickers 2005, p. 22. - Vickers, Adrian (2005). A History of Modern Indonesia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-54262-6. https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni00adri ↩

  316. Goh, Robbie B.H. (2005). Christianity in Southeast Asia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 80. ISBN 978-981-230-297-7. 978-981-230-297-7 ↩

  317. "Indonesia – Asia". Reformed Online. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 5 December 2006. http://reformiert-online.net/weltweit/64_eng.php ↩

  318. Lubis, Mukhlis; Irwansyah, Irwansyah (26 April 2024). "Between Assimilation and Identity: The Dynamics of the Jewish Community in Indonesia". Asian Journal of Social and Humanities. 2 (7): 1496–1507. doi:10.59888/ajosh.v2i7.289. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  319. Lubis, Mukhlis; Irwansyah, Irwansyah (26 April 2024). "Between Assimilation and Identity: The Dynamics of the Jewish Community in Indonesia". Asian Journal of Social and Humanities. 2 (7): 1496–1507. doi:10.59888/ajosh.v2i7.289. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  320. Aryani, Sekar Ayu (25 June 2022). "Dialectic of Religion and National Identity in North Sulawesi Jewish Communities in The Perspective of Cross-Cultural and Religious Psychology". Al-Jami'ah: Journal of Islamic Studies. 60 (1). Al-Jamiah Research Centre: 199–226. doi:10.14421/ajis.2022.601.199-226. ISSN 2338-557X. https://doi.org/10.14421%2Fajis.2022.601.199-226 ↩

  321. "How religious commitment varies by country among people of all ages". Pew Research Center. 13 June 2018. Archived from the original on 1 July 2018. Retrieved 23 November 2018. https://www.pewforum.org/2018/06/13/how-religious-commitment-varies-by-country-among-people-of-all-ages/ ↩

  322. Pearce, Jonathan MS (28 October 2018). "Religion in Indonesia: An Insight". Patheos. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 23 November 2018. https://www.patheos.com/blogs/tippling/2018/10/28/religion-in-indonesia-an-insight/ ↩

  323. Głąb, Katarzyna Marta (2020). "The Culture of Pancasila: An Indonesian concept that fuses the impossible". Acta Asiatica Varsoviensia (33). Polish Academy of Sciences: 5–22. ISSN 0860-6102. /wiki/ISSN_(identifier) ↩

  324. Vickers 2005, p. 117. - Vickers, Adrian (2005). A History of Modern Indonesia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-54262-6. https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderni00adri ↩

  325. Madjid, Nurcholish (1994). Islamic Roots of Modern Pluralism: Indonesian Experience. Studia Islamika: Indonesian Journal for Islamic Studies.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link) /wiki/Template:Cite_book ↩

  326. Harsono, Andreas (May 2019). Race, Islam and Power: Ethnic and Religious Violence in Post-Suharto Indonesia. Monash University Publishing. ISBN 978-1-925835-09-0. 978-1-925835-09-0 ↩

  327. Sumaktoyo, Nathanael Gratias (26 March 2020). "A Price for Democracy? Religious Legislation and Religious Discrimination in Post-Soeharto Indonesia". Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies. 56 (1): 23–42. doi:10.1080/00074918.2019.1661354. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  328. "World Bank and Education in Indonesia". World Bank. 1 September 2024. Archived from the original on 24 January 2025. Retrieved 24 January 2025. https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/indonesia/brief/world-bank-and-education-in-indonesia ↩

  329. "World Bank and Education in Indonesia". World Bank. 1 September 2024. Archived from the original on 24 January 2025. Retrieved 24 January 2025. https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/indonesia/brief/world-bank-and-education-in-indonesia ↩

  330. Mukminin, Amirul; Habibi1, Akhmad; Diat Prajoso, Lantip; Idi, Abdullah; Hamidah1, Afreni (21 June 2019). "Curriculum Reform in Indonesia: Moving from an Exclusive to Inclusive Curriculum". Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal. 9 (2): 53–72. doi:10.26529/cepsj.543.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  331. "The World Factbook: Indonesia". Central Intelligence Agency. 29 April 2025. Retrieved 8 May 2025. https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/indonesia/ ↩

  332. "Net Enrolment Rate (NER) by Province and Education Level, 2024". Statistics Indonesia. 2 December 2024. Retrieved 24 January 2025. https://www.bps.go.id/en/statistics-table/2/MzA0IzI%3D/net-enrollment-ratio---n-e-r--.html ↩

  333. OECD Economic Surveys: Indonesia 2024. OECD Economic Surveys (Report). OECD Economic Surveys: Indonesia. OECD Publishing. 26 November 2024. doi:10.1787/de87555a-en. ISBN 978-92-64-49438-1. 978-92-64-49438-1 ↩

  334. "Government expenditure on education, total (% of GDP) - Indonesia". World Bank. Retrieved 8 May 2025. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.XPD.TOTL.GD.ZS?locations=ID ↩

  335. Moeliodihardjo, Bagyo Y. (11 August 2024). Higher Education Development and Study Abroad Experiences of Faculty in Indonesia. Springer. p. 123. ISBN 978-981-97-0775-1. 978-981-97-0775-1 ↩

  336. "List of Universities in Indonesia". QS World University Rankings. Retrieved 21 January 2025. https://www.topuniversities.com/universities/indonesia?country=%5bID%5d&sorting=%5brankings_htol ↩

  337. Novianti, Divya Maysa (7 June 2024), Analysis of the Sociological Perspective of Education: Educational Gaps in Affecting Social Mobility in Indonesia, doi:10.31235/osf.io/eh4y3 /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  338. OECD Investment Policy Reviews: Indonesia 2020 (Report). OECD Investment Policy Reviews. OECD Publishing, Paris. 16 December 2020. doi:10.1787/b56512da-en. ISBN 978-92-64-65526-3. 978-92-64-65526-3 ↩

  339. Higher Education for Technology and Innovation Project (RRP INO 5233) - Sector Assessment: Education. OECD Economic Surveys (Report). Asian Development Bank. August 2021. https://www.adb.org/projects/documents/ino-52332-001-rrp ↩

  340. Yamin, Kafil (24 January 2024). "Universities chase 'world class' status but lack funds". University World News. Archived from the original on 25 January 2025. Retrieved 24 January 2025. https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20240124125713987 ↩

  341. Yodi Mahendradhata; Laksono Trisnantoro; et al. (10 March 2017). Hort, Krishna; Patcharanarumol, Walaiporn (eds.). "The Republic of Indonesia Health System Review". Health System in Transition Reviews. 7 (1). Asia Pacific Observatory on Health Systems and Policies: 21–23. ISBN 9789290225164. 9789290225164 ↩

  342. Yodi Mahendradhata; Laksono Trisnantoro; et al. (10 March 2017). Hort, Krishna; Patcharanarumol, Walaiporn (eds.). "The Republic of Indonesia Health System Review". Health System in Transition Reviews. 7 (1). Asia Pacific Observatory on Health Systems and Policies: 21–23. ISBN 9789290225164. 9789290225164 ↩

  343. Luthfi Azizatunnisa; Utsamani Cintyamena; Yodi Mahendradhata; Riris Andono Ahmad (6 September 2021), "Ensuring sustainability of polio immunization in health system transition: lessons from the polio eradication initiative in Indonesia", BMC Public Health, 21 (1): 1624, doi:10.1186/s12889-021-11642-7, PMC 8419659, PMID 34488698 /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  344. Thabrany, Hasbullah (2 January 2014). "Birth of Indonesia's 'Medicare': Fasten your seatbelts". The Jakarta Post. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 26 August 2018. https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2014/01/02/birth-indonesia-s-medicare-fasten-your-seatbelts.html ↩

  345. Augustine Asante; Qinglu Cheng; Dwidjo Susilo; et al. (May 2023). "The benefits and burden of health financing in Indonesia: analyses of nationally representative cross-sectional data" (PDF). Lancet Global Health. 11 (5). The Lancet: e770 – e780. doi:10.1016/S2214-109X(23)00064-5. PMID 37061314. https://researchonline.lshtm.ac.uk/id/eprint/4673009/1/Asante%20et%20al%20Lancet%20GH.pdf ↩

  346. "Current health expenditure (% of GDP)". World Bank. Retrieved 8 May 2025. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.CHEX.GD.ZS?locations=ID ↩

  347. Thomas, Vincent Fabian (3 January 2022). "RI loses out as citizens spend billions on health care abroad". The Jakarta Post. Archived from the original on 26 January 2025. Retrieved 26 January 2025. https://www.thejakartapost.com/paper/2022/01/02/ri-loses-out-as-citizens-spend-billions-on-health-care-abroad.html ↩

  348. "Life expectancy". Our World in Data. Retrieved 21 January 2025. https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/life-expectancy?country=~IDN ↩

  349. "Child mortality rate". Our World in Data. Retrieved 21 January 2025. https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/child-mortality-igme?tab=line&country=~IDN ↩

  350. Luthfi Azizatunnisa; Utsamani Cintyamena; Yodi Mahendradhata; Riris Andono Ahmad (6 September 2021), "Ensuring sustainability of polio immunization in health system transition: lessons from the polio eradication initiative in Indonesia", BMC Public Health, 21 (1): 1624, doi:10.1186/s12889-021-11642-7, PMC 8419659, PMID 34488698 /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  351. "Overcoming challenges on the path to malaria elimination: lessons from Java and Bali". World Health Organization. 23 September 2023. Archived from the original on 26 January 2025. Retrieved 26 January 2025. https://www.who.int/indonesia/news/detail/20-09-2023-overcoming-challenges-on-the-path-to-malaria-elimination--lessons-from-java-and-bali ↩

  352. Tri Rini Puji Lestari (July 2023), "Stunting in Indonesia: Understanding the roots of the problem and solutions", Info Singkat, vol. 15, no. 14, Center for Parliamentary Analysis, Expertise Agency of DPR RI https://pusaka.dpr.go.id/produk/info-singkat ↩

  353. "Air Quality in Indonesia". IQ Air. Retrieved 26 January 2025. https://www.iqair.com/indonesia ↩

  354. Suparji Suparji; et al. (19 July 2024). "High maternal mortality rate in Indonesia: a challenge to be addressed immediately". Pan African Medical Journal. 14 (13). One Health. doi:10.11604/pamj-oh.2024.14.13.44464. https://doi.org/10.11604%2Fpamj-oh.2024.14.13.44464 ↩

  355. Paul Christopher Webster (5 February 2013). "Indonesia: The tobacco industry's "Disneyland"". Canadian Association Medical Journal. 185 (2). Canadian Medical Association: E97 – E98. doi:10.1503/cmaj.109-4342. PMC 3563903. PMID 23296586. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3563903 ↩

  356. Forshee, Jill (2006). "Culture and Customs of Indonesia" (PDF). Greenwood Press. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 10 October 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20171010152700/http://demografi.bps.go.id/phpFileTree/bahan/kumpulan_tugas_mobilitas_pak_chotib/Kelompok_1/Referensi/Jill_Forshee_Culture_and_Customs_of_Indonesia_Culture_and_Customs_of_Asia__2006.pdf ↩

  357. Henley, David (2015). "Indonesia". I ndonesia. The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Nationalism. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 1–7. doi:10.1002/9781118663202.wberen460. ISBN 978-1-118-66320-2. 978-1-118-66320-2 ↩

  358. Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D. "Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Twenty-first edition". Ethnologue. SIL International. Archived from the original on 26 June 2019. Retrieved 20 September 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20190626224541/https://www.ethnologue.com/country/ID/languages ↩

  359. Na'im, Akhsan; Syaputra, Hendry (2010). "Nationality, Ethnicity, Religion, and Languages of Indonesians" (PDF) (in Indonesian). Statistics Indonesia. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 23 September 2015. http://www.bps.go.id/website/pdf_publikasi/watermark%20_Kewarganegaraan%2C%20Suku%20Bangsa%2C%20Agama%20dan%20Bahasa_281211.pdf ↩

  360. "Indonesia – Intangible heritage, cultural sector". UNESCO. Retrieved 21 January 2025. https://ich.unesco.org/en/state/indonesia-ID?info=elements-on-the-lists ↩

  361. "Indonesian Arts and Crafts". Living in Indonesia: A site for expats. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 27 December 2016. http://www.expat.or.id/info/artshandicrafts-indonesia.html ↩

  362. Forge, Anthony (1978). "Balinese Traditional Paintings" (PDF). The Australian Museum. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2016. http://aclhs-web-pro-1.ucc.usyd.edu.au/HEURIST_FILESTORE/balipaintings/Forgecataloguesinglefile.pdf ↩

  363. Reimar Schefold; Peter Nas; Gaudenz Domenig, eds. (2004). Indonesian Houses Volume 1: Tradition and Transformation in Vernacular Architecture. National University of Singapore Press. p. 5. doi:10.1163/9789004483255. ISBN 978-9971-69-292-6. Retrieved 31 May 2020. 978-9971-69-292-6 ↩

  364. "Indonesian Culture; Arts and Tradition". Embassy of Indonesia, Athens. 30 September 2010. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 26 December 2016. http://indonesia.gr/indonesian-culture-arts-and-traditions/ ↩

  365. Violence and Serenity: Late Buddhist Sculpture from Indonesia ISBN 978-0-8248-2924-7 p. 113 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  366. Archaeology: Indonesian Perspective: R.P. Soejono's Festschrift ISBN 979-26-2499-6 pp. 298–299 /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  367. "Borobudur Temple Compounds". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 21 January 2025. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/592 ↩

  368. Harnish, David; Rasmussen, Anne, eds. (2011). Divine Inspirations: Music and Islam in Indonesia. Oxford University Press. ↩

  369. Ridhwan, Urfan Saniylabdhawega; Milyartini, Rita; Sukmayadi, Yudi (15 June 2022). "Keroncong, Existence, and Z Generation". Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research. Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Arts and Design Education (ICADE 2021). 665. Atlantis Press SARL: 308–313. doi:10.2991/assehr.k.220601.065. ISBN 978-94-6239-583-1. 978-94-6239-583-1 ↩

  370. Heryanto, Ariel (2008). Popular Culture in Indonesia: Fluid Identities in Post-Authoritarian Politics. Routledge. /wiki/Ariel_Heryanto ↩

  371. Abdulsalam, Husein (23 August 2017). "Music Amid the Indonesia-Malaysia Conflict" (in Indonesian). Tirto.id. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 5 December 2020. https://tirto.id/musik-di-tengah-konflik-indonesia-malaysia-cu8t ↩

  372. Zulmi, Nizar (8 June 2017). "Editor Says: Ketika Musik Indonesia Berjaya di Negeri Tetangga" (in Indonesian). Fimela. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 5 December 2020. https://www.fimela.com/news-entertainment/read/2982723/editor-says-ketika-musik-indonesia-berjaya-di-negeri-tetangga ↩

  373. Adelaar, K. Alexander; Himmelmann, Nikolaus (7 March 2013). The Austronesian Languages of Asia and Madagascar. Routledge. p. 71. doi:10.4324/9780203821121. ISBN 978-1-136-75509-5. Retrieved 8 March 2022. 978-1-136-75509-5 ↩

  374. "Indonesia Tourism: The Dance and Theater in the Archipelago". Indonesia Tourism. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 24 November 2010. https://archive.today/20250121031242/https://web.archive.org/web/20101124083455/http://indonesia-tourism.com/general/theatre.html ↩

  375. Chua Mei Lin (January–March 2011). "Land of Dance & Dragon" (PDF). National Heritage Board. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 December 2020. Retrieved 6 December 2020. https://www.nhb.gov.sg/spm/-/media/spm/documents/indonesia-land-of-dance-and-dragon.pdf?la=en ↩

  376. Ziyi, Xia (16 November 2011). "Cultural feast at ASEAN Fair". Xinhua. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. https://archive.today/20250121031450/https://web.archive.org/web/20111219173602/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/indepth/2011-11/16/c_131249994.htm ↩

  377. Jill Forshee, Culture and customs of Indonesia, Greenwood Publishing Group: 2006: ISBN 0-313-33339-4. 237 pp. /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  378. Jill Forshee, Culture and customs of Indonesia, Greenwood Publishing Group: 2006: ISBN 0-313-33339-4. 237 pp. /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

  379. "The History of Indonesian Puppet Theater (Wayang)".Retrieved 07 February 2025 https://education.asianart.org/resources/the-history-of-indonesian-puppet-theater-wayang/ ↩

  380. José, Maceda. "Southeast Asian arts". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 20 April 2016. https://www.britannica.com/art/Southeast-Asian-arts/Shadow-puppet-theatre ↩

  381. Baulch, Emma (19 September 2010). "A rare view". Inside Indonesia. Archived from the original on 27 January 2025. Retrieved 27 January 2025. https://www.insideindonesia.org/archive/articles/a-rare-view ↩

  382. "Indonesia – Theatre and Dance". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 29 June 2016. https://www.britannica.com/place/Indonesia/Theatre-and-dance ↩

  383. Pauka, Kirstin (1998). "The Daughters Take Over? Female Performers in Randai Theatre". The Drama Review. 42 (1): 113–121. doi:10.1162/105420498760308706. S2CID 57565023. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  384. "Randai (Indonesian folk theater form, uses silat)". MIT Global Shakespeares. 8 March 2011. Archived from the original on 27 January 2025. Retrieved 18 December 2016. http://globalshakespeares.mit.edu/glossary/randai/ ↩

  385. Hatley, Barbara (13 November 2017). "Review: Indonesian post-colonial theatre". Inside Indonesia. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 21 December 2017. http://www.insideindonesia.org/review-indonesian-post-colonial-theatre ↩

  386. "Today Is the 97th Birthday of the Father of Indonesian Cinema. Here's What You Should Know About Usmar Ismail". TIME. 20 March 2018. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 20 November 2019. https://time.com/5206668/google-doodle-usmar-ismail-indonesia/ ↩

  387. Sen, Krishna (2006). Giecko, Anne Tereska (ed.). Contemporary Asian Cinema, Indonesia: Screening a Nation in the Post-New Order. Oxford/New York: Berg. pp. 96–107. ISBN 978-1-84520-237-8. 978-1-84520-237-8 ↩

  388. Paramaditha, Intan (1 January 2017). "Film Studies in Indonesia: An Experiment of a New Generation". Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia. 173 (2–3). Brill: 357–375. doi:10.1163/22134379-17302006. https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22134379-17302006 ↩

  389. Huda, Ahmad Nuril (April 2022). "Indonesian Cinema after the New Order: Going Mainstream". Journal of Religion & Film. 26 (1). Digital Commons at the University of Nebraska Ohama. doi:10.32873/uno.dc.jrf.26.01.55. https://doi.org/10.32873%2Funo.dc.jrf.26.01.55 ↩

  390. Sen, Krishna (2006). Giecko, Anne Tereska (ed.). Contemporary Asian Cinema, Indonesia: Screening a Nation in the Post-New Order. Oxford/New York: Berg. pp. 96–107. ISBN 978-1-84520-237-8. 978-1-84520-237-8 ↩

  391. Paramaditha, Intan (1 January 2017). "Film Studies in Indonesia: An Experiment of a New Generation". Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia. 173 (2–3). Brill: 357–375. doi:10.1163/22134379-17302006. https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22134379-17302006 ↩

  392. Shackleton, Liz (22 December 2022). "Indonesian Films Race Past Pre-Pandemic Admissions Record; 'KKN Di Desa Penari', 'Satan's Slaves 2', Disney Movies Top 2022 Box Office; Theatrical Market Set For Growth". Deadline. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 26 December 2022. https://deadline.com/2022/12/indonesian-films-record-box-office-kkn-di-desa-penari-satans-slaves-2-disney-1235204953/ ↩

  393. Shannon L., Smith; Lloyd Grayson J. (2001). Indonesia Today: Challenges of History. Melbourne: Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-0-7425-1761-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link) 978-0-7425-1761-5 ↩

  394. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: Frederick, William H.; Worden, Robert L., eds. (2011). Indonesia: A country study. Area handbook series (6th ed.). Library of Congress, Federal Research Division. ISBN 978-0-8444-0790-6. Archived from the original on 9 December 2022. Retrieved 15 March 2015. 978-0-8444-0790-6 ↩

  395. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: Frederick, William H.; Worden, Robert L., eds. (2011). Indonesia: A country study. Area handbook series (6th ed.). Library of Congress, Federal Research Division. ISBN 978-0-8444-0790-6. Archived from the original on 9 December 2022. Retrieved 15 March 2015. 978-0-8444-0790-6 ↩

  396. Jennifer Yang, Hui (12 January 2010). "The Internet in Indonesia: Development and Impact of Radical Websites". Studies in Conflict & Terrorism. 33 (2). Routledge: 171–191. doi:10.1080/10576100903400605. hdl:10356/79840. /wiki/Doi_(identifier) ↩

  397. Taojun, Xie (March 2025). The Rise of Indonesia's Digital Economy (PDF). LKYSPP Case Study Library (Report). Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 May 2025. Retrieved 8 May 2025. https://lkyspp.nus.edu.sg/docs/default-source/case-studies/the-rise-of-indonesia-s-digital-economy.pdf?sfvrsn=c607020a_0 ↩

  398. Czermak, Karin; Delanghe, Philippe; Weng, Wei. "Preserving intangible cultural heritage in Indonesia" (PDF). SIL International. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 July 2007. Retrieved 9 July 2007. http://www.sil.org/asia/ldc/parallel_papers/unesco_jakarta.pdf ↩

  399. Joy Freidus, Alberta (1977). Sumatran Contributions to the Development of Indonesian Literature, 1920–1942. Asian Studies Program, University of Hawaii. ↩

  400. Seong Chee Tham (1981). Essays on Literature and Society in Southeast Asia: Political and Sociological Perspectives. Kent Ridge, Singapore: Singapore University Press. p. 99. ISBN 978-9971-69-036-6. 978-9971-69-036-6 ↩

  401. Boediman, Manneke (14 October 2015). "An Introduction to the Literature of Indonesia, 2015 Frankfurt Book Fair's Guest of Honor". Jakarta Globe. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 26 June 2020. https://jakartaglobe.id/lifestyle/introduction-literature-indonesia-2015-frankfurt-book-fairs-guest-honor/ ↩

  402. Boediman, Manneke (14 October 2015). "An Introduction to the Literature of Indonesia, 2015 Frankfurt Book Fair's Guest of Honor". Jakarta Globe. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 26 June 2020. https://jakartaglobe.id/lifestyle/introduction-literature-indonesia-2015-frankfurt-book-fairs-guest-honor/ ↩

  403. Doughty, Louis (28 May 2016). "'17,000 islands of imagination': discovering Indonesian literature". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 7 June 2016. Retrieved 26 June 2020. https://www.theguardian.com/books/2016/may/28/why-isnt-more-indonesia-literature-translated-english ↩

  404. Witton, Patrick (2002). World Food: Indonesia. Melbourne: Lonely Planet. ISBN 978-1-74059-009-9. 978-1-74059-009-9 ↩

  405. Compared to the infused flavors of Vietnamese and Thai food, flavors in Indonesia are kept relatively separate, simple and substantial.Brissendon, Rosemary (2003). South East Asian Food. Melbourne: Hardie Grant Books. ISBN 978-1-74066-013-6. 978-1-74066-013-6 ↩

  406. Natahadibrata, Nadya (10 February 2014). "Celebratory rice cone dish to represent the archipelago". The Jakarta Post. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 14 July 2014. https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2014/02/10/celebratory-rice-cone-dish-represent-archipelago.html ↩

  407. Sastraatmadja, D. D.; et al. (2002). "Production of High-Quality Oncom, a Traditional Indonesian Fermented Food, by the Inoculation with Selected Mold Strains in the Form of Pure Culture and Solid Inoculum". Journal of the Graduate School of Agriculture, Hokkaido University. 70. hdl:115/13163. /wiki/Hdl_(identifier) ↩

  408. "Indonesian Football History: Dutch East Indies Qualified for the 1938 World Cup". VOI. Archived from the original on 8 May 2025. Retrieved 8 May 2025. https://voi.id/en/sports/433262 ↩

  409. "Indonesia get past Asian Cup group stage for first time". VnExpress. Retrieved 29 March 2024. https://e.vnexpress.net/news/football/indonesia-get-past-asian-cup-group-stage-for-first-time-4705341.html ↩

  410. "History of Basketball in Indonesia". National Basketball League Indonesia. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 8 September 2016. http://www.nblindonesia.com/v1/index.php?page=abouten ↩

  411. "Lack of Gold". Tempo. 8 September 2017. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 16 August 2020. https://en.tempo.co/read/907202/lack-of-gold ↩

  412. "Final medal tally SEA Games 2011". ANTARA News. 22 November 2011. Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 16 August 2020. https://en.antaranews.com/news/77844/ffinal-medal-tally-sea-games-2011 ↩