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Expulsions and exoduses of Jews
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<h2 id="timeline">Timeline</h2> <p class="note">See also: <a href="/facts/Timeline_of_Jewish_history/pF4PGYNH">Timeline of Jewish history</a></p> <p>The following is a list of Jewish expulsions and events that prompted significant streams of Jewish refugees. </p> <h3>Assyrian captivity</h3> <p class="note">Main articles: <a href="/facts/Assyrian_captivity/m1juzBxC">Assyrian captivity</a> and <a href="/facts/Ten_Lost_Tribes/59PcCQQL">Ten Lost Tribes</a></p> 733/2 <a href="/facts/Common_Era/e5DpqUoe">BCE</a> <a href="/facts/Tiglath-Pileser_III/qH7Gh0g1">Tiglath-Pileser III</a>, King of the <a href="/facts/Neo-Assyrian_Empire/GzQ9HoXb">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a>, sacked the northern <a href="/facts/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)/KJv662gU">Kingdom of Israel</a> and annexed the <a href="/facts/Transjordan_(Bible)/MDQCxkCS">territory</a> of the tribes of <a href="/facts/Tribe_of_Reuben/YoJFefxa">Reuben</a>, <a href="/facts/Tribe_of_Gad/nvfyoPTW">Gad</a> and <a href="/facts/Tribe_of_Manasseh/0MSWg0qU">Manasseh</a> in <a href="/facts/Gilead/BuwBlNTk">Gilead</a>. People from these tribes were taken captive and resettled in the region of the <a href="/facts/Khabur_(Euphrates)/cmpXegvc">Khabur River</a>, in <a href="/facts/Halah/RcRj8yhs">Halah</a>, Habor, Hara and <a href="/facts/Tell_Halaf/c78LgdAB">Gozan</a> (<a href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1%20Chronicles%205:26&version=nrsv">1 Chronicles 5:26</a>). Tiglath-Pileser also captured the territory of Naphtali and the city of <a href="/facts/Janohah/L0mMpEJU">Janoah</a> in <a href="/facts/Tribe_of_Ephraim/Kg7H4JR4">Ephraim</a>, and an Assyrian governor was placed over the region of <a href="/facts/Naphtali/eqe1SVcB">Naphtali</a>. According to <a href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=2%20Kings%2015:29&version=nrsv">2 Kings 15:29</a>, the population of Naphtali was deported to Assyria. 722 BCE In <a href="/facts/720s_BC/wuRUqKrk">722 BCE</a>, <a href="/facts/Samaria_(ancient_city)/fv4amfqu">Samaria</a>, the capital city of the northern Kingdom of Israel, was taken by <a href="/facts/Sargon_II/5dTbIAzh">Sargon II</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1"><sup>1</sup></a> who resettled the Israelites in Halah, Habor, Gozan and in the cities of <a href="/facts/Media_(region)/PNxgSflJ">Media</a> (<a href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=2%20Kings%2018:11–12&version=nrsv">2 Kings 18:11–12</a>). Sargon recorded the capture of that city thus: "Samaria I looked at, I captured; 27,280 men who dwelt in it I carried away" into Assyria. Some people of the northern tribes were spared,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2"><sup>2</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3"><sup>3</sup></a> and it has been suggested that many also fled south to Jerusalem.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4"><sup>4</sup></a> <h3>Babylonian captivity</h3> <p class="note">Main article: <a href="/facts/Babylonian_captivity/skWuJsdJ">Babylonian captivity</a></p> 597 BCE In 598 BCE, <a href="/facts/Nebuchadnezzar_II/YW4JMqq3">Nebuchadnezzar II</a> of the <a href="/facts/Neo-Babylonian_Empire/GfIPHmzs">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a> <a href="/facts/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(597_BC)/8tyPyx2M">besieged Jerusalem</a>, then capital of the southern <a href="/facts/Kingdom_of_Judah/qEdLyxv7">Kingdom of Judah</a>. The city fell after a three-month siege, and the new king <a href="/facts/Jeconiah/SClrF593">Jeconiah</a>, who was either 8 or 18, his court and other prominent citizens (including the prophet <a href="/facts/Ezekiel/sTnnPCh0">Ezekiel</a>) and craftsmen, were <a href="/facts/Babylonian_captivity/skWuJsdJ">deported to Babylon</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5"><sup>5</sup></a> Jehoiakim's uncle <a href="/facts/Zedekiah/lLVhDxgX">Zedekiah</a> was appointed king in his place. 587/6 BCE When Zedekiah revolted against Babylonian rule, Nebuchadnezzar responded by invading Judah (<a href="https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt09b25.htm#1">2 Kings 25:1</a>). In December 589 BCE, Nebuchadnezzar began <a href="/facts/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(587_BC)/00tA1FHl">another siege of Jerusalem</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6"><sup>6</sup></a> During the siege, many Jews fled to surrounding <a href="/facts/Moab/h3DTISJ5">Moab</a>, <a href="/facts/Ammon/mYXRTxJH">Ammon</a>, <a href="/facts/Edom/DomVXbKw">Edom</a> and other countries to seek refuge.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7"><sup>7</sup></a> The city eventually fell after a thirty-month siege, and the Babylonian general <a href="/facts/Nebuzaradan/6z9rInwl">Nebuzaradan</a> was sent to complete its destruction.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8"><sup>8</sup></a> The city was plundered, and <a href="/facts/Solomon%27s_Temple/aed5FD5l">Solomon's Temple</a> was destroyed. Most of the members of the elite class were taken into captivity in Babylon. The city was razed. Only a few people were permitted to remain and tend to the land (<a href="https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt1152.htm#16">Jeremiah 52:16</a>).: In 537 BCE <a href="/facts/Cyrus_the_Great/0gB7KwSA">Cyrus the Great</a>, the founding king of the <a href="/facts/Achaemenid_Empire/avlzWxF0">Achaemenid Persian Empire</a>, allowed the Jews to <a href="/facts/Return_to_Zion/bVKJTBHo">return to Judah</a> and <a href="/facts/Second_Temple/Y66V1qr1">rebuild the Temple</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9"><sup>9</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10"><sup>10</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11"><sup>11</sup></a> <h3>500–1 BCE</h3> 139 BCE Expulsion from the city of <a href="/facts/Rome/bh1Ttx3T">Rome</a> under the accusation of aggressive <a href="/facts/Conversion_to_Judaism/RGAR32BJ">proselytizing</a> among the Romans.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12"><sup>12</sup></a> <h3>1–599 CE</h3> 19 CE Expulsion from the city of Rome by Emperor <a href="/facts/Tiberius/oQzd7AvQ">Tiberius</a> together with practitioners of the <a href="/facts/Ancient_Egyptian_religion/BFq9Blsw">Egyptian religion</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13"><sup>13</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14"><sup>14</sup></a> 38 CE Jews were expelled from one of their quarters in the city of <a href="/facts/Alexandria/hdg1twWA">Alexandria</a>, in Egypt, under the instigation of <a href="/facts/Aulus_Avilius_Flaccus/IMxShWXm">Aulus Avilius Flaccus</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15"><sup>15</sup></a> 41–53 CE <a href="/facts/Claudius%27_expulsion_of_Jews_from_Rome/vXmRMoju">Claudius' expulsion of Jews from Rome</a>. 73 CE The Jewish defeat in the <a href="/facts/First_Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_War/LYYK2SPh">First Jewish–Roman War</a> (66–73 CE) resulted in significant loss of life from battle, famine, and disease, extensive city destruction—including <a href="/facts/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(70_CE)/vKDgJMBp">Jerusalem</a>—and widespread forced displacement.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16"><sup>16</sup></a> Many Jews were enslaved or sent into forced labor in locations such as <a href="/facts/Egypt/8Ttg0JwB">Egypt</a> and the <a href="/facts/Corinth_Canal/fD2gfUQ8">Isthmus of Corinth</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17"><sup>17</sup></a> while others were dispersed across the Roman Empire. Young men were coerced into <a href="/facts/Gladiator/DHpeML6Q">gladiatoral combat</a>, and others were sold into <a href="/facts/Brothels/cfbd8vt0">brothels</a> or slavery.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18"><sup>18</sup></a> As a result, a substantial portion of the Jewish population of Judaea was either expelled or displaced.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19"><sup>19</sup></a> 117 The suppression of the <a href="/facts/Diaspora_Revolt/20kCUuzv">Diaspora Revolt</a> (115–117) involved a devastating campaign of <a href="/facts/Ethnic_cleansing/N8zf9Y0K">ethnic cleansing</a> that resulted in the near-total annihilation and expulsion of Jews from <a href="/facts/Crete_and_Cyrenaica/qnMFcAIc">Cyrenaica</a>, <a href="/facts/Roman_Cyprus/j6s5ETkK">Cyprus</a>, and large portions of <a href="/facts/Roman_Egypt/P1wkcTmv">Egypt</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20"><sup>20</sup></a> 135 The <a href="/facts/Bar_Kokhba_revolt/EP2jl4f4">Bar Kokhba revolt</a> (132–136 CE) had catastrophic effects on the Jewish population in Judaea, resulting in massive loss of life, extensive forced displacements, and widespread enslavement, which left central <a href="/facts/Judea/yNA3wGqQ">Judea</a> in a state of desolation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21"><sup>21</sup></a> Some scholars describe the Roman suppression of the revolt as constituting an act of <a href="/facts/Genocide/IjkNvg7y">genocide</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22"><sup>22</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23"><sup>23</sup></a> Following the revolt, Jews were expelled from the vicinity of Jerusalem and the districts of <a href="/facts/Jifna/xEAqC8xA">Gophna</a>, <a href="/facts/Herodium/I3W1XK6k">Herodion</a>, and <a href="/facts/Aqraba,_Nablus/XqeJcUfK">Aqraba</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24"><sup>24</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25"><sup>25</sup></a> The revolt triggered a significant migration of Jews from Judea to coastal cities and <a href="/facts/Galilee/4qgALq4a">Galilee</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26"><sup>26</sup></a> Jewish captives were sold into slavery and dispersed across various parts of the empire, causing a significant influx of new slaves into the market.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27"><sup>27</sup></a> 415 After a massacre of Christians by some Jews, Jews were expelled from <a href="/facts/Alexandria/hdg1twWA">Alexandria</a> under the leadership of Saint <a href="/facts/Cyril_of_Alexandria/4Bu7yG0r">Cyril of Alexandria</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28"><sup>28</sup></a> Sources differ over whether all <a href="/facts/Alexandrian_Jews/Adu6pB7b">Alexandrian Jews</a> were expelled or just the ones involved in the massacre.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29"><sup>29</sup></a> 418 Jews expelled from <a href="/facts/Minorca/qoaphuvL">Minorca</a> or asked to convert.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30"><sup>30</sup></a> <h3>Sixth to tenth centuries</h3> 612 <a href="/facts/Visigothic_Kingdom/hXFkz67j">Visigothic</a> king <a href="/facts/Sisebut/JDeUTupR">Sisebut</a> mandated that every Jew who would refuse for over a year to have himself or his children and servants baptized would be banished from the country and deprived of his possessions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31"><sup>31</sup></a> 629 The entire Jewish population of Galilee massacred or expelled, following the <a href="/facts/Jewish_revolt_against_Heraclius/No0U8Don">Jewish rebellion against Byzantium</a>. 7th century <a href="/facts/Muhammad/5VcA7XrT">Muhammad</a> expelled two Jewish tribes: the <a href="/facts/Banu_Qaynuqa/MAQ47MXa">Banu Qaynuqa</a> and <a href="/facts/Banu_Nadir/AIPpNLhA">Banu Nadir</a> from <a href="/facts/Medina/nbDykVmK">Medina</a>. The <a href="/facts/Banu_Qurayza/qEDxk1cV">Banu Qurayza</a> tribe was slaughtered and the Jewish settlement of <a href="/facts/Battle_of_Khaybar/WPGRYATg">Khaybar</a> was ransacked.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32"><sup>32</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33"><sup>33</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34"><sup>34</sup></a> <h3>Eleventh to thirteenth centuries</h3> 1012 Jews expelled from <a href="/facts/Mainz/vT0TxGjz">Mainz</a>. 1095–mid-13th century The waves of <a href="/facts/Crusade/mblv9nwI">Crusades</a> destroyed many Jewish communities in Europe (most notably in <a href="/facts/Rhineland_massacres/Hz6nftC4">Rhineland</a>) and in the Middle East (most notably in <a href="/facts/Siege_of_Jerusalem_(1099)/Ew5wwIaT">Jerusalem</a>). Mid-12th century The invasion of <a href="/facts/Almohades/L9Xkck7b">Almohades</a> brought to an end the <a href="/facts/Golden_age_of_Jewish_culture_in_Spain/1wyhc2VB">Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain</a>. Among other refugees was <a href="/facts/Maimonides/fGyQDPC8">Maimonides</a>, who fled to <a href="/facts/Morocco/6ly8170M">Morocco</a>, then <a href="/facts/Egypt/8Ttg0JwB">Egypt</a>, then Palestine. 12th–14th centuries <a href="/facts/France/CxIeIKM3">France</a>. The practice of expelling the Jews accompanied by confiscation of their property, followed by temporary readmissions for ransom, was used to enrich the crown: expulsions from <a href="/facts/Paris/DrNHpwnA">Paris</a> by <a href="/facts/Philip_Augustus_of_France/c6UKr6bu">Philip Augustus</a> in 1182, from France by <a href="/facts/Louis_IX_of_France/NLX8QjpN">Louis IX</a> in 1254, by <a href="/facts/Philip_IV_of_France/Woz6oTqW">Philip IV</a> in 1306, by <a href="/facts/Charles_IV_of_France/m75KPz9z">Charles IV</a> in 1322, by <a href="/facts/Charles_V_of_France/b3Nh2QIa">Charles V</a> in 1359, by <a href="/facts/Charles_VI_of_France/2PP1mJQo">Charles VI</a> in 1394. 13th century The influential <a href="/facts/Philosopher/Hyvzc54m">philosopher</a> and <a href="/facts/Logician/8JnpJLtt">logician</a> <a href="/facts/Ramon_Llull/MnK265Y1">Ramon Llull</a> (1232–1315) called for expulsion of all Jews who would refuse conversion to Christianity. Some scholars regard Llull's as the first comprehensive articulation, in the Christian West, of an expulsionist policy regarding Jews. 1231 <a href="/facts/Simon_de_Montfort,_6th_Earl_of_Leicester/97zdcpns">Simon de Montfort</a> expels the Jews of <a href="/facts/Leicester/zcSBswu3">Leicester</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35"><sup>35</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36"><sup>36</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37"><sup>37</sup></a> 1253 On July 23 (Menachem Av 25) the Jews of <a href="/facts/Vienne,_France/C2mTDckL">Vienne, France</a> were expelled by order of Pope <a href="/facts/Innocent_III/GrWh740f">Innocent III</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38"><sup>38</sup></a> 1275 King <a href="/facts/Edward_I_of_England/McXM7vvt">Edward I of England</a> permits his mother <a href="/facts/Eleanor_of_Provence/0bvFVCkW">Eleanor of Provence</a> to expel Jews from her dowager lands, including <a href="/facts/Cambridge/gNRdbmwK">Cambridge</a>, <a href="/facts/Gloucester/mck7T4Ev">Gloucester</a>, <a href="/facts/Marlborough,_Wiltshire/KuKsPWlw">Marlborough</a>, and <a href="/facts/Worcester,_England/RpSMx52g">Worcester</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39"><sup>39</sup></a> 1276 Jews expelled from Upper <a href="/facts/Bavaria/CLbr6NIG">Bavaria</a>. 1287 <a href="/facts/Edward_I_of_England/McXM7vvt">Edward I of England</a> expels Jews from <a href="/facts/Gascony/BMKWXehe">Gascony</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40"><sup>40</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41"><sup>41</sup></a> 1288 <a href="/facts/Naples/SXrFcg2C">Naples</a> issues first expulsion of Jews in southern Italy. 1289 <a href="/facts/Charles_II_of_Naples/yBREMvB0">Charles of Salerno</a> expels Jews from <a href="/facts/Maine_(province)/C8NC6wzW">Maine</a> and <a href="/facts/County_of_Anjou/LTxq0yqp">Anjou</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42"><sup>42</sup></a> 1290 King <a href="/facts/Edward_I_of_England/McXM7vvt">Edward I of England</a> issues the <a href="/facts/Edict_of_Expulsion/83b5WXa7">Edict of Expulsion</a> for all Jews from <a href="/facts/England/U9mE5bGL">England</a>. After 365 years, the policy was <a href="/facts/Resettlement_of_the_Jews_in_England/aSSCK1La">reversed</a> in 1655 by <a href="/facts/Oliver_Cromwell/pyCDY3vk">Oliver Cromwell</a>. 1294 On June 24 (4th of Tamuz), the Jews of Berne, Switzerland were expelled.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43"><sup>43</sup></a> "Several Jews were put to death there in consequence of a <a href="/facts/Blood_libel/HnL9rm8w">blood libel</a>", but a deal involving the Jews paying money reverted the expulsion. <h3>14th century</h3> 1360 Jews expelled from Hungary by <a href="/facts/Louis_I_of_Hungary/GfRqnDSo">Louis I of Hungary</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44"><sup>44</sup></a> 1392 Jews expelled from <a href="/facts/Bern/weUyCRsh">Bern</a>, <a href="/facts/Switzerland/LcGuxeTe">Switzerland</a>. Although between 1408 and 1427 Jews were again residing in the city, the only Jews to appear in Bern subsequently were transients, chiefly physicians and cattle dealers. <h3>15th century</h3> 1420–1421 <a href="/facts/Albert_II_of_Germany/Dt1nfMsm">Duke Albert V</a> orders the imprisonment and forcible conversion to Christianity of all Jews in Austria. Some convert and others leave the country. In 1421 Austrian authorities again arrest and expel Jews and Jews are banned from the capital Vienna.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45"><sup>45</sup></a> 1442 Jews again expelled from Upper <a href="/facts/Bavaria/CLbr6NIG">Bavaria</a>. 1478 Jews expelled from <a href="/facts/Passau/JrU6xqqI">Passau</a>. 1491 Jews of <a href="/facts/Ravenna/qTQGdKhn">Ravenna</a> expelled, synagogues destroyed. 1492 <a href="/facts/Ferdinand_II_of_Aragon/lt1dHN67">Ferdinand II</a> and <a href="/facts/Isabella_I_of_Castile/R3wN94z3">Isabella I</a> issued the <a href="/facts/Alhambra_decree/Wd7DNcUG">Alhambra decree</a>, General Edict on the Expulsion of the Jews from <a href="/facts/Crown_of_Castile/T1JrdPkx">Castile</a> and <a href="/facts/Crown_of_Aragon/sGEyzVrH">Aragon</a> (approx. 200,000) and from <a href="/facts/Sicily/E6fug03z">Sicily</a> (1493, approx. 37,000). 1495 Charles VIII of France occupies Kingdom of Naples, bringing new persecution against Jews, many of whom were refugees from Spain. 1496 Jews expelled from <a href="/facts/Expulsion_of_Jews_and_Muslims_from_Portugal/YbXzrVuC">Portugal</a>. <a href="/facts/Maximilian_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor/4f8SjFsX">Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor</a>, issues a decree expelling all Jews from <a href="/facts/Styria/fl6cw7dC">Styria</a> and <a href="/facts/Wiener_Neustadt/uHlG34X3">Wiener Neustadt</a>. 1498 Jews expelled from Navarre.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46"><sup>46</sup></a> 1499 Jews expelled from <a href="/facts/Free_Imperial_City_of_Nuremberg/FqDysLnb">Nuremberg</a>. <h3>16th century</h3> 1510 Jews expelled from Naples.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47"><sup>47</sup></a> 1515 Jews expelled from <a href="/facts/History_of_the_Jews_in_Dubrovnik/4gY2Kgqa">Dubrovnik</a>. Exceptions are made for physicians and for short stays of merchants.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48"><sup>48</sup></a> 1519 Jews expelled from <a href="/facts/Regensburg/tJfVJLVC">Regensburg</a>. 1526 Jews expelled from <a href="/facts/Pressburg/mr28JyEg">Pressburg</a> (Bratislava) in the wake of the defeat of the <a href="/facts/Kingdom_of_Hungary/91tLqn81">Kingdom of Hungary</a> by the <a href="/facts/Ottoman_Empire/6QvfTRsg">Ottoman Empire</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49"><sup>49</sup></a> 1551 All remaining Jews expelled from the duchy of Bavaria. Jewish settlement in Bavaria ceased until toward the end of the 17th century, when a small community was founded in Sulzbach by refugees from Vienna. 1569 Pope Pius V expels Jews from the papal states, except for Ancona and Rome. 1593 Pope Clement VIII expels Jews living in all the papal states, except Rome, Avignon and Ancona. Jews are invited to settle in <a href="/facts/Livorno/7Kj475D4">Leghorn</a>, the main port of Tuscany, where they are granted full religious liberty and civil rights, by the Medici family, who want to develop the region into a center of commerce. 1597 Nine hundred Jews expelled from <a href="/facts/Milan/0xrtbPdt">Milan</a>. <h3>17th century</h3> 1614 <a href="/facts/Fettmilch_Uprising/8XyfwBE0">Fettmilch Uprising</a>: Jews are expelled from <a href="/facts/Frankfurt/Pw4Xj9A4">Frankfurt</a>, <a href="/facts/Holy_Roman_Empire/6mdobnXN">Holy Roman Empire</a>, following the plundering of the <a href="/facts/Frankfurter_Judengasse/8XyfwBE0">Judengasse</a>. 1654 The fall of the Dutch colony of <a href="/facts/Recife/mQ8gf1QL">Recife</a> in <a href="/facts/Brazil/QHkG46GL">Brazil</a> to the <a href="/facts/Portugal/lYzwDQ63">Portuguese</a> prompted the <a href="/facts/Jewish_arrival_in_New_Amsterdam/nAeDS58E">Jewish arrival in New Amsterdam</a>, the first group of Jews to flee to <a href="/facts/North_America/djNjCQIl">North America</a>. 1669–1670 Jews expelled from Vienna by <a href="/facts/Leopold_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor/4Nm0Ix63">Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor</a> and subsequently forbidden to settle in the Austrian Hereditary Lands. The former Jewish ghetto on the Unterer Werd was renamed <a href="/facts/Leopoldstadt/5y73MyPj">Leopoldstadt</a> in honour of the emperor and the expropriated houses and land given to Catholic citizens.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50"><sup>50</sup></a> 1679–1680 Jews throughout <a href="/facts/Yemen/eDyoh4qV">Yemen</a> expelled from their towns and villages and sent to a desert place, in what is known as the <a href="/facts/Mawza_Exile/xzs7jGvB">Mawza Exile</a>. 1683 Jews expelled from the <a href="/facts/French_Colonial_Empire/IRauBDs1">French Colonial Empire</a>'s Caribbean territories by <a href="/facts/Louis_XIV/2LseeIlj">Louis XIV</a>'s decree in the <a href="/facts/Code_Noir/1uoDeCgL">Code Noir</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51"><sup>51</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52"><sup>52</sup></a> <h3>18th century</h3> 1701–1714 <a href="/facts/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession/j3nQP1S1">War of the Spanish Succession</a>. After the war, Jews of Austrian origin were expelled from Bavaria, but some were able to acquire the right to reside in Munich. 1744–1790s The reforms of <a href="/facts/Frederick_II_of_Prussia/Bv1At4Hy">Frederick II</a>, <a href="/facts/Joseph_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor/cvj6srA1">Joseph II</a> and <a href="/facts/Maria_Theresa_of_Austria/q2kP0dNM">Maria Theresa</a> sent masses of impoverished <a href="/facts/Germany/paluuWBX">German</a> and <a href="/facts/Austria/4qWIMIyc">Austrian</a> Jews east.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53"><sup>53</sup></a> 1791 The tzarina of Russia <a href="/facts/Catherine_the_Great/FTVM1heM">Catherine the Great</a> institutes the <a href="/facts/Pale_of_Settlement/04D7NtCf">Pale of Settlement</a>, restricting Jews to the western parts of the empire by means of deportation. By the late 19th century, over four million Jews would live in the Pale. <h3>19th century</h3> 1862 <a href="/facts/Tennessee/A3mLY9bu">Tennessee</a>, <a href="/facts/Mississippi/7KwuWxxT">Mississippi</a>, <a href="/facts/Kentucky/DaTW05Rt">Kentucky</a> Jews expelled by <a href="/facts/Ulysses_S._Grant/htCzhMtb">Ulysses S. Grant</a> by <a href="/facts/General_Order_No._11_(1862)/RQwHguSf">General Order No. 11</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54"><sup>54</sup></a> 1880–1910s <a href="/facts/Anti-Jewish_pogroms_in_the_Russian_Empire/lbI29JQE">Pogroms</a> in the <a href="/facts/Russian_Empire/hg1g5SpV">Russian Empire</a>: around 2.5 million Jews emigrated from eastern Europe, mostly to the United States.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55"><sup>55</sup></a> <h3>20th century</h3> 1917 Jews expelled <a href="/facts/1917_Jaffa_deportation/vqqmMeAw">from the area of Jaffa</a> by Ottoman authorities during World War I. 1933–1957 The <a href="/facts/Nazi_Germany/8kRbqRpo">Nazi German</a> persecution started with the <a href="/facts/Nazi_boycott_of_Jewish_businesses/BY1BqByu">Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses</a> in 1933, reached a first climax during <i><a href="/facts/Kristallnacht/U9ovTHbK">Kristallnacht</a></i> in 1938 and culminated in <a href="/facts/The_Holocaust/vGQsAb2y">the Holocaust</a> of <a href="/facts/European_Jewry/QBgDX2WS">European Jewry</a>. The 1938 <a href="/facts/Evian_Conference/my5atmse">Evian Conference</a>, the 1943 <a href="/facts/Bermuda_Conference/GGpt2APq">Bermuda Conference</a> and other attempts failed to resolve the problem of Jewish refugees, a fact widely used in <a href="/facts/Nazi_propaganda/w6lEzsm7">Nazi propaganda</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56"><sup>56</sup></a> A small number of <a href="/facts/German_Jewish/XKfJFHST">German</a> and <a href="/facts/Austrian_Jewish/DYID1Tdw">Austrian Jewish</a> refugees from Nazism emigrated to Britain, where attitudes were not necessarily positive.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57"><sup>57</sup></a> Many of the refugees fought for Britain in the Second World War. Already before the Holocaust, by February 1940, the <a href="/facts/Expulsion_of_Poles_by_Nazi_Germany/3EHBuE74">expulsion of Poles by Nazi Germany</a> from <a href="/facts/Occupation_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)/qIIryAJw">occupied</a> western Poland also targeted some 20,000 Polish Jews.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58"><sup>58</sup></a> There was a special institution set up in 1939 to coordinate the expulsion, initially named the Special Staff for the Resettlement of Poles and Jews (<i>Sonderstab für die Aussiedlung von Polen und Juden</i>), soon renamed to Office for the Resettlement of Poles and Jews (<i>Amt für Umsiedlung der Polen und Juden</i>), and eventually to Central Bureau for Resettlement (<i>Umwandererzentralstelle</i>).<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59"><sup>59</sup></a> After the war, central and eastern European Holocaust survivors migrated to the western <a href="/facts/Allies_of_World_War_II/YzCdtjDY">Allied</a>-controlled part of Europe, as the Jewish society to which most of them belonged did not exist anymore. Often they were lone survivors consumed by the often futile search for other family and friends, and often unwelcome in the towns from which they came. They were known as <a href="/facts/Displaced_person/lKjCS4R2">displaced persons</a> (also known as <a href="/facts/Sh%27erit_ha-Pletah/KGKu2EBz">Sh'erit ha-Pletah</a>) and placed in <a href="/facts/Displaced_persons_camp/eMQ7lQns">displaced persons camps</a>, most of which were by 1951 closed. The last camp <a href="/facts/F%C3%B6hrenwald/hKwNctn4">Föhrenwald</a> was closed in 1957. 1940 During <a href="/facts/World_War_II/2efV5L1U">World War II</a>, the so-called June Deportation, carried out by the Soviet Union in June and July 1940, as the fourth of five waves of mass deportations of Polish citizens from <a href="/facts/Occupation_of_Poland_(1939%E2%80%931945)/qIIryAJw">Soviet-occupied eastern Poland</a>, also targeted some 65,000 Polish Jews who fled from the German-occupied part of Poland.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60"><sup>60</sup></a> According to the <a href="/facts/NKVD/IA8Nwh1T">NKVD</a>, Polish Jews accounted for 85% of people deported in the June Deportation.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61"><sup>61</sup></a> The victims were deported to the <a href="/facts/Altai_Krai/4gXsFIvl">Altai Krai</a>, <a href="/facts/Chelyabinsk_Oblast/RqfIQBMf">Chelyabinsk Oblast</a>, <a href="/facts/Irkutsk_Oblast/eACyjk56">Irkutsk Oblast</a>, <a href="/facts/Krasnoyarsk_Krai/PaTxkxAX">Krasnoyarsk Krai</a>, <a href="/facts/Novosibirsk_Oblast/bNTVdt5A">Novosibirsk Oblast</a>, <a href="/facts/Omsk_Oblast/dvDu91ul">Omsk Oblast</a>, <a href="/facts/Sverdlovsk_Oblast/Qn7QpAVF">Sverdlovsk Oblast</a> and <a href="/facts/Yakut_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic/wxjvq6PG">Yakutia</a> in <a href="/facts/Siberia/oaCoPEjF">Siberia</a>, and <a href="/facts/Arkhangelsk_Oblast/Rj5NFyYd">Arkhangelsk Oblast</a>, <a href="/facts/Komi_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic/Aa0YV2eR">Komi</a>, <a href="/facts/Mari_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic/auR2qJF8">Mari</a>, <a href="/facts/Nizhny_Novgorod_Oblast/CYTfTnJC">Nizhny Novgorod Oblast</a>, <a href="/facts/Perm_Oblast/f1D3lIyl">Perm Oblast</a> and <a href="/facts/Vologda_Oblast/adfe01Es">Vologda Oblast</a> in European Russia.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62"><sup>62</sup></a> 1943–1944 Jews are expelled, their citizenship is stripped from them and they are subjected to pogroms in some Italian cities, including Rome, Verona, Florence, Pisa and Alessandria.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63"><sup>63</sup></a> 1947–1972 The <a href="/facts/Jewish_exodus_from_the_Muslim_world/KFVzEtrE">Jewish exodus from the Muslim world</a>, in which the combined population of the Jewish communities of the <a href="/facts/Middle_East/8CD6pLWv">Middle East</a> and <a href="/facts/North_Africa/ItxQAfs7">North Africa</a> (excluding Israel) was reduced from about 900,000 in 1948 to under 8,000 today, and approximately 600,000 of them became citizens of Israel. The history of the exodus is politicized, given its proposed relevance to a final settlement to the <a href="/facts/Israeli%E2%80%93Palestinian_peace_process/bu9PhcfW">Israeli–Palestinian peace negotiations</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64"><sup>64</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65"><sup>65</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66"><sup>66</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67"><sup>67</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68"><sup>68</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69"><sup>69</sup></a> When presenting the history, those who view the Jewish exodus as equivalent to the <a href="/facts/1948_Palestinian_expulsion_and_flight/bMSw91lU">1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight</a>, such as the <a href="/facts/Israeli_government/g3azkmGs">Israeli government</a> and NGOs such as JJAC and JIMENA, emphasize "push factors", such as cases of anti-Jewish violence and forced expulsions,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70"><sup>70</sup></a> and refer to those affected as "<a href="/facts/Refugees/VISfRRnT">refugees</a>".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71"><sup>71</sup></a> Those who argue that the exodus does not equate to the <a href="/facts/1967_Palestinian_exodus/B169LRWB">Palestinian exodus</a> emphasize "pull factors", such as the actions of local <a href="/facts/Jewish_Agency_for_Israel/G3snm3qW">Jewish Agency for Israel</a> officials aiming to fulfil the <a href="/facts/One_Million_Plan/JXUrMKU0">One Million Plan</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72"><sup>72</sup></a> highlight good relations between the Jewish communities and their country's governments,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73"><sup>73</sup></a> emphasize the impact of other push factors such as the <a href="/facts/Decolonization/EkIM0zpj">decolonization</a> in the <a href="/facts/Maghreb/oIcU24Mz">Maghreb</a> and the <a href="/facts/Suez_War/mlfbUT51">Suez War</a> and <a href="/facts/Lavon_Affair/jwKs1rXy">Lavon Affair</a> in <a href="/facts/Egypt/8Ttg0JwB">Egypt</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74"><sup>74</sup></a> and argue that many or all of those who left were not refugees.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75"><sup>75</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76"><sup>76</sup></a> Then <a href="/facts/UNHCR/n02xPguc">UNHCR</a> announced in February 1957 and in July 1967, that these Jews who had fled from Arab countries "may be considered prima facie within the mandate of this office," so according them in international law, as bona fide refugees.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77"><sup>77</sup></a> 1947 <a href="/facts/Egypt/8Ttg0JwB">Egypt</a> passed the Companies' Law. This law required that no less than 75% of employees of companies in Egypt must be Egyptian citizens. This law strongly affected Jews, as only about 20% of all <a href="/facts/Jews_in_Egypt/mhjjAKhz">Jews in Egypt</a> were <a href="/facts/Egyptian_citizens/lcDu9FFW">Egyptian citizens</a>. The rest, although in many cases born in Egypt and living there for generations, did not hold Egyptian citizenship. 1948 State of Israel established. <a href="/facts/Antisemitism_in_Egypt/1C1PFy1r">Antisemitism in Egypt</a> strongly intensified. On May 15, 1948, emergency law was declared, and a royal decree forbade Egyptian citizens to leave the country without a special permit. This was applied to Jews. Hundreds of Jews were arrested and many had their property confiscated. In June through August 1948, bombs were planted in Jewish neighborhoods and Jewish businesses looted. About 250 Jews were killed or wounded by the bombs. Roughly 14,000 Jews left Egypt between 1948 and 1950. 1949 Jordan occupies and then annexes the <a href="/facts/West_Bank/xzTTVNJl">West Bank</a> – largely allotted by the 1947 UN Partition of Palestine to an Arab state, proposal rejected by the Arab leadership – and conducts large scale discrimination and persecution of all non-Muslim residents – Jewish, Christian (of many denominations), Druze, Circassian, etc. – and forces Arabisation of all public activity, including schools and public administration.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78"><sup>78</sup></a> 1951–1952 During <a href="/facts/Operation_Ezra_and_Nehemiah/EqYNcJhQ">Operation Ezra and Nehemiah</a>, ~120,000 Jews are expelled under the De-Naturalization Act of <a href="/facts/Prime_Minister_of_Iraq/VX0qcVfM">Iraqi PM</a> <a href="/facts/Tawfeeq_Al-Suwaidi/JykSYcWj">Tawfeeq Al-Suwaidi</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79"><sup>79</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80"><sup>80</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81"><sup>81</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82"><sup>82</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83"><sup>83</sup></a> 1954 <a href="/facts/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser/Dm5lMejj">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a> seizes power in Egypt. Nasser immediately arrested many Jews who were tried on various charges, mainly for Zionist and communist activities. Jews were forced to donate large sums of money to the military. Strict supervision of Jewish enterprises was introduced; some were confiscated and others forcibly sold to the government.[<i>better source needed</i>] 1956 <a href="/facts/Suez_Crisis/mlfbUT51">Suez Crisis</a>. Roughly 3,000 Egyptian Jews were interned without charge in four detention camps. The government ordered thousands of Jews to leave the country within a few days, and they were not allowed to sell their property, nor to take any capital with them. The deportees were made to sign statements agreeing not to return to Egypt and transferring their property to the administration of the government. The <a href="/facts/International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross/0EmbgHCT">International Red Cross</a> helped about 8,000 stateless Jews to leave the country, taking most of them to Italy and Greece. Most of the Jews of Port Said (about 100) were smuggled to Israel by Israel agents. The system of deportation continued into 1957. Other Jews left voluntarily, after their livelihoods had been taken from them, until only 8,561 were registered in the 1957 census. The Jewish exodus continued until there were about 3,000 Jews left as of in 1967. 1962 Jews flee <a href="/facts/Algeria/UXDF4Tj6">Algeria</a> as result of <a href="/facts/National_Liberation_Front_(Algeria)/FM3FTgpd">FLN</a> violence. The community feared that the proclamation of independence would precipitate a Muslim outburst. By the end of July 1962, 70,000 Jews had left for France and another 5,000 for Israel. It is estimated that some 80% of Algerian Jews settled in France. 1965 Situation of <a href="/facts/Jews_in_Algeria/BINISFXl">Jews in Algeria</a> rapidly deteriorates. By 1969, fewer than 1,000 Jews remain. By the 1990s, the numbers had dwindled to approximately 70.[<i>better source needed</i>] 1967 <a href="/facts/Six-Day_War/xM8d0Wy1">Six-Day War</a>. Hundreds of Egyptian Jews arrested, suffering beatings, torture, and abuse. Some were released following intervention by foreign states, especially by Spain, and were permitted to leave the country. <a href="/facts/Libyan_Jews/v5EtvTPB">Libyan Jews</a>, who numbered approximately 7,000, were subjected to <a href="/facts/Pogrom/RFDMb1df">pogroms</a> in which 18 were killed, prompting a mass exodus that left fewer than 100 Jews in <a href="/facts/Libya/HMPH8PWR">Libya</a>. 1968 Thousands of Jews were forced to leave <a href="/facts/Polish_People%27s_Republic/hypM0C8R">communist Poland</a> because of "<a href="/facts/Anti-Zionist/DGcrAn8x">anti-Zionist</a>" campaigns during the <a href="/facts/1968_Polish_political_crisis/MRzReB9d">1968 Polish political crisis</a>. 1970 Less than 1,000 Jews still lived in Egypt in 1970. They were given permission to leave but without their possessions. As of 1971, only 400 Jews remained in Egypt. As of 2013, only a few dozen Jews remain in Egypt. As of 2019<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Expulsions_and_exoduses_of_Jews&action=edit">[update]</a>, there were five in Cairo.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84"><sup>84</sup></a> As of 2022 the total number of known Egyptian Jews permanently residing in Egypt is three.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85"><sup>85</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86"><sup>86</sup></a> 1970–1986 State-sponsored persecution in the <a href="/facts/Soviet_Union/m7wWsPto">Soviet Union</a> prompted hundreds of thousands of <a href="/facts/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Soviet_Union/RX340Kj3">Soviet Jews</a>, known as <a href="/facts/Refusenik/o2AkgLWh">Refuseniks</a> because they had been denied official permission to leave, to flee; most went to Israel or to the United States as refugees.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87"><sup>87</sup></a> 1972 <a href="/facts/Idi_Amin/gjvrcmu6">Idi Amin</a> expels all Israelis from Uganda.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88"><sup>88</sup></a> 1984–1985 10,000 Jews flee Ethiopia as part of <a href="/facts/Operation_Moses/ld51tTqH">Operation Moses</a> and <a href="/facts/Operation_Joshua/kgtQqWbL">Operation Joshua</a>. 1991 14,000 Jews flee Ethiopia as part of <a href="/facts/Operation_Solomon/HMTtpR89">Operation Solomon</a>. <h3>21st century</h3> 2003 Last Jew left Libya.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89"><sup>89</sup></a> 2005 <a href="/facts/Israeli_disengagement_from_the_Gaza_Strip/eyX0ppRu">Israeli disengagement from the Gaza Strip</a> forced relocation of 8,000 people from the Gaza strip 2010 Contact with last two Jews in Somalia was lost.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90"><sup>90</sup></a> 2021 Last Jews left Afghanistan.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91"><sup>91</sup></a> 2021 The <a href="/facts/Yemenite_Jews/MMxYSKUt">Jewish population</a> of <a href="/facts/Yemen/eDyoh4qV">Yemen</a> decreases from 18 to six,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92"><sup>92</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93"><sup>93</sup></a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94"><sup>94</sup></a> and later to five by 2024.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95"><sup>95</sup></a> <h2 id="expulsions-of-jews-by-country">Expulsions of Jews by country</h2> <table><tbody><tr><th>Country</th><th>Date of expulsion</th><th>Expulsion lifted (<i><a href="/facts/De_facto/3Du6WQKh">de facto</a></i>)</th><th>Expulsion lifted (<i><a href="/facts/De_jure/XLvtHTL3">de jure</a></i>)</th></tr><tr><td> <a href="/facts/Austria/4qWIMIyc">Austria</a></td><td>1421</td><td colspan="2">1469</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"> <a href="/facts/Kingdom_of_England/1VqdIuFc">England</a></td><td rowspan="2">1290</td><td rowspan="2">1656</td><td>1753–54</td></tr><tr><td>1829</td></tr><tr><td> <a href="/facts/Early_modern_France/bGuzvsPu">France</a></td><td>1394</td><td>18th century</td><td>27 September 1791</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"> <a href="/facts/Kingdom_of_Hungary/91tLqn81">Hungary</a></td><td>1349</td><td colspan="2">1350</td></tr><tr><td>1360</td><td colspan="2">1364</td></tr><tr><td> <a href="/facts/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania/9czbKcfs">Lithuania</a></td><td>1495</td><td colspan="2">1503</td></tr><tr><td> <a href="/facts/Milan/0xrtbPdt">Milan</a></td><td>1597</td><td colspan="2">1714</td></tr><tr><td> <a href="/facts/Kingdom_of_Naples/9NtrlFp7">Naples</a></td><td>1510</td><td colspan="2">1735</td></tr><tr><td> <a href="/facts/Nuremberg/Bht6TsP4">Nuremberg</a></td><td>1499</td><td colspan="2">1850</td></tr><tr><td> <a href="/facts/Kingdom_of_Portugal/KUUfjXpt">Portugal</a></td><td>1497</td><td>19th century</td><td>N/A</td></tr><tr><td> <a href="/facts/Kingdom_of_Sicily/AuymVu1X">Sicily</a></td><td>31 December 1492</td><td colspan="2">3 February 1740</td></tr><tr><td> <a href="/facts/Spain/bIyrB8EY">Spain</a></td><td>31 March 1492</td><td>19th century</td><td>16 December 1968<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96"><sup>96</sup></a></td></tr><tr><td> <a href="/facts/Yemen/eDyoh4qV">Yemen</a></td><td>167929 March 2021</td><td colspan="2"></td></tr></tbody></table> <h2 id="see-also">See also</h2> <ul> <li>History portal</li><li>Judaism portal</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/facts/Aliyah/jEbdJ56U">Aliyah</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Antisemitism/kUpfFkqx">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Geography_of_antisemitism/RAdc4Uq1">Geography of antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Historical_Jewish_population_comparisons/lXzdmyLR">Historical Jewish population comparisons</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/History_of_antisemitism/PD4LBjE8">History of antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Jewish_diaspora/E2Tc3qxx">Jewish diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Jewish_ethnic_divisions/pug5VJbu">Jewish ethnic divisions</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Jewish_exodus_from_the_Muslim_world/KFVzEtrE">Jewish exodus from the Muslim world</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Jewish_history/KasvajCe">Jewish history</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Pogrom/RFDMb1df">Pogrom</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Persecution_of_Jews/NCd5a1qW">Persecution of Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Refugee_workers_in_Vichy_France/ehPgTWzW">Refugee workers in Vichy France</a></li> <li><a href="/facts/Yerida/t4S9L7AW">Yerida</a></li></ul> <h2 id="notes">Notes</h2> <h3>Citations</h3> <h3>Books</h3> <ul><li>Aschheim, Steven E. (1982). <i>Brothers and strangers: the east European Jew in German and German Jewish consciousness, 1800-1923</i>.</li> <li>Melton, J. Gordon (15 January 2014). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bI9_AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA967"><i>Faiths Across Time: 5,000 Years of Religious History [4 Volumes]</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. pp. 967–. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-61069-026-3.</li> <li>Mor, Menahem (4 May 2016). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T8wJDAAAQBAJ"><i>The Second Jewish Revolt: The Bar Kokhba War, 132-136 CE</i></a>. BRILL. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-90-04-31463-4.</li></ul> <h4>Anglo-Jewish history</h4> <ul><li>Sheila Delany, ed. (2002), <i>Chaucer and the Jews</i>, Routledge, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-415-93882-2, <a href="/facts/OL_(identifier)/A13NLNNh">OL</a> <a href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL7496826M">7496826M</a></li> <li>Hillaby, Joe; Hillaby, Caroline (2013). <i>The Palgrave Dictionary of Medieval Anglo-Jewish History</i>. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-23027-816-5.</li> <li>Huscroft, Richard (2006). <i>Expulsion: England's Jewish solution</i>. Stroud: Tempus. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-752-43729-3. <a href="/facts/OL_(identifier)/A13NLNNh">OL</a> <a href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL7982808M">7982808M</a>.</li> <li>Mundill, Robin R. (2002), <i>England's Jewish Solution</i>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-521-52026-3, <a href="/facts/OL_(identifier)/A13NLNNh">OL</a> <a href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL26454030M">26454030M</a></li> <li>Richardson, Henry (1960). <i>English Jewry under Angevin Kings</i>. London: Methuen. <a href="/facts/OL_(identifier)/A13NLNNh">OL</a> <a href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL17927110M">17927110M</a>.</li> <li>Kerkeslager, Allen (2006). "The Jews in Egypt and Cyrenaica, 66–c. 235 CE". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). <i>The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period</i>. The Cambridge History of Judaism. Vol. 4th. <a href="/facts/Cambridge_University_Press/fgEBSSRq">Cambridge University Press</a>. pp. 61–62. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-521-77248-8.</li></ul> <h2 id="external-links">External links</h2> <ul><li><a href="http://www.jewishtraces.org">Ordinary exile</a>, the story of Austrian Jewish refugees in France and in Belgium</li> <li><a href="http://womennewsnetwork.net/2007/08/21/a-lifes-worth-of-living-witnessing-the-life-of-foreign-correspondent-ruth-gruber-in-her-new-book-witness/">A Lifes Worth of Living</a> <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070928090223/http://womennewsnetwork.net/2007/08/21/a-lifes-worth-of-living-witnessing-the-life-of-foreign-correspondent-ruth-gruber-in-her-new-book-witness/">Archived</a> 2007-09-28 at the <a href="/facts/Wayback_Machine/nmQ3a6JC">Wayback Machine</a> by Lys Anzia. WNN - Women News Network</li> <li><a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iuq3GnOXXjg">Silent Exodus</a> on <a href="/facts/YouTube_video_(identifier)/db276jst">YouTube</a>, a documentary by <a href="/facts/Pierre_Rehov/Rl0jHfpV">Pierre Rehov</a></li></ul> <h2 id="references">References</h2> <ol> <li id="fn:1"><p>Umberto Cassuto, Elia Samuele Artom (1981). The Books of Kings and Chronicles modern view. <a href="/wiki/Umberto_Cassuto" target="_blank">/wiki/Umberto_Cassuto</a> <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:2"><p>2 Chronicles 30:1–18 <a href="https://www.biblica.com/bible/?osis=niv:2%20Chronicles%2030:1–18" target="_blank">https://www.biblica.com/bible/?osis=niv:2%20Chronicles%2030:1–18</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:3"><p>Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002) The Bible Unearthed : Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts, Simon & Schuster, ISBN 0-684-86912-8 <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:4"><p>Finkelstein, Israel (2015-06-28). "Migration of Israelites into Judah after 720 BCE: An Answer and an Update". Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft. 127 (2): 188–206. doi:10.1515/zaw-2015-0011. ISSN 1613-0103. S2CID 171178702. <a href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zaw-2015-0011/html" target="_blank">https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/zaw-2015-0011/html</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:5"><p>The Oxford History of the Biblical World, ed. by Michael D Coogan. Published by Oxford University Press, 1999. pg 350 <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:6"><p>Knight, Doug and Amy-Jill Levine (2011). The Meaning of the Bible. New York City: HarperOne. p. 31. ISBN 9780062067739. <a href="9780062067739" target="_blank">9780062067739</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:7"><p>Jeremiah 40:11–12 <a href="https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt1140.htm#11" target="_blank">https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt1140.htm#11</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:8"><p>Malamat, Abraham (1968). "The Last Kings of Judah and the Fall of Jerusalem: An Historical – Chronological Study". Israel Exploration Journal. 18 (3): 137–156. JSTOR 27925138. The discrepancy between the length of the siege according to the regnal years of Zedekiah (years 9–11), on the one hand, and its length according to Jehoiachin's exile (years 9–12), on the other, can be cancelled out only by supposing the former to have been reckoned on a Tishri basis, and the latter on a Nisan basis. The difference of one year between the two is accounted for by the fact that the termination of the siege fell in the summer, between Nisan and Tishri, already in the 12th year according to the reckoning in Ezekiel, but still in Zedekiah's 11th year which was to end only in Tishri. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:9"><p>Coogan, Michael (2009). A brief introduction to the old testament. Oxford.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) <a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" target="_blank">/wiki/Template:Cite_book</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:10"><p>Jonathan Stökl, Caroline Waerzegger (2015). Exile and Return: The Babylonian Context. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. pp. 7–11, 30, 226. <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:11"><p>Encyclopaedia Judaica. Vol. 3 (2nd ed.). p. 27. <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:12"><p>Goodman, Martin (2006). Judaism in the Roman World: Collected Essays. Hotei Publishing. p. 207. <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:13"><p>Williams, Margaret H. (2013). Jews in a Graeco-Roman Environment. Mohr Siebeck. p. 63. <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:14"><p>Suetonius, The Life of Tiberius, Chapter 36. 1913. University of Chicago. Retrieved July 14, 2019. <a href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Tiberius*.html" target="_blank">https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Tiberius*.html</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:15"><p>Philo of Alexandria, Flaccus VIII (53–57) <a href="/wiki/Philo_of_Alexandria" target="_blank">/wiki/Philo_of_Alexandria</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:16"><p>Schwartz, Seth (2014). The ancient Jews from Alexander to Muhammad. Cambridge. pp. 85–86. ISBN 978-1-107-04127-1. OCLC 863044259.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) <a href="978-1-107-04127-1" target="_blank">978-1-107-04127-1</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:17"><p>Van Kooten, G. H. (2011). The Jewish War and the Roman Civil War of 68–69 CE: Jewish, Pagan, and Christian Perspectives. In The Jewish Revolt against Rome (pp. 419–450). Brill. <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:18"><p>Herr, Moshe David (1984). Shtern, Menahem (ed.). The History of Eretz Israel: The Roman Byzantine period: the Roman period from the conquest to the Ben Kozba War (63 B.C.E-135 C.E.). Jerusalem: Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi. p. 288. <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:19"><p>Schwartz, Seth (2014). The ancient Jews from Alexander to Muhammad. Cambridge. pp. 85–86. ISBN 978-1-107-04127-1. OCLC 863044259.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) <a href="978-1-107-04127-1" target="_blank">978-1-107-04127-1</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:20"><p>Kerkeslager 2006, pp. 61–62. - Kerkeslager, Allen (2006). "The Jews in Egypt and Cyrenaica, 66–c. 235 CE". In Katz, Steven T. (ed.). The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period. The Cambridge History of Judaism. Vol. 4th. Cambridge University Press. pp. 61–62. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:21"><p>Taylor, J. E. (15 November 2012). The Essenes, the Scrolls, and the Dead Sea. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199554485. These texts, combined with the relics of those who hid in caves along the western side of the Dead Sea, tell us a great deal. What is clear from the evidence of both skeletal remains and artefacts is that the Roman assault on the Jewish population of the Dead Sea was so severe and comprehensive that no one came to retrieve precious legal documents, or bury the dead. Up until this date the Bar Kokhba documents indicate that towns, villages and ports where Jews lived were busy with industry and activity. Afterwards there is an eerie silence, and the archaeological record testifies to little Jewish presence until the Byzantine era, in En Gedi. This picture coheres with what we have already determined in Part I of this study, that the crucial date for what can only be described as genocide, and the devastation of Jews and Judaism within central Judea, was 135 CE and not, as usually assumed, 70 CE, despite the siege of Jerusalem and the Temple's destruction <a href="9780199554485" target="_blank">9780199554485</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:22"><p>Taylor, J. E. (15 November 2012). The Essenes, the Scrolls, and the Dead Sea. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199554485. Up until this date the Bar Kokhba documents indicate that towns, villages and ports where Jews lived were busy with industry and activity. Afterwards there is an eerie silence, [...] This picture coheres with what we have already determined in Part I of this study, that the crucial date for what can only be described as genocide, and the devastation of Jews and Judaism within central Judea, was 135 CE and not, as usually assumed, 70 CE, despite the siege of Jerusalem and the Temple's destruction <a href="9780199554485" target="_blank">9780199554485</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:23"><p>Totten, S. Teaching about genocide: issues, approaches and resources. p24. [1] <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LoQo50YPzTUC&pg=PA23" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=LoQo50YPzTUC&pg=PA23</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:24"><p>Bar, Doron (2005). "Rural Monasticism as a Key Element in the Christianization of Byzantine Palestine". The Harvard Theological Review. 98 (1): 49–65. doi:10.1017/S0017816005000854. ISSN 0017-8160. JSTOR 4125284. S2CID 162644246. The phenomenon was most prominent in Judea, and can be explained by the demographic changes that this region underwent after the second Jewish revolt of 132-135 C.E. The expulsion of Jews from the area of Jerusalem following the suppression of the revolt, in combination with the penetration of pagan populations into the same region, created the conditions for the diffusion of Christians into that area during the fifth and sixth centuries. <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4125284" target="_blank">https://www.jstor.org/stable/4125284</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:25"><p>Mor 2016, pp. 483–484: "Land confiscation in Judaea was part of the suppression of the revolt policy of the Romans and punishment for the rebels. [...] There is no doubt that this area (Judea) suffered the severest damage from the suppression of the revolt. Settlements in Judaea, such as Herodion and Bethar, had already been destroyed during the course of the revolt, and Jews were expelled from the districts of Gophna, Herodion, and Aqraba." - Mor, Menahem (4 May 2016). The Second Jewish Revolt: The Bar Kokhba War, 132-136 CE. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-31463-4. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T8wJDAAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=T8wJDAAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:26"><p>Anderson, James Donald; Levy, Thomas Evan (1995). The Impact of Rome on the Periphery: The Case of Palestina - Roman Period (63 BCE - 324 CE). The Archaeology of Society in the Holy Land. p. 449. <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:27"><p>Mor 2016, p. 471. - Mor, Menahem (4 May 2016). The Second Jewish Revolt: The Bar Kokhba War, 132-136 CE. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-31463-4. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T8wJDAAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=T8wJDAAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:28"><p>"Cyril of Alexandria". Britannica.com. 2018-06-14. Retrieved 2019-06-14. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Cyril-of-Alexandria" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Cyril-of-Alexandria</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:29"><p>Seaver, James Everett (1952). Persecution of the Jews in the Roman Empire (300-438). Lawrence, University of Kansas Publications, 1952. <a href="https://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/handle/1808/6501" target="_blank">https://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/handle/1808/6501</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:30"><p>Bradbury, Scott (1996). severus of minorca:letter of the conversion of the jews. Oxford University Press. p. 154. <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:31"><p>"The Jews in Spain Under the Visigoths". Jewish-American History Foundation. <a href="http://www.jewish-history.com/occident/volume7/nov1849/visigoths.html" target="_blank">http://www.jewish-history.com/occident/volume7/nov1849/visigoths.html</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:32"><p>"The Expulsion Of Banu Qaynuqa". <a href="https://www.bismikaallahuma.org/history/the-expulsion-of-banu-qaynuqa/" target="_blank">https://www.bismikaallahuma.org/history/the-expulsion-of-banu-qaynuqa/</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:33"><p>"Muhammad: Legacy of a Prophet . Muhammad and Jews of Medina | PBS". www.pbs.org. Retrieved 2021-03-14. Two of the tribes--the Banu Nadir and the Banu Qaynuqa--were eventually exiled for falling short on their agreed upon commitments and for the consequent danger they posed to the nascent Muslim community. <a href="https://www.pbs.org/muhammad/ma_jews.shtml" target="_blank">https://www.pbs.org/muhammad/ma_jews.shtml</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:34"><p>"The Expedition of Banu Qaynuqa » Questions on Islam". Questions on Islam. Retrieved 2021-03-14. <a href="https://questionsonislam.com/article/expedition-banu-qaynuqa" target="_blank">https://questionsonislam.com/article/expedition-banu-qaynuqa</a> <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:35"><p>Delany (2002), p. 48. <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:36"><p>Mundill (2002), p. 60 <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:37"><p>Harris, Oliver (2008). "Jews, jurats and the Jewry Wall: a name in context" (PDF). Transactions of the Leicestershire Archaeological and Historical Society. 82: 113–33 (129–31). <a href="https://www.le.ac.uk/lahs/downloads/2008/2008%20(82)%20113-133%20Harris.pdf" target="_blank">https://www.le.ac.uk/lahs/downloads/2008/2008%20(82)%20113-133%20Harris.pdf</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:38"><p>"Jews are expelled from Vienne France by order of Pope Innocent III". <a href="https://www.brainyhistory.com/events/1253/july_23_1253_31689.html" target="_blank">https://www.brainyhistory.com/events/1253/july_23_1253_31689.html</a> <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:39"><p>Hillaby & Hillaby 2013, p. 142-143. - Hillaby, Joe; Hillaby, Caroline (2013). The Palgrave Dictionary of Medieval Anglo-Jewish History. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-23027-816-5. <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:40"><p>Richardson 1960, pp. 225–7. - Richardson, Henry (1960). English Jewry under Angevin Kings. London: Methuen. OL 17927110M. <a href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL17927110M" target="_blank">https://openlibrary.org/books/OL17927110M</a> <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:41"><p>Huscroft 2006, pp. 145–6. - Huscroft, Richard (2006). Expulsion: England's Jewish solution. Stroud: Tempus. ISBN 978-0-752-43729-3. OL 7982808M. <a href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL7982808M" target="_blank">https://openlibrary.org/books/OL7982808M</a> <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:42"><p>Huscroft 2006, pp. 146–149. - Huscroft, Richard (2006). Expulsion: England's Jewish solution. Stroud: Tempus. ISBN 978-0-752-43729-3. OL 7982808M. <a href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL7982808M" target="_blank">https://openlibrary.org/books/OL7982808M</a> <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:43"><p>Jeff Reznik (February 28, 1992). "Time Capsule: Jewish Expulsion". The Jewish Press. p. M11. <a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Press" target="_blank">/wiki/The_Jewish_Press</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:44"><p>Patai, Raphael (1996). The Jews of Hungary: History, Culture, Psychology. Wayne State University Press. ISBN 0-8143-2561-0. <a href="0-8143-2561-0" target="_blank">0-8143-2561-0</a> <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:45"><p>Melton 2014, p. 967. - Melton, J. Gordon (15 January 2014). Faiths Across Time: 5,000 Years of Religious History [4 Volumes]. ABC-CLIO. pp. 967–. ISBN 978-1-61069-026-3. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bI9_AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA967" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=bI9_AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA967</a> <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:46"><p>Gampel, Benjamin R. (1986). "The Last Jews on Iberian Soil: Navarrese Jewry, 1479–1498". Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research. 53: 49–69. doi:10.2307/3622608. JSTOR 3622608. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" target="_blank">/wiki/Doi_(identifier)</a> <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:47"><p>"Jewish migrations in the 16th century". Heimatkunde: Flucht - Migration - Integration in Brandenburg. 2021-01-24. Archived from the original on 2022-05-04. Retrieved 2021-01-24. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220504152242/https://www.heimatkunde-brandenburg.de/geschichte/juedische-migrationen-im-16-jahrhundert/" target="_blank">https://web.archive.org/web/20220504152242/https://www.heimatkunde-brandenburg.de/geschichte/juedische-migrationen-im-16-jahrhundert/</a> <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:48"><p>Birnbaum, Marianna D. (2003). The Long Journey of Gracia Mendes. Central European University Press. p. 68. ISBN 9789639241671. <a href="9789639241671" target="_blank">9789639241671</a> <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:49"><p>Silber, Michael K. "Bratislava". YIVO Encyclopedia. Retrieved 21 May 2020. <a href="https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Bratislava" target="_blank">https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Bratislava</a> <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:50"><p>"1670: The Holy Roman Emperor Banishes the Jews From Austria". Haaretz. 2015-05-01. Retrieved 2019-06-15. <a href="https://www.haaretz.com/jewish/.premium-1670-austrian-jews-banned-1.5330064" target="_blank">https://www.haaretz.com/jewish/.premium-1670-austrian-jews-banned-1.5330064</a> <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:51"><p>"Caribbeans, Spanish--Portuguese Nation of the: La Nacion". Retrieved 17 April 2014. <a href="https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0004_0_03964.html" target="_blank">https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0004_0_03964.html</a> <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:52"><p>"Le code noir ou Edit du roy, servant de reglement pour le gouvernement & l'administration de justice & la police des isles françoises de l'Amerique, & pour la discipline & le commerce des negres & esclaves dans ledit pays. : Donné à Versailles au mois de mars 1685. Avec l'Edit du mois d'aoust 1685. portant établissement d'un conseil souverain & de quatre sieges royaux dans la coste de l'Isle de S. Domingue". Retrieved December 16, 2023. <a href="https://archive.org/details/lecodenoirouedi00fran/page/4/mode/2up?view=theater" target="_blank">https://archive.org/details/lecodenoirouedi00fran/page/4/mode/2up?view=theater</a> <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:53"><p>See also: Schutzjude [citation needed] <a href="/wiki/Schutzjude" target="_blank">/wiki/Schutzjude</a> <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:54"><p>John Y Simon (1979). The Papers of Ulysses S. Grant, Volume 7: December 9, 1862 – March 31, 1863. SIU Press. p. 56. ISBN 9780809308804. <a href="9780809308804" target="_blank">9780809308804</a> <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:55"><p>"Jewish Emigration in the 19th Century". <a href="https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/jewish-emigration-in-the-19th-century/" target="_blank">https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/jewish-emigration-in-the-19th-century/</a> <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:56"><p>See also: MS St. Louis <a href="/wiki/MS_St._Louis" target="_blank">/wiki/MS_St._Louis</a> <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:57"><p>"Warm British welcome for Jews fleeing Nazis a 'myth'". Phys.org / University of Manchester. February 27, 2013. 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Obywatele Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej w ZSRR i opieka nad nimi placówek polskich w latach 1940–1943 (in Polish). Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Neriton, Instytut Historii Polskiej Akademii Nauk. p. 83. ISBN 83-86842-52-0. <a href="83-86842-52-0" target="_blank">83-86842-52-0</a> <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:61"><p>Boćkowski, Daniel (1999). Czas nadziei. Obywatele Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej w ZSRR i opieka nad nimi placówek polskich w latach 1940–1943 (in Polish). Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Neriton, Instytut Historii Polskiej Akademii Nauk. p. 83. ISBN 83-86842-52-0. <a href="83-86842-52-0" target="_blank">83-86842-52-0</a> <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:62"><p>Boćkowski, Daniel (1999). Czas nadziei. Obywatele Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej w ZSRR i opieka nad nimi placówek polskich w latach 1940–1943 (in Polish). Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Neriton, Instytut Historii Polskiej Akademii Nauk. p. 85. <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:63"><p>Roth, Cecil (1969). The history of the Jews of Italy. [Westmead, Eng.]: [Gregg International Publishers]. pp. 540–549. ISBN 0-576-80117-8. OCLC 551115. <a href="0-576-80117-8" target="_blank">0-576-80117-8</a> <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:64"><p>Changing tack, Foreign Ministry to bring 'Jewish refugees' to fore "'To define them as refugees is exaggerated,' said Alon Liel, a former director-general of the Foreign Ministry" <a href="https://www.timesofisrael.com/foreign-ministry-promotes-the-jewish-refugee-problem/" target="_blank">https://www.timesofisrael.com/foreign-ministry-promotes-the-jewish-refugee-problem/</a> <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:65"><p>"Changing the refugee paradigm". 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director-general of the Foreign Ministry" <a href="https://www.timesofisrael.com/foreign-ministry-promotes-the-jewish-refugee-problem/" target="_blank">https://www.timesofisrael.com/foreign-ministry-promotes-the-jewish-refugee-problem/</a> <a href="#fnref:70" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:71"><p>Changing tack, Foreign Ministry to bring 'Jewish refugees' to fore "'To define them as refugees is exaggerated,' said Alon Liel, a former director-general of the Foreign Ministry" <a href="https://www.timesofisrael.com/foreign-ministry-promotes-the-jewish-refugee-problem/" target="_blank">https://www.timesofisrael.com/foreign-ministry-promotes-the-jewish-refugee-problem/</a> <a href="#fnref:71" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:72"><p>Israel scrambles Palestinian 'right of return' with Jewish refugee talk "Palestinian and Israeli critics have two main arguments: that these Jews were not refugees because they were eager participants in a new Zionist state, and Israel cannot and should not attempt to settle its account with the Palestinians by deducting the lost assets of its own citizens, thereby preventing individuals on both sides from seeking compensation." <a href="http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2012/1001/Israel-scrambles-Palestinian-right-of-return-with-Jewish-refugee-talk" target="_blank">http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2012/1001/Israel-scrambles-Palestinian-right-of-return-with-Jewish-refugee-talk</a> <a href="#fnref:72" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:73"><p>Yehouda Shenhav The Arab Jews: A Postcolonial Reading of Nationalism, Religion, and Ethnicity <a href="/wiki/Yehouda_Shenhav" target="_blank">/wiki/Yehouda_Shenhav</a> <a href="#fnref:73" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:74"><p>Yehouda Shenhav The Arab Jews: A Postcolonial Reading of Nationalism, Religion, and Ethnicity <a href="/wiki/Yehouda_Shenhav" target="_blank">/wiki/Yehouda_Shenhav</a> <a href="#fnref:74" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:75"><p>Changing tack, Foreign Ministry to bring 'Jewish refugees' to fore "'To define them as refugees is exaggerated,' said Alon Liel, a former director-general of the Foreign Ministry" <a href="https://www.timesofisrael.com/foreign-ministry-promotes-the-jewish-refugee-problem/" target="_blank">https://www.timesofisrael.com/foreign-ministry-promotes-the-jewish-refugee-problem/</a> <a href="#fnref:75" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></p></li> <li id="fn:76"><p>Israel scrambles Palestinian 'right of return' with Jewish refugee talk "Palestinian and Israeli critics have two main arguments: that these Jews were not refugees because they were eager participants in a new Zionist state, and Israel cannot and should not attempt to settle its account with the Palestinians by deducting the lost assets of its own citizens, thereby preventing individuals on both sides from seeking compensation." <a 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