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Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar lateral approximants
Consonantal sounds represented by ⟨l⟩ in IPA

The voiced dental, alveolar, and postalveolar lateral approximants are a type of consonantal sound used in many spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents dental, alveolar, and postalveolar lateral approximants is ⟨l⟩, and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is l.

As a sonorant, lateral approximants are nearly always voiced. Voiceless lateral approximants, /l̥/ are common in Sino-Tibetan languages, but uncommon elsewhere. In such cases, voicing typically starts about halfway through the hold of the consonant. No language is known to contrast such a sound with a voiceless alveolar lateral fricative [ɬ].

In a number of languages, including most varieties of English, the phoneme /l/ becomes velarized ("dark l") in certain contexts. By contrast, the non-velarized form is the "clear l" (also known as: "light l"), which occurs before and between vowels in certain English standards. Some languages have only clear l. Others may not have a clear l at all, or have them only before front vowels (especially [i]).

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Features

Features of the voiced alveolar lateral approximant:

  • Its manner of articulation is approximant, which means it is produced by narrowing the vocal tract at the place of articulation, but not enough to produce a turbulent airstream.
  • There are four specific variants of [l]:
    • Dental, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the upper teeth, termed respectively apical and laminal.
    • Denti-alveolar, which means it is articulated with the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, and the tip of the tongue behind upper teeth.
    • Alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal.
    • Postalveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue behind the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal.
  • Its phonation is voiced, which means the vocal cords vibrate during the articulation.
  • It is an oral consonant, which means air is allowed to escape through the mouth only.
  • It is a lateral consonant, which means it is produced by directing the airstream over the sides of the tongue, rather than down the middle.
  • Its airstream mechanism is pulmonic, which means it is articulated by pushing air solely with the intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles, as in most sounds.

Occurrence

Languages may have clear apical or laminal alveolars, laminal denti-alveolars (such as French), or true dentals, which are uncommon. Laminal denti-alveolars tend to occur in continental European languages.3 However, a true dental generally occurs allophonically before /θ/ in languages that have it, as in English health.

Dental or denti-alveolar

LanguageWordIPAMeaningNotes
ArabicGulf4لـين/leen[l̪eːn]'when'Laminal denti-alveolar. See Arabic phonology
ChineseCantonese蘭/laan4[l̪an˨˩]'orchid'
Mandarin蘭/lán[l̪an˨˥]
Hungarian5elem[ˈɛl̪ɛm]'battery'Laminal denti-alveolar. See Hungarian phonology
Italian678molto[ˈmol̪ːt̪o]'much, a lot'Laminal denti-alveolar. Allophone of /l/ before /t, d, s, z, t͡s, d͡z/.91011 See Italian phonology
Macedonian12лево/levo[l̪e̞vo̞]'left'Laminal denti-alveolar. See Macedonian phonology
Malayalamലാവണം[läːʋɐɳɐm]'Salty'See Malayalam phonology
Mapudungun13ḻafkeṉ[l̪ɐ̝fkën̪]'sea, lake'Interdental.14
NorwegianUrban East15anlegg[²ɑnːl̪ɛg]'plant (industrial)'Allophone of /l/ after /n, t, d/.16 See Norwegian phonology
Spanish17altar[äl̪ˈt̪äɾ]'altar'Laminal denti-alveolar. Allophone of /l/ before /t/, /d/. See Spanish phonology
SwedishCentral Standard18allt[äl̪t̪]'everything'Laminal denti-alveolar. See Swedish phonology
Tamil19புலி/puli[pul̪i]'tiger'See Tamil phonology
Uzbek20kelajak[kel̪ædʒæk]'future'Laminal denti-alveolar. Velarized between a non-front rounded vowel and a consonant or juncture phoneme.21
VietnameseHanoi22lửa[l̪ɨə˧˩˧]'fire'See Vietnamese phonology

Alveolar

LanguageWordIPAMeaningNotes
ArabicStandard23لا/lā[laʔ]'no'See Arabic phonology
ArmenianEastern24լուսին/lusin[lusin]ⓘ'moon'
Assyrianܠܚܡܐ/läḳma[lεxma]'bread'
Catalan2526laca[ˈɫäkə]'hair spray'Apical 'front alveolar'.2728 May also be velarized.29 See Catalan phonology
Chuvashхула[хu'la]'city'
DutchStandard30laten[ˈl̻aːt̻ə]'to let'Laminal. Some Standard Belgian speakers use the clear /l/ in all positions.31 See Dutch phonology
Some Eastern accents32mal[mɑl̻]'mold'Laminal; realization of /l/ in all positions.33 See Dutch phonology
Dhivehiލަވަ/lava[laʋa]'song'
EnglishMost accents34let[lɛt]'to let'Varies between apical and laminal, with the latter being predominant.35
Irish, Geordie36tell[tʰɛl]'to tell'
Esperantoluno[ˈluno]'moon'See Esperanto phonology
Filipinoluto[ˈluto]'to cook'See Filipino phonology
Georgianლექსი/leksi[le̞kʰs̪i]'verse/poetry'See Georgian phonology
რბილი/rbili[ɾbili]'soft'
Greekλέξη/léksi[ˈleksi]'word'See Modern Greek phonology
Hebrewלילהcode: heb promoted to code: he /lailacode: heb promoted to code: he ['lajla]'night'See Modern Hebrew phonology.
Italian373839letto[ˈlɛt̪ːo]'bed'Apical.40 See Italian phonology
Japanese六/roku[lo̞kɯ̟ᵝ]'six'Apical.41 More commonly [ɾ]. See Japanese phonology
Kashubian42[example needed]
Khmerភ្លេង/phléng[pʰleːŋ]'music'See Khmer phonology
Korean일/il[il]'one' or 'work'Realized as alveolar tap ɾ in the beginning of a syllable. See Korean phonology.
Kyrgyz43көпөлөк/köpölök[køpøˈløk]'butterfly'Velarized in back vowel contexts. See Kyrgyz phonology
Laghulaghu[lagu]'Laghu language'
LaghuuNậm Sài, Sa Pa Town[la˧˨ ɣɯ˥]'Laghuu language'
Mapudungun44elun[ëˈlʊn]'to give'
Nepaliलामो[lämo]'long'See Nepali phonology
Odia45ଭଲ[bʰɔlɔ]'good'
Persianلاما/lāmā[lɒmɒ]'llama'See Persian phonology
Polish46pole[ˈpɔlɛ]ⓘ'field'Contrasts with [ɫ̪] (/w/) for a small number of speakers. When it does, it might be palatalized to [lʲ]. See Polish phonology
Romanian47alună[äˈlun̪ə]'hazelnut'Apical. See Romanian phonology
Scottish Gaelic48maoil[mɯːl]'headland'Apical.49 Contrasts with /ɫ̪/ and /ʎ/. See Scottish Gaelic phonology
Slovak50mĺkvy[ˈml̩ːkʋi]ⓘ'silent'Syllabic form can be long or short. See Slovak phonology
Slovene51letalo[lɛˈt̪àːlɔ]'airplane'See Slovene phonology
Spanish52hablar[äˈβ̞läɾ]'to speak'See Spanish phonology
Welshdiafol[djavɔl]'devil'See Welsh phonology
Ukrainian53обличчя/oblychchya[oˈblɪt͡ʃːɐ]'face'Contrasts with palatalized form. See Ukrainian phonology

Postalveolar

See also: Retroflex lateral approximant

LanguageWordIPAMeaningNotes
IgboStandard54lì[l̠ì]'bury'
Italian55il cervo[il̠ʲ ˈt͡ʃɛrvo]'the deer'Palatalized laminal; allophone of /l/ before /ʃ, t͡ʃ, d͡ʒ/.56 See Italian phonology
Turkish5758lale[ʎ̟ɑːˈʎ̟ɛ]ⓘ'tulip'Palatalized; contrasts with a velarized dental lateral [ɫ̟].5960 May be devoiced elsewhere. See Turkish phonology
ZapotecTilquiapan61lan[l̠an]'soot'

Variable

LanguageWordIPAMeaningNotes
Faroese62linur[ˈliːnʊɹ]'soft'Varies between dental and alveolar in initial position, whereas the postvocalic /l/ may be postalveolar, especially after back vowels.63 See Faroese phonology
French64il[il]'he'Varies between laminal denti-alveolar and apical alveolar, with the latter being predominant.65 See French phonology
GermanStandard66Liebe[ˈliːbə]'love'Varies between denti-alveolar, laminal alveolar and apical alveolar.67
NorwegianUrban East68liv[liːʋ]'life'In process of changing from laminal denti-alveolar to apical alveolar, but the laminal denti-alveolar is still possible in some environments, and is obligatory after /n, t, d/.69 See Norwegian phonology
PortugueseMost Brazilian dialects,707172 some EP speakers73lero-lero[ˈlɛɾʊ ˈlɛɾʊ]'runaround'74Clear, dental to sometimes alveolar.75 Only occurs in syllable onset, with l-vocalization widely occurring in coda. Sometimes found before front vowels only in the European variety. See Portuguese phonology.
Lituânia[l̪it̪uˈɐ̃ɲ̟ɐ]ⓘ'Lithuania'

Velarized or pharyngealized alveolar lateral approximant

The voiced velarized alveolar approximant (also known as dark l) is a type of consonantal sound used in some languages. It is an alveolar, denti-alveolar, or dental lateral approximant, with a secondary articulation of velarization or pharyngealization. The regular symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represent this sound are ⟨lˠ⟩ (for a velarized lateral) and ⟨lˤ⟩ (for a pharyngealized lateral), though the dedicated letter ⟨ɫ⟩, which covers both velarization and pharyngealization, is perhaps more common. The latter should not be confused with belted ⟨ɬ⟩, which represents the voiceless alveolar lateral fricative. However, some scholars use that symbol to represent the velarized alveolar lateral approximant anyway76 – though such usage is considered non-standard.

If the sound is dental or denti-alveolar, one could use a dental diacritic to indicate so: ⟨l̪ˠ⟩, ⟨l̪ˤ⟩, ⟨ɫ̪⟩.

Velarization and pharyngealization are generally associated with more dental articulations of coronal consonants, so dark l tends to be dental or denti-alveolar. Clear (non-velarized) l tends to be retracted to an alveolar position.77

The term dark l is often synonymous with hard l, especially in Slavic languages. (cf. hard consonants)

Features

Features of the dark l:

Occurrence

Dental or denti-alveolar

LanguageWordIPAMeaningNotes
Bashkirҡала/qala[qɑˈɫɑ]ⓘ'city'Velarized dental lateral; occurs in back vowel contexts.
Belarusian79Беларусь/Biełaruś[bʲɛɫ̪äˈrusʲ]'Belarus'Laminal denti-alveolar; contrasts with palatalized form. See Belarusian phonology
Bulgarian80[better source needed]стол/stol[stoɫ̪]'chair'Laminal denti-alveolar. See Bulgarian phonology
Catalan8182alt[ˈäɫ̪(t̪)]'tall'Laminal denti-alveolar. Allophone of /l/ before /t, d/.83 See Catalan phonology
Classical Armenian8485խաղեր/xałer[χɑɫɛɹ]'games'/ʁ/ ġ in modern Armenian.
Icelandic86sigldi[s̺ɪɫ̪t̪ɪ]'sailed'Laminal denti-alveolar; rare. See Icelandic phonology
KashubianOlder southeastern speakers87kôłbasaLaminal denti-alveolar; realized as [w] by other speakers.88
Lithuanian89labas[ˈɫ̪äːbɐs̪]'hi'Laminal denti-alveolar; contrasts with palatalized form. See Lithuanian phonology
Macedonian90лук/luk[ɫ̪uk]'garlic'Laminal denti-alveolar. Present only before back vowels (/u, o, a/) and syllable-finally. See Macedonian phonology
NorwegianUrban East9192tale[ˈt̻ʰɑːɫ̪ə]'speech'Laminal denti-alveolar. Allophone of /l/ after /ɔ, oː, ɑ, ɑː/, and sometimes also after /u, uː/.93 However, according to Endresen (1990), this allophone is not velarized.94 See Norwegian phonology
PolishEastern dialects95łapa[ˈɫ̪äpä]'paw'Laminal denti-alveolar. Corresponds to [w] in other varieties. See Polish phonology
Russian96малый/malyj[ˈmɑ̟ɫ̪ɨ̞j]'small'Pharyngealized laminal denti-alveolar. See Russian phonology
Scottish Gaelic97Mallaig[ˈmäʊɫ̪ækʲ]'Mallaig'Apical dental, occasionally laminal.98 In certain dialects manifests as [w] or [l̪ˠw]. Contrasts with /l/ and /ʎ/. See Scottish Gaelic phonology
SwedishNorthern Västerbotten99kall[ˈkɒɫː]'cold'Allophone of /lː/
Turkish100101lala[ɫ̟ɑˈɫ̟ɑ]'servant'Laminal denti-alveolar; contrasts with a palatalized postalveolar lateral [ʎ̟].102103 May be devoiced elsewhere. See Turkish phonology

Alveolar

LanguageWordIPAMeaningNotes
AfrikaansStandard104105tafel[ˈtɑːfəɫ]'table'Velarized in all positions, especially non-prevocalically.106107 See Afrikaans phonology
AlbanianStandardllullë[ˈɫuɫə]'smoking pipe'
ArabicStandard108الله/ʼAllah[ʔaɫˈɫaːh]'God'Also transcribed as ⟨lˤ⟩. Many accents and dialects lack the sound and instead pronounce [l]. See Arabic phonology
Catalan109Eastern dialectscel·la[ˈsɛɫːə]'cell'Apical. Can be always dark in many dialects. See Catalan phonology
Western dialectsal[äɫ]'to the'
DutchStandard110mallen[ˈmɑɫ̻ə]'molds'Laminal; pharyngealized in northern accents, velarized or post-palatalised in southern accents. It is an allophone of /l/ before consonants and pauses, and also prevocalically when after the open back vowels /ɔ, ɑ/. Many northern speakers realize the final /l/ as a strongly pharyngealised vocoid [ɤˤ], whereas some Standard Belgian speakers use the clear /l/ in all positions.111 See Dutch phonology
Some Netherlandic accents112laten[ˈɫ̻aːt̻ə]'to let'Pharyngealized laminal; realization of /l/ in all positions.113 See Dutch phonology
English114Australianfeel[fiːɫ]ⓘ'feel'Most often apical; can be always dark in Australia and New Zealand. See Australian English phonology, New Zealand English phonology, and English phonology
Canadian
Dublin
General American
New Zealand
Received Pronunciation
South African
Scottishloch[ɫɔx]'loch'Can be always dark except in some borrowings from Scottish Gaelic
GreekNorthern dialects115μπάλα/bálla[ˈbaɫa]'ball'Allophone of /l/ before /a o u/. See Modern Greek phonology
Georgianჟოლო/zholo[ˈʒo̞ɫo̞]'raspberry'An allophone of /l/ before /o u/ and /a/. See Georgian phonology
KurdishSoranigâlta[gɑːɫˈtʲaː]'joke'See Kurdish phonology
RomanianBessarabian dialect116cal[kaɫ]'horse'Corresponds to non-velarized l[in which environments?] in standard Romanian. See Romanian phonology
Serbo-Croatian117лак/lak[ɫâ̠k]'easy'Apical; may be syllabic; contrasts with /ʎ/. See Serbo-Croatian phonology
Uzbek118[example needed]Apical; between a non-front rounded vowel and a consonant or juncture phoneme. Non-velarized denti-alveolar elsewhere.119

Variable

LanguageWordIPAMeaningNotes
PortugueseEuropean120mil[miɫ̪]'thousand'Dental and strongly velarized in all environments for most speakers, though less so before front vowels.121122
Older and conservative Brazilian123124125126álcool[ˈäɫ̪ko̞ɫ̪]'alcohol, ethanol'When [lˠ ~ lʶ ~ lˤ ~ lˀ],127 most often dental. Coda is now vocalized to [u̯ ~ ʊ̯] in most of Brazil (as in EP in rural parts of Alto Minho and Madeira).128 Stigmatized realizations such as [ɾ ~ ɽ ~ ɻ], the /ʁ/ range, [j] and even [∅] (zero) are some other coda allophones typical of Brazil.129 See Portuguese phonology

See also

Notes

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References

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  2. Celce-Murcia, Marianne; et al. (2010). Teaching Pronunciation. Cambridge U. Press. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-521-72975-8. the light /l/ used in all environments in [standard] German (e.g., Licht "light," viel "much, many") or in French (e.g., lit "bed", île "island") 978-0-521-72975-8 ↩

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