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Revenge Attacks After Killing of Israeli Settlers Leave West Bank in Turmoil

Feb 27 2023

BBC NEWS | Middle East

news.bbc.co.uk

The word pogrom

Main article: Definitions of pogrom

Etymology

First recorded in English in 1882, the Russian word pogróm (погро́м, pronounced [pɐˈɡrom]) is derived from the common prefix po- (по-) and the verb gromít' (громи́ть, [ɡrɐˈmʲitʲ]) meaning 'to destroy, wreak havoc, demolish violently'. The noun pogrom, which has a relatively short history, is used in English and many other languages as a loanword, possibly borrowed from Yiddish (where the word takes the form פאָגראָם).¹⁹ Its modern widespread circulation began with the antisemitic violence in the Russian Empire in 1881–1883.²⁰

Usage of the word

According to Encyclopædia Britannica, "the term is usually applied to attacks on Jews in the Russian Empire in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, [and] the first extensive pogroms followed the assassination of Tsar Alexander II in 1881".²¹ The Wiley-Blackwell Dictionary of Modern European History Since 1789 states that pogroms "were antisemitic disturbances that periodically occurred within the tsarist empire."²² However, the term is widely used to refer to many events which occurred prior to the Anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire. Historian of Russian Jewry John Klier writes in Russians, Jews, and the Pogroms of 1881–1882: "By the twentieth century, the word 'pogrom' had become a generic term in English for all forms of collective violence directed against Jews."²³ Abramson points out that "in mainstream usage the word has come to imply an act of antisemitism", since while "Jews have not been the only group to suffer under this phenomenon ... historically Jews have been frequent victims of such violence."²⁴

The term is also used in reference to attacks on non-Jewish ethnic minorities, and accordingly, some scholars do not include antisemitism as the defining characteristic of pogroms. Reviewing the word's uses in scholarly literature, historian Werner Bergmann proposes that a pogrom should be "defined as a unilateral, nongovernmental form of collective violence that is initiated by the majority population against a largely defenseless minority ethnic group, and occurring when the majority expect the state to provide them [sic] with no assistance in overcoming a (perceived) threat from the minority".²⁵ However, Bergmann adds that in Western usage, the word's "anti-Semitic overtones" have been retained.²⁶ Historian David Engel supports this view, writing that while "there can be no logically or empirically compelling grounds for declaring that some particular episode does or does not merit the label [pogrom]," the majority of the incidents which are "habitually" described as pogroms took place in societies that were significantly divided by ethnicity or religion where the violence was committed by members of the higher-ranking group against members of a stereotyped lower-ranking group with which they expressed some complaint, and where the members of the higher-ranking group justified their acts of violence by claiming that the law of the land would not be used to prevent the alleged complaint.²⁷

There is no universally accepted set of characteristics which define the term pogrom.²⁸²⁹ Klier writes that "when applied indiscriminately to events in Eastern Europe, the term can be misleading, the more so when it implies that 'pogroms' were regular events in the region and that they always shared common features."³⁰ Use of the term pogrom to refer to events in 1918–19 in Polish cities (including the Kielce pogrom, the Pinsk massacre and the Lwów pogrom) was specifically avoided in the 1919 Morgenthau Report; the word "excesses" was employed instead because the authors argued that the use of the term "pogrom" required a situation to be antisemitic rather than political in nature, which meant that it was inapplicable to the conditions which exist in a war zone.³¹³²³³ Media use of the term pogrom to refer to the 1991 Crown Heights riot caused public controversy.³⁴³⁵³⁶ In 2008, two separate attacks in the West Bank by Israeli Jewish settlers on Palestinian Arabs were characterized as pogroms by then Prime Minister of Israel Ehud Olmert.³⁷³⁸

Werner Bergmann suggests that all such incidents have a particularly unifying characteristic: "By the collective attribution of a threat, the pogrom differs from other forms of violence, such as lynchings, which are directed at individual members of a minority group, while the imbalance of power in favor of the rioters distinguishes pogroms from other forms of riots (food riots, race riots or 'communal riots' between evenly matched groups); and again, the low level of organization separates them from vigilantism, terrorism, massacre and genocide".³⁹

History of anti-Jewish pogroms

The first recorded anti-Jewish riots took place in Alexandria in the year 38 CE, followed by the more known riot of 66 CE. Other notable events took place in Europe during the Middle Ages. Jewish communities were targeted in 1189 and 1190 in England and throughout Europe during the Crusades and the Black Death of 1348–1350, including in Toulon, Erfurt, Basel, Aragon, Flanders⁴⁰⁴¹ and Strasbourg.⁴² Some 510 Jewish communities were destroyed during this period,⁴³ extending further to the Brussels massacre of 1370. On Holy Saturday of 1389, a riot began in Prague that led to the burning of the Jewish quarter, the killing of many Jews, and the suicide of many Jews trapped in the main synagogue; the number of dead was estimated at 400–500 men, women and children.⁴⁴ Attacks against Jews also took place in Barcelona and other Spanish cities during the massacre of 1391.

The brutal murders of Jews and Poles occurred during the Khmelnytsky Uprising of 1648–1657 in present-day Ukraine, then within the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.⁴⁵ Modern historians give estimates of the scale of the murders by Khmelnytsky's Cossacks ranging between 40,000 and 100,000 men, women and children,⁴⁶⁴⁷ or perhaps many more.⁴⁸ However, these figures are contested as being too high, with the lowest estimates suggesting that 18,000–20,000 Jews died out of a total population of 40,000, many due to disease and famine.⁴⁹

An outbreak of violence against Jews (Hep-Hep riots) occurred at the beginning of the 19th century in reaction to Jewish emancipation in the German Confederation.⁵⁰

Pogroms in the Russian Empire

Further information: Pogroms in the Russian Empire

The Russian Empire, which previously had very few Jews, acquired territories in the Russian Partition that contained large Jewish populations, during the military partitions of Poland in 1772, 1793 and 1795.⁵¹ In conquered territories, a new political entity called the Pale of Settlement was formed in 1791 by Catherine the Great. Most Jews from the former Commonwealth were allowed to reside only within the Pale, including families expelled by royal decree from St. Petersburg, Moscow and other large Russian cities.⁵² The 1821 Odessa pogroms marked the beginning of the 19th century pogroms in Tsarist Russia; there were four more such pogroms in Odessa before the end of the century.⁵³ Following the assassination of Alexander II in 1881 by Narodnaya Volya, anti-Jewish events turned into a wave of over 200 pogroms by their modern definition, which lasted for several years.⁵⁴ Jewish self-governing Kehillah were abolished by Tsar Nicholas I in 1844.⁵⁵

There is some disagreement about the level of planning from the Tsarist authorities and the motives for the attacks.⁵⁶

The first in 20th-century Russia was the Kishinev pogrom of 1903 in which 49 Jews were killed, hundreds wounded, 700 homes destroyed and 600 businesses pillaged.⁵⁷ In the same year, pogroms took place in Gomel (Belarus), Smela, Feodosiya and Melitopol (Ukraine). Extreme savagery was typified by mutilations of the wounded.⁵⁸ They were followed by the Zhitomir pogrom (with 29 killed),⁵⁹ and the Kiev pogrom of October 1905 resulting in a massacre of approximately 100 Jews.⁶⁰ In three years between 1903 and 1906, about 660 pogroms were recorded in Ukraine and Bessarabia; half a dozen more in Belorussia, carried out with the Russian government's complicity, but no anti-Jewish pogroms were recorded in Poland.⁶¹ At about that time, the Jewish Labor Bund began organizing armed self-defense units ready to shoot back, and the pogroms subsided for a number of years.⁶² According to professor Colin Tatz, between 1881 and 1920 there were 1,326 pogroms in Ukraine (see: Southwestern Krai parts of the Pale) which took the lives of 70,000 to 250,000 civilian Jews, leaving half a million homeless.⁶³⁶⁴ This violence across Eastern Europe prompted a wave of Jewish migration westward that totaled about 2.5 million people.⁶⁵

Eastern Europe after World War I

Further information: Pogroms of the Russian Civil War

Large-scale pogroms, which began in the Russian Empire several decades earlier, intensified during the period of the Russian Civil War in the aftermath of World War I. Professor Zvi Gitelman (in A Century of Ambivalence, originally published in 1988) estimated that only in 1918–1919 over 1,200 pogroms took place in Ukraine, thus amounting to the greatest slaughter of Jews in Eastern Europe since 1648.⁶⁶ The Kiev pogroms of 1919, according to Gitelman, were the first of a subsequent wave of pogroms in which between 30,000 and 70,000 Jews were massacred across Ukraine; although more recent assessments[by whom?] put the Jewish death toll at more than 100,000.⁶⁷⁶⁸[verify]

Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn in his controversial 2002 book Two Hundred Years Together provided additional statistics from research conducted by Nahum Gergel (1887–1931), published in Yiddish in 1928 and English in 1951. Gergel counted 1,236 incidents of anti-Jewish violence between 1918 and 1921, and estimated that 887 mass pogroms occurred, the remainder being classified as "excesses" not assuming mass proportions.⁶⁹⁷⁰ Of all the pogroms accounted for in Gergel's research:

• About 40 percent were perpetrated by the Ukrainian People's Republic forces led by Symon Petliura. The Republic issued orders condemning pogroms,⁷¹ but lacked authority to intervene.⁷² After May 1919 the Directory lost its role as a credible governing body; almost 75 percent of pogroms occurred between May and September of that year.⁷³ Thousands of Jews were killed only for being Jewish, without any political affiliations.⁷⁴
• 25 percent by the Ukrainian Green Army and various Ukrainian nationalist gangs,
• 17 percent by the White Army, especially the forces of Anton Denikin,
• 8.5 percent of Gergel's total was attributed to pogroms carried out by men of the Red Army (more specifically Semyon Budenny's First Cavalry, most of whose soldiers had previously served under Denikin).⁷⁵ These pogroms were not, however, sanctioned by the Bolshevik leadership; the high command "vigorously condemned these pogroms and disarmed the guilty regiments", and the pogroms would soon be condemned by Mikhail Kalinin in a speech made at a military parade in Ukraine.⁷⁶⁷⁷⁷⁸

Gergel's overall figures, which are generally considered conservative, are based on the testimony of witnesses and newspaper reports collected by the Mizrakh-Yidish Historiche Arkhiv which was first based in Kiev, then Berlin and later New York. The English version of Gergel's article was published in 1951 in the YIVO Annual of Jewish Social Science titled "The Pogroms in the Ukraine in 1918–1921".⁷⁹

On 8 August 1919, during the Polish–Soviet War, Polish troops took over Minsk in Operation Minsk. They killed 31 Jews suspected of supporting the Bolshevist movement, beat and attacked many more, looted 377 Jewish-owned shops (aided by the local civilians) and ransacked many private homes.⁸⁰⁸¹ The "Morgenthau's report of October 1919 stated that there is no question that some of the Jewish leaders exaggerated these evils."⁸²⁸³ According to Elissa Bemporad, the "violence endured by the Jewish population under the Poles encouraged popular support for the Red Army, as Jewish public opinion welcomed the establishment of the Belorussian SSR."⁸⁴

After the First World War, during the localized armed conflicts of independence, 72 Jews were killed and 443 injured in the 1918 Lwów pogrom.^8586878889 The following year, pogroms were reported by the New York Tribune in several cities in the newly established Second Polish Republic.⁹⁰

Pogroms in Europe and the Americas before World War II

Argentina 1919

In 1919, a pogrom occurred in Argentina, during the Tragic Week.⁹¹ It had an added element, as it was called to attack Jews and Catalans indiscriminately. The reasons are not clear, especially considering that, in the case of Buenos Aires, the Catalan colony, established mainly in the neighborhood of Montserrat, came from the foundation of the city, but could have been the result of the influence of Spanish nationalism, which at the time described Catalans as a Semitic ethnicity.⁹²

Britain and Ireland

In the early 20th century, pogroms broke out elsewhere in the world as well. In 1904 in Ireland, the Limerick boycott caused several Jewish families to leave the town. During the 1911 Tredegar riot in Wales, Jewish homes and businesses were looted and burned over a period of a week, before the British Army was called in by the then Home Secretary Winston Churchill, who described the riot as a "pogrom".⁹³

In the north of Ireland during the early 1920s, violent riots which were aimed at the expulsion of a religious group took place. In 1920, Lisburn and Belfast saw violence related to the Irish War of Independence and partition of Ireland. On 21 July 1920 in Belfast, Protestant Loyalists marched on the Harland and Wolff shipyards and forced over 11,000 Catholic and left-wing Protestant workers from their jobs.⁹⁴ The sectarian rioting that followed resulted in about 20 deaths in just three days.⁹⁵ These sectarian actions are often referred to as the Belfast Pogrom. In Lisburn, County Antrim, on 23–25 August 1920 Protestant loyalist crowds looted and burned practically every Catholic business in the town and attacked Catholic homes. About 1,000 people, a third of the town's Catholics, fled Lisburn.⁹⁶ By the end of the first six months of 1922, hundreds of people had been killed in sectarian violence in newly formed Northern Ireland. On a per capita basis, four Roman Catholics were killed for every Protestant.⁹⁷

In the worst incident of anti-Jewish violence in Britain during the interwar period, the "Pogrom of Mile End", that occurred in 1936, 200 Blackshirt youths ran amok in Stepney in the East End of London, smashing the windows of Jewish shops and homes and throwing an elderly man and young girl through a window. Though less serious, attacks on Jews were also reported in Manchester and Leeds in the north of England.⁹⁸

Germany and Nazi-occupied Europe

Main article: The Holocaust

The first pogrom in Nazi Germany was the Kristallnacht, often called Pogromnacht, in which at least 91 Jews were killed, a further 30,000 arrested and incarcerated in Nazi concentration camps,⁹⁹ over 1,000 synagogues burned, and over 7,000 Jewish businesses destroyed or damaged.¹⁰⁰¹⁰¹

During World War II, Nazi German death squads encouraged local populations in German-occupied Europe to commit pogroms against Jews. Brand new battalions of Volksdeutscher Selbstschutz (trained by SD agents) were mobilized from among the German minorities.¹⁰²¹⁰³

A large number of pogroms occurred during the Holocaust at the hands of non-Germans.¹⁰⁴ Perhaps the deadliest of these Holocaust-era pogroms was the Iași pogrom in Romania, perpetrated by Ion Antonescu, in which as many as 13,266 Jews were killed by Romanian citizens, police and military officials.¹⁰⁵

On 1–2 June 1941, in the two-day Farhud pogrom in Iraq, perpetrated by Rashid Ali, Yunis al-Sabawi, and the al-Futuwa youth, "rioters murdered between 150 and 180 Jews, injured 600 others, and raped an undetermined number of women. They also looted some 1,500 stores and homes".¹⁰⁶¹⁰⁷ Also, 300–400 non-Jewish rioters were killed in the attempt to quell the violence.¹⁰⁸

In June–July 1941, encouraged by the Einsatzgruppen in the city of Lviv the Ukrainian People's Militia perpetrated two citywide pogroms in which around 6,000 Polish Jews were murdered,¹⁰⁹ in retribution for alleged collaboration with the Soviet NKVD. In Lithuania, some local police led by Algirdas Klimaitis and Lithuanian partisans – consisting of LAF units reinforced by 3,600 deserters from the 29th Lithuanian Territorial Corps of the Red Army¹¹⁰ promulgated anti-Jewish pogroms in Kaunas along with occupying Nazis. On 25–26 June 1941, about 3,800 Jews were killed and synagogues and Jewish settlements burned.¹¹¹

During the Jedwabne pogrom of July 1941, ethnic Poles burned at least 340 Jews in a barn (Institute of National Remembrance) in the presence of Nazi German Ordnungspolizei. The role of the German Einsatzgruppe B remains the subject of debate.^{112113114115116117}

Europe after World War II

After the end of World War II, a series of violent antisemitic incidents occurred against returning Jews throughout Europe, particularly in the Soviet-occupied East where Nazi propagandists had extensively promoted the notion of a Jewish-Communist conspiracy (see Anti-Jewish violence in Poland, 1944–1946 and Anti-Jewish violence in Eastern Europe, 1944–1946). Anti-Jewish riots also took place in Britain in 1947.¹¹⁸

Pogroms in Asia and North Africa

1834 pogroms in Ottoman Syria

See also: List of massacres in Ottoman Syria, 1834 Hebron pogrom, and 1834 Safed pogrom

There were two pogroms in Ottoman Syria in 1834.

1929 in Mandatory Palestine

See also: 1929 Palestine riots and 1929 Hebron massacre

In Mandatory Palestine under British administration, Jews were targeted by Arabs in the 1929 Hebron massacre during the 1929 Palestine riots. They followed other violent incidents such as the 1920 Nebi Musa riots.¹¹⁹

Thrace pogroms in Turkey in 1934

See also: 1934 Thrace pogroms and History of the Jews in Turkey

Constantine Pogrom in French Algeria in 1934

See also: 1934 Constantine Pogrom and History of the Jews in Algeria

British North Africa in 1945

Main article: 1945 Anti-Jewish Riots in Tripolitania

Anti-Jewish rioters killed over 140 Jews in the 1945 Anti-Jewish Riots in Tripolitania. The 1945 Anti-Jewish riots in Tripolitania was the most violent rioting against Jews in North Africa in modern times. From 5 November to 7 November 1945, more than 140 Jews were killed and many more injured in a pogrom in British-military-controlled Tripolitania. 38 Jews were killed in Tripoli from where the riots spread. 40 were killed in Amrus, 34 in Zanzur, 7 in Tajura, 13 in Zawia and 3 in Qusabat.¹²⁰

In Syria in 1947 and Morocco 1948

See also: 1947 Anti-Jewish riots in Aleppo, 1947 Aden riots, 1948 Anti-Jewish Riots in Oujda and Jerada, and History of Moroccan Jews

Following the start of the 1947–48 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine, a number of anti-Jewish events occurred throughout the Arab world, some of which have been described as pogroms. In 1947, half of Aleppo's 10,000 Jews left the city in the wake of the Aleppo riots, while other anti-Jewish riots took place in British Aden and then in 1948 in the French Moroccan cities of Oujda and Jerada.¹²¹

Pogroms against Alevis in Turkey (1978 and 1980)

See also: Alevism, Malatya massacre, Maraş massacre, and Çorum pogrom

Sabra and Shatila massacre in 1982

Main article: Sabra and Shatila massacre

The Sabra and Shatila massacre is occasionally referred to as a pogrom.¹²²¹²³

1984 anti-Sikh riots

Main article: 1984 anti-Sikh riots

Sikhs were targeted in Delhi and other parts of India during a pogrom in October 1984.^124125126

May 1998 pogrom of Chinese Indonesians

Main article: May 1998 riots of Indonesia

Indonesia's minority ethnic Chinese population were targeted in a pogrom in the lead-up to the downfall of the Suharto regime. The events were mainly in the cities of Medan, Jakarta, and Surakarta, with smaller incidents in other parts of Indonesia.

Under the Suharto regime, there had been rampant and systematic discrimination against Chinese Indonesians. During the pogrom, there were extensive looting and torching of Chinese Indonesian properties.¹²⁷ There were also widespread murders and rape against this minority group.^128129130

Pogroms and race riots in the 21st century

2002 Gujarat pogrom

See also: 2002 Gujarat riots, Narendra Modi § 2002 Gujarat riots, and Hindutva

The 2002 Gujarat riots, also known as the Gujarat pogrom,¹³¹ were a three-day period of inter-communal violence in the Indian state of Gujarat.

The violence was connected to the Ayodhya dispute and the demolition of the Babri Masjid. The burning of a train in Godhra on 27 February 2002, which caused the deaths of 58 Hindu pilgrims and karsevaks returning from Ayodhya, is cited as having instigated the violence.^132133134135

Following the initial riot incidents, there were further outbreaks of violence in Ahmedabad for three months; statewide, there were further outbreaks of violence against the minority Muslim population of Gujarat for the next year.¹³⁶¹³⁷

2005 Cronulla riots

See also: Cronulla Race Riots, Islamophobia in Australia, and Racism in Australia

The 2005 Cronulla riots (also known as the "Cronulla Race Riots" or the "Cronulla pogrom")¹³⁸ were a series of race riots in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.

Attacks in the occupied West Bank in 2008

See also: Occupied West Bank

In 2008, two attacks in the Occupied West Bank by Jewish Israeli settlers on Palestinian Arabs were labeled as pogroms by then-Prime Minister Ehud Olmert.¹³⁹

2017 anti-Rohingya pogroms

See also: Rohingya genocide

The 2017 Rohingya genocide, was a series of pogroms and other violence committed against the Rohingya minority of Myanmar,¹⁴⁰¹⁴¹ particularly in Rakhine State.¹⁴² Facebook was accused of inciting mob violence via social media.¹⁴³

West Bank settler pogroms in the early 2020s

See also: Israeli settler violence

There were many attacks by Israeli settlers against Palestinians in the occupied West Bank leading up to and during the full scale war in the Gaza Strip in 2023 and 2024.¹⁴⁴

The Huwara rampage in February 2023

Main article: Huwara rampage

On 26 February, 2023, violent riots broke out from Israeli settlers in Huwara after two Israelis were shot and killed by a Palestinian gunman there earlier that afternoon.¹⁴⁵ The rioters killed one Palestinian, 37-year-old Sameh Aqtash, and wounded dozens, while torching houses and cars.¹⁴⁶

Top Israeli general in the West Bank, Yehuda Fuchs, referred to the Israeli settlers' actions as a "pogrom": "The incident in Hawara was a pogrom carried out by outlaws,"¹⁴⁷¹⁴⁸ and Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu condemned "vigilantism".¹⁴⁹

Journalist Gideon Levy wrote an editorial in Haaretz saying that Israel's military had failed to stop the violence stating: "whether out of apathy and complacency, or because they were very deliberately turning a blind eye."¹⁵⁰ A legal expert said that the rioters could face war crime charges if Israel did not conduct an investigation into the perpetrators.¹⁵¹

Jewish American documentary maker Simone Zimmerman also used the term pogrom to describe the attacks on Palestinians by Israeli settlers in Hawara in February 2023.¹⁵² Zimmerman described these attacks as being committed by settlers while the Israeli army stood by and let it happen.¹⁵³

Hamas-initiated attacks on 7 October 2023

Main article: 2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel

On 7 October 2023, Hamas' Al Qassam Brigades militant wing (based in the Gaza Strip), and other groups and individuals incited to join them,¹⁵⁴ initiated an attack on Israel. In addition to the military, the attack also targeted civilian communities and resulted in the deaths of over 695 Israeli civilians, most of whom were Israeli Jews and some of whom were Arab Israelis.¹⁵⁵¹⁵⁶ In the attacks Al Qassam and other armed groups from Gaza also took approximately 250 people, many of which were non-Israelis hostage, including infants, elderly, and people who had already been severely injured.¹⁵⁷

The 7 October attacks were described as a "pogrom" by Suzanne Rutland, who defined a pogrom as a government-approved attack on Jews and pointed out that the attacks were initiated by the Hamas, the governing authority of Gaza.¹⁵⁸ Others who have described the 7 October attacks as a pogrom include then-UK Foreign Secretary David Cameron, and think tanks such as the Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs.¹⁵⁹¹⁶⁰ An editorial by the Wall Street Journal Editorial Board referred to 7 October attacks as a pogrom.¹⁶¹

Survivors of October 7 have also described the attack on their kibbutzim as pogroms.¹⁶²

Some sources from in Israel and in the Jewish diaspora have specifically objected to the characterisation of 7 October as a pogrom, saying the events on 7 October do not resemble the original historical pogroms in Russia.¹⁶³ The Jerusalem Post described the 7 October attacks as "historically unique", as well as "foreseeable" and "expected".¹⁶⁴ Judith Butler, controversially described the attacks as an "act of armed resistance".¹⁶⁵

West Bank pogroms in 2023

See also: Gaza genocide and Israeli incursions in the West Bank during the Gaza war § Settler violence and depopulation of villages

Khirbet Zanuta is a Palestinian Bedouin village in the Hebron Governorate in the southern West Bank, 20 km (12 mi) south of Hebron, which was ethnically cleansed during the Gaza war.¹⁶⁶ Some farmers remained or returned and the attacks continued.¹⁶⁷ The location has previously been attacked in 2022.¹⁶⁸

In the Palestinian village of Al-Qanoub Israeli settlers descended from the nearby settlement of Asfar and the adjacent outpost of Pnei Kedem, burned houses, set their dogs on the farm animals, and, at gunpoint, ordered the residents to leave or else they would be killed.[141]

2024 riots against Syrian refugees in Turkey

See also: Syrians in Turkey

In 2024 there were pogroms against Syrian refugees in Turkey.¹⁶⁹

November 2024 Amsterdam riots

The November 2024 Amsterdam riots preceding and following the AFC Ajax - Maccabi Tel Aviv football match were described by some as a "pogrom". Israeli diplomat Danny Danon stated that, "We are receiving very disturbing reports of extreme violence against Israelis and Jews on the streets of Holland. There is a pogrom currently taking place in Europe in 2024".¹⁷⁰ The Mayor of Amsterdam later said that the word "pogrom" was inappropriate and that it had been misused as "propaganda".^171172173 In the weeks after the event, the initial media coverage was widely criticized for misrepresenting the event.^174175176 Targets of the violence included Israeli Maccabi Tel Aviv fans,¹⁷⁷ an Arab taxi driver,¹⁷⁸ and pro-Palestinian protestors.¹⁷⁹ In the run-up to the match, some Maccabi Tel Aviv fans were filmed pulling Palestinian flags from houses, making anti-Arab chants such as "Death to Arabs", assaulting people, and vandalising local property.^{180181182183184} Calls to target Israeli supporters were subsequently shared via social media.¹⁸⁵¹⁸⁶

List of events named pogroms

This table is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.

Scope: This is a partial list of events for which one of the commonly accepted names includes the word pogrom. Inclusion in this list is based solely on evidence in multiple reliable sources that a name including the word pogrom is one of the accepted names for that event. A reliable source that merely describes the event as being a pogrom does not qualify the event for inclusion in this list. The word pogrom must appear in the source as part of a name for the event.

See also

Main article: Outline of genocide studies

Antisemitism

• Antisemitism
• Antisemitism in Christianity
• Antisemitism in Islam
• Geography of antisemitism
• History of antisemitism
• Expulsions and exoduses of Jews

Other groups

• Hindutva
• Israeli settler violence
• Palestinian genocide allegation
• Persecution of Muslims in Myanmar

General

• Ethnic cleansing
• Ethnic conflict
• Ethnic violence
• Genocidal massacre

References and notes

Table Footnotes

Descriptions of the events in the table

Notes from the text

Citations

Further reading

Main article: Bibliography of genocide studies

• Astashkevich, Irina (2018). Gendered Violence: Jewish Women in the Pogroms of 1917 to 1921 (Jews of Russia & Eastern Europe and Their Legacy). Academic Studies Press. ISBN 978-1-61811-616-1.
• Avrutin, Eugene M.; Bemporad, Elissa, eds. (2021). Pogroms: A Documentary History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-762929-1.
• Bemporad, Elissa (2019). Legacy of Blood: Jews, Pogroms, and Ritual Murder in the Lands of the Soviets. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-046647-3.
• Bergmann, Werner (2003). "Pogroms". In Heitmeyer, Wilhelm; Hagan, John (eds.). International Handbook of Violence Research. Vol. 1. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4020-1466-6.
• Brass, Paul R. (6 December 2002). On the Study of Riots, Pogroms, and Genocide. Sawyer Seminar session on "Processes of Mass Killing". Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University.
• Cohn, Norman (1966). Warrant for Genocide: The Myth of the Jewish World-Conspiracy and the Protocols of the Elders of Zion. New York: Harper & Row. OCLC 220903085.
• Engel, David (2010). "What's in a Pogrom? European Jews in the Age of Violence". In Dekel-Chen, Jonathan (ed.). Anti-Jewish Violence: Rethinking the Pogrom in East European History. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-35520-1.
• Horvitz, Leslie A.; Catherwood, Christopher, eds. (2006). Encyclopedia of War Crimes and Genocide. New York, NY: Facts on File. ISBN 978-0-8160-6001-6.
• Klier, John D., ed. (2011). "What was a Pogrom?". Russians, Jews, and the Pogroms of 1881–1882. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-89548-4.
• McDermott, Jim (2001). Northern Divisions The Old IRA and the Belfast Pogroms 1920–22. Belfast: BTP Publications. p. 28. ISBN 1-900960-11-7.
• Shelton, Dinah, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes against Humanity. Detroit: Macmillan Reference. ISBN 978-0-02-865847-6.
• Thackrah, John R., ed. (1987). Encyclopedia of Terrorism and Political Violence. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 978-0-7102-0659-6.
• Unowsky, Daniel. The Plunder: The 1898 Anti-Jewish Riots in Habsburg Galicia (Stanford UP, 2018)
• Veidlinger, Jeff, ed. (1987). In the Midst of Civilized Europe: The Pogroms of 1918–1921 and the Onset of the Holocaust. Picador. ISBN 1-5098-6744-9.
• Velychenko, Stephen (2021). Ukraine's Revolutions and anti-Jewish Pogroms (historians.in.ua)

References

1. UK: /ˈpɒɡrəm/ POG-rəm, US: /ˈpoʊɡrəm, ˈpoʊɡrɒm, pəˈɡrɒm/ POH-grəm, POH-grom, pə-GROM; Russian: погро́м, pronounced [pɐˈɡrom]. /wiki/British_English ↩

2. Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica; et al. (2017). "Pogrom". Encyclopædia Britannica. Britannica.com. (Russian: "devastation" or "riot"), a mob attack, either approved or condoned by authorities, against the persons and property of a religious, racial, or national minority. The term is usually applied to attacks on Jews in the Russian Empire in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. https://www.britannica.com/topic/pogrom ↩

3. Brass, Paul R. (1996). Riots and Pogroms. New York University Press. p. 3. Introduction. ISBN 978-0-8147-1282-5. 978-0-8147-1282-5 ↩

4. Atkin, Nicholas; Biddiss, Michael; Tallett, Frank (23 May 2011). The Wiley-Blackwell Dictionary of Modern European History Since 1789. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-9072-8. Retrieved 15 February 2015. 978-1-4443-9072-8 ↩

5. Klier, John (2011). Russians, Jews, and the Pogroms of 1881–1882. Cambridge University Press. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-521-89548-4. By the twentieth century, the word "pogrom" had become a generic term in English for all forms of collective violence directed against Jews. The term was especially associated with Eastern Europe and the Russian Empire, the scene of the most serious outbreaks of anti-Jewish violence before the Holocaust. Yet when applied indiscriminately to events in Eastern Europe, the term can be misleading, the more so when it implies that "pogroms" were regular events in the region and that they always shared common features. In fact, outbreaks of mass violence against Jews were extraordinary events, not a regular feature of East European life. 978-0-521-89548-4 ↩

6. Bergmann, Werner (2003). "Pogroms". International Handbook of Violence Research. pp. 352–55. doi:10.1007/978-0-306-48039-3_19. ISBN 978-1-4020-3980-5. 978-1-4020-3980-5 ↩

7. Dekel-Chen, Jonathan; Gaunt, David; Meir, Natan M.; Bartal, Israel, eds. (26 November 2010). Anti-Jewish Violence. Rethinking the Pogrom in East European History. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-00478-9. Engel states that although there are no "essential defining characteristics of a pogrom", the majority of the incidents "habitually" described as pogroms "took place in divided societies in which ethnicity or religion (or both) served as significant definers of both social boundaries and social rank. 978-0-253-00478-9 ↩

8. Weinberg, Sonja (2010). Pogroms and Riots: German Press Responses to Anti-Jewish Violence in Germany and Russia (1881–1882). Peter Lang. p. 193. ISBN 978-3-631-60214-0. Most contemporaries claimed that the pogroms were directed against Jewish property, not against Jews, a claim so far not contradicted by research. 978-3-631-60214-0 ↩

9. Klier, John D.; Abulafia, Anna Sapir (2001). Religious Violence Between Christians and Jews: Medieval Roots, Modern Perspectives. Springer. p. 165. ISBN 978-1-4039-1382-1. The pogroms themselves seem to have largely followed a set of unwritten rules. They were directed against Jewish property only. 978-1-4039-1382-1 ↩

10. Klier, John (2010). "Pogroms". The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe. YIVO Institute for Jewish Research. The common usage of the term pogrom to describe any attack against Jews throughout history disguises the great variation in the scale, nature, motivation and intent of such violence at different times. /wiki/John_Klier ↩

11. "World War II: Before the War". The Atlantic. 19 June 2011. Windows of shops owned by Jews which were broken during a coordinated anti-Jewish demonstration in Berlin, known as Kristallnacht, on November 10, 1938. Nazi authorities turned a blind eye as SA stormtroopers and civilians destroyed storefronts with hammers, leaving the streets covered in pieces of smashed windows. Ninety-one Jews were killed, and 30,000 Jewish men were taken to concentration camps. https://www.theatlantic.com/infocus/2011/06/world-war-ii-before-the-war/100089/ ↩

12. Berenbaum, Michael; Kramer, Arnold (2005). The World Must Know. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. p. 49. /wiki/Michael_Berenbaum ↩

13. Gilbert, Martin (1986). The Holocaust: the Jewish tragedy. Collins. pp. 30–33. ISBN 978-0-00-216305-7. 978-0-00-216305-7 ↩

14. Bedi, Rahul (1 November 2009). "Indira Gandhi's death remembered". BBC News. Archived from the original on 2 November 2009. Retrieved 2 November 2009. The 25th anniversary of Indira Gandhi's assassination revives stark memories of some 3,000 Sikhs killed brutally in the orderly pogrom that followed her killing http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8306420.stm ↩

15. "The Soul-Wounds of Massacre, or Why We Should Not Forget the 2002 Gujarat Pogrom". The Wire. 27 February 2022. Retrieved 26 May 2024. This article is extracted and adapted from the author's book Between Memory and Forgetting: Massacre and the Modi Years in Gujarat, Yoda Press, 2019. https://m.thewire.in/article/communalism/2002-gujarat-anti-muslim-pogrom ↩

16. Koutsoukis, Jason (15 September 2008). "Settlers attack Palestinian village". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 5 April 2023. Retrieved 14 November 2023. 'As a Jew, I was ashamed at the scenes of Jews opening fire at innocent Arabs in Hebron. There is no other definition than the term "pogrom" to describe what I have seen.' https://www.smh.com.au/world/settlers-attack-palestinian-village-20080915-gdsuyu.html ↩

17. "Six months since the brutal attacks by Hamas on October 7: article by the Foreign Secretary" (Press release). Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office. 7 April 2024. Archived from the original on 10 April 2024. https://web.archive.org/web/20240410071943/https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/six-months-since-the-brutal-attacks-by-hamas-on-october-7-article-by-the-foreign-secretary ↩

18. "Opinion | Hamas Puts Its Pogrom on Video". The Wall Street Journal. 27 October 2023. https://www.wsj.com/articles/israel-hamas-video-screening-gaza-tsach-saar-31ed88ab ↩

19. Oxford English Dictionary, December 2007 revision. See also: Pogrom at Online Etymology Dictionary. /wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary ↩

20. International handbook of violence research. Vol. 1. Springer. 2005. ISBN 978-1-4020-3980-5. The word "pogrom" (from the Russian, meaning storm or devastation) has a relatively short history. Its international currency dates back to the anti-Semitic excesses in Tsarist Russia during the years 1881–1883, but the phenomenon existed in the same form at a much earlier date and was by no means confined to Russia. As John D. Klier points out in his seminal article "The pogrom paradigm in Russian history", the anti-Semitic pogroms in Russia were described by contemporaries as demonstrations, persecution, or struggle, and the government made use of the term besporiadok (unrest, riot) to emphasize the breach of public order. Then, during the twentieth century, the term began to develop along two separate lines. In the Soviet Union, the word lost its anti-Semitic connotation and came to be used for reactionary forms of political unrest and, from 1989, for outbreaks of interethnic violence; while in the West, the anti-Semitic overtones were retained and government orchestration or acquiescence was emphasized. 978-1-4020-3980-5 ↩

21. Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica; et al. (2017). "Pogrom". Encyclopædia Britannica. Britannica.com. (Russian: "devastation" or "riot"), a mob attack, either approved or condoned by authorities, against the persons and property of a religious, racial, or national minority. The term is usually applied to attacks on Jews in the Russian Empire in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. https://www.britannica.com/topic/pogrom ↩

22. Atkin, Nicholas; Biddiss, Michael; Tallett, Frank (23 May 2011). The Wiley-Blackwell Dictionary of Modern European History Since 1789. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-9072-8. Retrieved 15 February 2015. 978-1-4443-9072-8 ↩

23. Klier, John (2011). Russians, Jews, and the Pogroms of 1881–1882. Cambridge University Press. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-521-89548-4. By the twentieth century, the word "pogrom" had become a generic term in English for all forms of collective violence directed against Jews. The term was especially associated with Eastern Europe and the Russian Empire, the scene of the most serious outbreaks of anti-Jewish violence before the Holocaust. Yet when applied indiscriminately to events in Eastern Europe, the term can be misleading, the more so when it implies that "pogroms" were regular events in the region and that they always shared common features. In fact, outbreaks of mass violence against Jews were extraordinary events, not a regular feature of East European life. 978-0-521-89548-4 ↩

24. Abramson, Henry (1999). A prayer for the government: Ukrainians and Jews in revolutionary times, 1917–1920. Harvard University Press. p. 109. ISBN 978-0-916458-88-1. The etymological roots of the term pogrom are unclear, although it seems to be derived from the Slavic word for "thunder(bolt)" (Russian: grom, Ukrainian: hrim). The first syllable, po-, is a prefix indicating "means" or "target". The word therefore seems to imply a sudden burst of energy (thunderbolt) directed at a specific target. A pogrom is generally thought of as a cross between a popular riot and a military atrocity, where an unarmed civilian, often urban, population is attacked by either an army unit or peasants from surrounding villages, or a combination of the two. 978-0-916458-88-1 ↩

25. Bergmann, Werner (2003). "Pogroms". International Handbook of Violence Research. pp. 352–55. doi:10.1007/978-0-306-48039-3_19. ISBN 978-1-4020-3980-5. 978-1-4020-3980-5 ↩

26. International handbook of violence research. Vol. 1. Springer. 2005. ISBN 978-1-4020-3980-5. The word "pogrom" (from the Russian, meaning storm or devastation) has a relatively short history. Its international currency dates back to the anti-Semitic excesses in Tsarist Russia during the years 1881–1883, but the phenomenon existed in the same form at a much earlier date and was by no means confined to Russia. As John D. Klier points out in his seminal article "The pogrom paradigm in Russian history", the anti-Semitic pogroms in Russia were described by contemporaries as demonstrations, persecution, or struggle, and the government made use of the term besporiadok (unrest, riot) to emphasize the breach of public order. Then, during the twentieth century, the term began to develop along two separate lines. In the Soviet Union, the word lost its anti-Semitic connotation and came to be used for reactionary forms of political unrest and, from 1989, for outbreaks of interethnic violence; while in the West, the anti-Semitic overtones were retained and government orchestration or acquiescence was emphasized. 978-1-4020-3980-5 ↩

27. Dekel-Chen, Jonathan; Gaunt, David; Meir, Natan M.; Bartal, Israel, eds. (26 November 2010). Anti-Jewish Violence. Rethinking the Pogrom in East European History. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-00478-9. Engel states that although there are no "essential defining characteristics of a pogrom", the majority of the incidents "habitually" described as pogroms "took place in divided societies in which ethnicity or religion (or both) served as significant definers of both social boundaries and social rank. 978-0-253-00478-9 ↩

28. Dekel-Chen, Jonathan; Gaunt, David; Meir, Natan M.; Bartal, Israel, eds. (26 November 2010). Anti-Jewish Violence. Rethinking the Pogrom in East European History. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-00478-9. Engel states that although there are no "essential defining characteristics of a pogrom", the majority of the incidents "habitually" described as pogroms "took place in divided societies in which ethnicity or religion (or both) served as significant definers of both social boundaries and social rank. 978-0-253-00478-9 ↩

29. Bergmann writes that "the concept of "ethnic violence" covers a range of heterogeneous phenomena, and in many cases there are still no established theoretical and conceptual distinctions in the field (Waldmann, 1995:343)" Bergmann then goes on to set out a variety of conflicting scholarly views on the definition and usage of the term pogrom. ↩

30. Klier, John (2011). Russians, Jews, and the Pogroms of 1881–1882. Cambridge University Press. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-521-89548-4. By the twentieth century, the word "pogrom" had become a generic term in English for all forms of collective violence directed against Jews. The term was especially associated with Eastern Europe and the Russian Empire, the scene of the most serious outbreaks of anti-Jewish violence before the Holocaust. Yet when applied indiscriminately to events in Eastern Europe, the term can be misleading, the more so when it implies that "pogroms" were regular events in the region and that they always shared common features. In fact, outbreaks of mass violence against Jews were extraordinary events, not a regular feature of East European life. 978-0-521-89548-4 ↩

31. Dekel-Chen, Jonathan; Gaunt, David; Meir, Natan M.; Bartal, Israel, eds. (26 November 2010). Anti-Jewish Violence. Rethinking the Pogrom in East European History. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-00478-9. Engel states that although there are no "essential defining characteristics of a pogrom", the majority of the incidents "habitually" described as pogroms "took place in divided societies in which ethnicity or religion (or both) served as significant definers of both social boundaries and social rank. 978-0-253-00478-9 ↩

32. Piotrowski, Tadeusz (1 November 1997). Poland's Holocaust. McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-2913-4. Retrieved 15 February 2015. 978-0-7864-2913-4 ↩

33. Pease, Neal (2003). "'This Troublesome Question': The United States and the 'Polish Pogroms' of 1918–1919". In Biskupski, Mieczysław B.; Wandycz, Piotr Stefan (eds.). Ideology, Politics, and Diplomacy in East Central Europe. Boydell & Brewer. p. 60. ISBN 978-1-58046-137-5. 978-1-58046-137-5 ↩

34. Mark, Jonathan (9 August 2011). "What The 'Pogrom' Wrought". The Jewish Week. Archived from the original on 24 October 2012. Retrieved 15 February 2015. A divisive debate over the meaning of pogrom, lasting for more than two years, could have easily been ended if the mayor simply said to the victims of Crown Heights, yes, I understand why you experienced it as a pogrom. https://web.archive.org/web/20121024224338/http://www.thejewishweek.com/news/new_york/what_pogrom_wrought ↩

35. New York Media, LLC (9 September 1991). New York Magazine. New York Media, LLC. p. 28. Retrieved 15 February 2015. https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DukCAAAAMBAJ ↩

36. Conaway, Carol B. (Autumn 1999). "Crown Heights: Politics and Press Coverage of the Race War That Wasn't". Polity. 32 (1): 93–118. doi:10.2307/3235335. JSTOR 3235335. S2CID 146866395. /wiki/Polity_(journal) ↩

37. Koutsoukis, Jason (15 September 2008). "Settlers attack Palestinian village". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 5 April 2023. Retrieved 14 November 2023. 'As a Jew, I was ashamed at the scenes of Jews opening fire at innocent Arabs in Hebron. There is no other definition than the term "pogrom" to describe what I have seen.' https://www.smh.com.au/world/settlers-attack-palestinian-village-20080915-gdsuyu.html ↩

38. "Olmert condemns settler 'pogrom'". BBC News. 7 December 2008. Retrieved 15 February 2015. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7770384.stm ↩

39. Bergmann, Werner (2003). "Pogroms". International Handbook of Violence Research. pp. 352–55. doi:10.1007/978-0-306-48039-3_19. ISBN 978-1-4020-3980-5. 978-1-4020-3980-5 ↩

40. Codex Judaica: chronological index of Jewish history; p. 203 Máttis Kantor – 2005 "The Jews were savagely attacked and massacred, by sometimes hysterical mobs." ↩

41. John Marshall John Locke, Toleration and Early Enlightenment Culture; p. 376 2006 "The period of the Black Death saw the massacre of Jews across Germany, and in Aragon, and Flanders," ↩

42. Anna Foa The Jews of Europe after the black death 2000 p. 13 "The first massacres took place in April 1348 in Toulon, where the Jewish quarter was raided and forty Jews were murdered in their homes. Shortly afterwards, violence broke out in Barcelona." /wiki/Jewish_quarter_(diaspora) ↩

43. Durant, Will (1953). The Renaissance. Simon and Schuster. pp. 730–731. ISBN 0-671-61600-5. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) 0-671-61600-5 ↩

44. Newman, Barbara (March 2012). "The Passion of the Jews of Prague: The Pogrom of 1389 and the Lessons of a Medieval Parody". Church History. pp. 1–26. https://www.academia.edu/1470909 ↩

45. Herman Rosenthal (1901). "Chmielnicki, Bogdan Zinovi". Jewish Encyclopedia. /wiki/Herman_Rosenthal ↩

46. Historians, who put the number of killed Jewish civilians at between 40,000 and 100,000 during the Khmelnytsky Pogroms in 1648–1657, include: Naomi E. Pasachoff, Robert J. Littman (2005). A Concise History Of The Jewish People, Rowman & Littlefield, ISBN 0-7425-4366-8, p. 182. David Theo Goldberg, John Solomos (2002). A Companion to Racial and Ethnic Studies, Blackwell, ISBN 0-631-20616-7, p. 68. Micheal Clodfelter (2002). Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500–1999, McFarland, p. 56: estimated at 56,000 dead. /wiki/Khmelnytsky_Pogrom ↩

47. Historians estimating that around 100,000 Jews were killed include: Cara Camcastle. The More Moderate Side of Joseph de Maistre: Views on Political Liberty And Political Economy, McGill-Queen's Press, 2005, ISBN 0-7735-2976-4, p. 26. Martin Gilbert (1999). Holocaust Journey: Traveling in Search of the Past, Columbia University Press, ISBN 0-231-10965-2, p. 219. Manus I. Midlarsky. The Killing Trap: Genocide in the Twentieth Century, Cambridge University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-521-81545-2, p. 352. Oscar Reiss (2004). The Jews in Colonial America, McFarland, ISBN 0-7864-1730-7, pp. 98–99. Colin Martin Tatz (2003). With Intent to Destroy: Reflections on Genocide, Verso, ISBN 1-85984-550-9, p. 146. Samuel Totten (2004). Teaching about Genocide: Issues, Approaches and Resources, Information Age Publishing, ISBN 1-59311-074-X, p. 25. Mosheh Weiss (2004). A Brief History of the Jewish People, Rowman & Littlefield, ISBN 0-7425-4402-8, p. 193. /wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ↩

48. Historians who estimate that more than 100,000 Jews were killed in Ukraine in 1648–1657 include: Meyer Waxman (2003). History of Jewish Literature Part 3, Kessinger, ISBN 0-7661-4370-8, p. 20: estimated at two hundred thousand Jews killed. Micheal Clodfelter (2002). Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Reference to Casualty and Other Figures, 1500–1999, McFarland, p. 56: estimated at between 150,000 and 200,000 Jewish victims. Zev Garber, Bruce Zuckerman (2004). Double Takes: Thinking and Rethinking Issues of Modern Judaism in Ancient Contexts, University Press of America, ISBN 0-7618-2894-X, p. 77, footnote 17: estimated at 100,000–500,000 Jews. The Columbia Encyclopedia (2001–2005), "Chmielnicki Bohdan", 6th ed.: estimated at over 100,000 Jews. Robert Melvin Spector (2005). World without Civilization: Mass Murder and the Holocaust, History and Analysis, University Press of America, ISBN 0-7618-2963-6, p. 77: estimated at more than 100,000. Sol Scharfstein (2004). Jewish History and You, KTAV, ISBN 0-88125-806-7, p. 42: estimated at more than 100,000 Jews killed. /wiki/Meyer_Waxman ↩

49. Stampfer, Shaul (2003). "[No title found]". Jewish History. 17 (2): 207–227. doi:10.1023/A:1022330717763. Retrieved 26 April 2025. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/A:1022330717763 ↩

50. Elon, Amos (2002). The Pity of It All: A History of the Jews in Germany, 1743–1933. Metropolitan Books. p. 103. ISBN 0-8050-5964-4. 0-8050-5964-4 ↩

51. Davies, Norman (2005). "Rossiya: The Russian Partition (1772–1918)". God's Playground: a history of Poland. Clarendon Press. pp. 60–61. ISBN 978-0-19-925340-1. Volume II: Revised Edition. 978-0-19-925340-1 ↩

52. "Shtetl". Encyclopaedia Judaica. The Gale Group – via Jewish Virtual Library. Also in: Rabbi Ken Spiro (9 May 2009). "Pale of Settlement". History Crash Course #56. Aish.com. https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/shtetl ↩

53. Löwe, Heinz-Dietrich (Autumn 2004). "Pogroms in Russia: Explanations, Comparisons, Suggestions". Jewish Social Studies. New Series. 11 (1): 17–. doi:10.1353/jss.2005.0007. S2CID 201771701. Retrieved 14 November 2023. 'Pogroms were concentrated in time. Four phases can be observed: in 1819, 1830, 1834, and 1818-19.'[failed verification] https://muse.jhu.edu/article/179974 ↩

54. John Doyle Klier; Shlomo Lambroza (2004). Pogroms: Anti-Jewish Violence in Modern Russian History. Cambridge University Press. p. 376. ISBN 978-0-521-52851-1. Also in: Omer Bartov (2013). Shatterzone of Empires. Indiana University Press. p. 97. ISBN 978-0-253-00631-8. Note 45. It should be remembered that for all the violence and property damage caused by the 1881 pogroms, the number of deaths could be counted on one hand. For further information, see: Oleg Budnitskii (2012). Russian Jews Between the Reds and the Whites, 1917–1920. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 17–20. ISBN 978-0-8122-0814-6. 978-0-521-52851-1978-0-253-00631-8978-0-8122-0814-6 ↩

55. Henry Abramson (10–13 July 2002). "The end of intimate insularity: new narratives of Jewish history in the post-Soviet era" (PDF). Acts. /wiki/Henry_Abramson ↩

56. Zaretsky, Robert (27 October 2023). "Why so many people call the Oct. 7 massacre a 'pogrom' — and what they miss when they do so". The Forward. Retrieved 6 June 2024. Thanks to the work of the historian John Klier, we also know that the Czarist authorities neither choreographed nor encouraged the pogroms. Instead, they were mostly spontaneous and perhaps as much about managing social status as they were about murdering Jews. https://forward.com/culture/567188/pogrom-october-7-massacre-israel-yerushalmi/ ↩

57. Rosenthal, Herman; Rosenthal, Max (1901–1906). "Kishinef (Kishinev)". In Singer, Isidore; et al. (eds.). The Jewish Encyclopedia. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/9350-kishinef-kishinev ↩

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177. "'They shouted Jewish, IDF': Israeli football fans describe attack in Amsterdam". BBC News. 8 November 2024. Retrieved 11 November 2024. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/ckgv4mdr9y8o ↩

178. "Israeli hooligans provoke clashes in Amsterdam after chanting anti-Palestinian slogans". Middle East Eye. Retrieved 14 November 2024. https://www.middleeasteye.net/live-blog/live-blog-update/israeli-hooligans-provoke-clashes-amsterdam-after-chanting-anti ↩

179. "Israeli football fans clash with protesters in Amsterdam". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 14 November 2024. Amsterdam city council member says 'Maccabi hooligans' instigated violence and attacked Palestinian supporters. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/11/8/israeli-football-fans-clash-with-protesters-in-amsterdam ↩

180. Riel, Roos van; Herter, Anna (9 November 2024). "Beelden harde kern Maccabi schuren: 'Ze trapten tegen onze deur en probeerden ons huis binnen te komen'". Het Parool (in Dutch). Retrieved 10 November 2024. https://www.parool.nl/amsterdam/beelden-harde-kern-maccabi-schuren-ze-trapten-tegen-onze-deur-en-probeerden-ons-huis-binnen-te-komen~bd3cb6e2/ ↩

181. "Emergency measures in Amsterdam over attacks on Israeli football fans after Palestinian flags torn down". Sky News. Retrieved 8 November 2024. https://news.sky.com/story/israel-says-it-will-deploy-rescue-mission-after-violent-incident-targeting-israeli-citizens-in-amsterdam-13250370 ↩

182. "Israeli football fans clash with protesters in Amsterdam". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 8 November 2024. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/11/8/israeli-football-fans-clash-with-protesters-in-amsterdam ↩

183. "Israeli soccer fans attacked in Amsterdam". NBC News. 8 November 2024. Retrieved 8 November 2024. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/israeli-soccer-fans-attacked-amsterdam-maccabi-tel-aviv-ajax-rcna179262 ↩

184. Willem, Feenstra; Haro, Kraak; Mark, Misérus; Loes, Reijmer; Marjolein van, de Water (8 November 2024). "Hoe de oorlog in het Midden-Oosten Amsterdam in geweld onderdompelde" [How the Middle East War Engulfed Amsterdam in Violence]. De Volkskrant (in Dutch). Retrieved 10 November 2024. https://www.volkskrant.nl/binnenland/hoe-de-oorlog-in-het-midden-oosten-amsterdam-in-geweld-onderdompelde~b7d4494b/ ↩

185. Rayner, Gordon; Stringer, Connor (8 November 2024). "Revealed: How Pro-Palestinian mob organised via WhatsApp to 'Hunt Jews' across Amsterdam". The Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. Retrieved 9 November 2024. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world-news/2024/11/08/jewish-maccabi-tel-aviv-fans-attacked-in-amsterdam/ ↩

186. Verlaan, Daniël (9 November 2024). "'Wees daar strijders!': zo werden de aanvallen op Israëlische supporters georganiseerd". RTL Nieuws (in Dutch). https://www.rtl.nl/nieuws/artikel/5479449/geweld-aanvallen-israeliers-amsterdam-snapchat-oproep-social-media ↩

187. Regions: Americas Europe (including Russia) Middle East and North Africa (MENA) Pacific South Asia Sub-Saharan Africa /wiki/Americas ↩

188. Prof. Sandra Gambetti: "A final note on the use of terminology related to anti-Semitism. Scholars have frequently labeled the Alexandrian events of 38 C.E. as the first pogrom[citation needed] in history and have often explained them in terms of an ante litteram explosion of anti-Semitism. This work [The Alexandrian Riots] deliberately avoids any words or expressions that in any way connect, explicitly or implicitly, the Alexandrian events of 38 C.E. to later events in modern or contemporary Jewish experience, for which that terminology was created. ... To decide whether a word like pogrom, for example, is an appropriate term to describe the events that are studied here, requires a comparative re-discussion of two historical frames—the Alexandria of 38 C.E. and the Russia of the end of the nineteenth century."[160] /wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed ↩

189. Aulus Avilius Flaccus, the Egyptian prefect of Alexandria appointed by Tiberius in 32 CE, may have encouraged the outbreak of violence in which Jews were pushed out of the city of Alexandria and blockaded into a Jewish "ghetto". Those trying to escape the ghetto were killed, dismembered, and some burnt alive.[161] Philo wrote that Flaccus was later arrested and eventually executed for his part in this event. Scholarly research around the subject has been divided on certain points, including whether the Alexandrian Jews fought to keep their citizenship or to acquire it, whether they evaded the payment of the poll-tax or prevented any attempts to impose it on them, and whether they were safeguarding their identity against the Greeks or against the Egyptians. /wiki/Aulus_Avilius_Flaccus ↩

190. A mob stormed the royal palace in Granada, which was at that time in Muslim-ruled al-Andalus, assassinated the Jewish vizier Joseph ibn Naghrela and massacred much of the Jewish population of the city. /wiki/Granada ↩

191. Peasant crusaders from France and Germany during the People's Crusade, led by Peter the Hermit (and not sanctioned by the hierarchy of the Catholic Church, attacked Jewish communities in the three towns of Speyer, Worms and Mainz. /wiki/Peasant ↩

192. John Klier: "upon the death of the Grand Prince of Kiev Sviatopolk, rioting broke out in Kiev against his agents and the town administration. The disorders were not specifically directed against Jews and they are best characterized as a social revolution. This fact has not prevented historians of medieval Russia from describing them as a pogrom."[162] Klier also writes that Alexander Pereswetoff-Morath has advanced a strong argument against considering the Kiev riots of 1113 an anti-Jewish pogrom. Pereswetoff-Morath writes in "A Grin without a Cat" (2002) that "I feel that Birnbaum's use of the term "anti-Semitism' as well as, for example, his use of 'pogrom' in references to medieval Rus are not warranted by the evidence he presents. He is, of course, aware that it may be controversial."[162] George Vernadsky: "Incidentally, one should not suppose that the movement was anti-Semitic. There was no general Jewish pogrom. Wealthy Jewish merchants suffered because of their association with Sviatopolk's speculations, especially his hated monopoly on salt."[163] /wiki/John_Klier ↩

193. John Klier: "upon the death of the Grand Prince of Kiev Sviatopolk, rioting broke out in Kiev against his agents and the town administration. The disorders were not specifically directed against Jews and they are best characterized as a social revolution. This fact has not prevented historians of medieval Russia from describing them as a pogrom."[162] Klier also writes that Alexander Pereswetoff-Morath has advanced a strong argument against considering the Kiev riots of 1113 an anti-Jewish pogrom. Pereswetoff-Morath writes in "A Grin without a Cat" (2002) that "I feel that Birnbaum's use of the term "anti-Semitism' as well as, for example, his use of 'pogrom' in references to medieval Rus are not warranted by the evidence he presents. He is, of course, aware that it may be controversial."[162] George Vernadsky: "Incidentally, one should not suppose that the movement was anti-Semitic. There was no general Jewish pogrom. Wealthy Jewish merchants suffered because of their association with Sviatopolk's speculations, especially his hated monopoly on salt."[163] /wiki/John_Klier ↩

194. A rebellion which was sparked by the death of the Grand Prince of Kiev, in which Jews who participated in the prince's economic affairs were some of the victims.[citation needed] /wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed ↩

195. this massacre coincided with the persecution of Jews during the Black Death. /wiki/Persecution_of_Jews_during_the_Black_Death ↩

196. A series of massacres and forced conversions beginning on 4 June 1391 in the city of Seville before they extend to the rest of Castile and the Crown of Aragon. It is considered one of the Middle Ages' largest attacks on the Jews, and were ultimately expelled from the Iberian Peninsula in 1492. /wiki/Seville ↩

197. After an episode of famine and bad harvests, a pogrom happened in Lisbon, Portugal,[164] in which more than 1,000 "New Christian" (forcibly converted Jews) people were slaughtered or burnt by an angry Christian mob, in the first night of what became known as the "Lisbon Massacre". The killing occurred from 19 to 21 April, almost eliminating the entire Jewish or Jewish-descended community in that city. Even the Portuguese military and the king himself had difficulty stopping it. Today the event is remembered with a monument in S. Domingos' church. ↩

198. John Klier: "Russian armies led by Tsar Ivan IV captured the Polish city of Polotsk. The Tsar ordered drowned in the river Dvina all Jews who refused to convert to Orthodox Christianity. This episode certainly demonstrates the overt religious hostility towards the Jews which was very much a part of Muscovite culture, but its conversionary aspects were entirely absent from modern pogroms. Nor were the Jews the only heterodox religious group singled out for the tender mercies of Muscovite religious fanaticism."[162] /wiki/John_Klier ↩

199. Following the fall of Polotsk to the army of Ivan IV, all those who refused to convert to Orthodox Christianity were ordered drowned in the Western Dvina river. /wiki/Western_Dvina ↩

200. Eastern Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth Cossack riots, aka pogroms, aka uprisings included massive atrocities committed against Jews in what is today Ukraine, in numbers (conservatively estimated here by Veidlinger, Ataskevitch & Bemporad). They resulted in the creation of a new Hetmantate. /wiki/Cossack ↩

201. The Greeks of Odessa attacked the local Jewish community, in what began as economic disputes. ↩

202. Following accusations of Jews having conspired to murder a Christian monk for culinary purposes, the local population attacked Jewish businesses and committed acts of violence against the Jewish population. ↩

203. A large-scale wave of anti-Jewish riots swept through south-western Imperial Russia (present-day Ukraine and Poland from 1881 to 1884 (in that period over 200 anti-Jewish events occurred in the Russian Empire, notably the Kiev, Warsaw and Odessa pogroms) /wiki/Imperial_Russia ↩

204. Three days of rioting against Jews, Jewish stores, businesses, and residences in the streets adjoining the Holy Cross Church. ↩

205. A mob attacked the Jewish shops, killing fourteen Jews and one gendarme. The Russian military brought to restore order were stoned by mob. /wiki/Gendarmerie ↩

206. A much bloodier wave of pogroms broke out from 1903 to 1906, leaving an estimated 2,000 Jews dead and many more wounded, as many Jewish residents took arms to defend their families and property from the attackers. The 1905 pogrom against the Jewish population in Odessa was the most serious pogrom of the period, with reports of up to 2,500 Jews killed. /wiki/Odessa ↩

207. Three days of anti-Jewish rioting sparked by antisemitic articles in local newspapers. ↩

208. Two days of anti-Jewish rioting beginning as political protests against the Tsar. ↩

209. Following a city hall meeting, a mob was drawn into the streets, proclaiming that "all Russia's troubles stemmed from the machinations of the Jews and socialists." /wiki/Jews ↩

210. An attack organized by the Russian secret police Okhrana . Antisemitic pamphlets had been distributed for over a week and before any unrest begun, a curfew was declared. /wiki/Okhrana ↩

211. Israeli ambassador to Ireland, Boaz Moda'i: "I think it is a bit over-portrayed, meaning that, usually if you look up the word pogrom it is used in relation to slaughter and being killed. This is what happened in many other places in Europe, but that is not what happened here. There was a kind of boycott against Jewish merchandise for a while but that's not a pogrom."[165] /wiki/Ireland%E2%80%93Israel_relations ↩

212. An economic boycott waged against the small Jewish community in Limerick, Ireland, for over two years. ↩

213. A massacre of Armenians in the city of Adana amidst the government upheaval resulted in a series of anti-Armenian pogroms throughout the district. /wiki/Adana ↩

214. Davies, David (16 January 2015). "Should Texas Remember Or Forget The Slocum Massacre?". Texas Public Radio. Retrieved 17 November 2021. But there was some follow-up reporting that there was a Texas Rangers investigation and indictments of the white men who led the Slocum pogrom. /wiki/David_Martin_Davies ↩

215. Madigan, Tim (16 January 2016). "Texas marks racial slaughter more than a century later". The Washington Post. Texas. Retrieved 17 November 2021. For more than a century, that was how one of the nation's worst racial pogroms in post-Civil War history was kept alive... /wiki/Tim_Madigan ↩

216. A massacre of African Americans living in Slocum, Texas, organized by white mobs after rumors of a Black uprising began to spread. White people throughout Anderson County gathered guns, ammunition, and alcohol to prepare. District Judge Benjamin Howard Gardner attempted to stop the massacre by closing all saloons, gun stores, and hardware stores, but it was too late. The massacre lasted 16 hours, with white mobs killing any Black people they saw. As a result of the massacre, half of Slocum's Black population had left or been killed by the next census. /wiki/Slocum,_Texas ↩

217. Occurred shortly after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand.[168] /wiki/Assassination_of_Archduke_Franz_Ferdinand ↩

218. During the Polish-Ukrainian War over three days of unrest in the city, an estimated 52–150 Jewish residents were killed and hundreds more were injured by Polish soldiers and civilians. Two hundred and seventy Ukrainians were also killed during this incident. The Poles did not stop the pogrom until two days after it began. /wiki/Polish-Ukrainian_War ↩

219. The pogrom was initiated by Ivan Samosenko following a failed Bolshevik uprising against the Ukrainian People's Republic in the city.[169] The massacre was carried out by Ukrainian People's Republic soldiers of Samosenko. According to historians Yonah Alexander and Kenneth Myers the soldiers marched into the centre of town accompanied by a military band and engaged in atrocities under the slogan: "Kill the Jews and save Ukraine." They were ordered to save the ammunition in the process and use only lances and bayonets.[170] /wiki/Ivan_Samosenko ↩

220. A series of anti-Jewish pogroms in various places around Kiev carried out by White Army troops /wiki/Kiev ↩

221. Carole Fink: "What happened in Pinsk on April 5, 1919 was not a literal "pogrom" – an organized, officially tolerated or inspired massacre of a minority such as the massacre which occurred in Lemberg – instead, it was a military execution of a small, suspect group of civilians. ... The misnamed "Pinsk pogrom", a plain, powerful, alliterative phrase, entered history in April 1919. Its importance lay not only in its timing, during the tensest moments of the Paris Peace Conference and the most crucial deliberations over Poland's political future: The reports of Pinsk once more demonstrated the swift transmission of local violence to world notice and the disfiguring process of rumor and prejudice on every level."[171] /wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference,_1919 ↩

222. Mass execution of 35 Jewish residents of Pinsk in April 1919 by the Polish Army, during the opening stages of the Polish–Soviet War /wiki/Jew ↩

223. As Polish troops entered the city, dozens of people connected with the Lit-Bel were arrested, and some were executed. /wiki/Lit-Bel ↩

224. Economic and social tension against Black community in Greenwood. ↩

225. During the 1929 Palestine riots, sixty-seven Jews were killed as the violence spread to Hebron, then part of Mandatory Palestine, by Arabs incited to violence by rumors that Jews were massacring Arabs in Jerusalem and seizing control of Muslim holy places. /wiki/1929_Palestine_riots ↩

226. "1934: A Rare Kind of Pogrom Begins, in Turkey". Haaretz. 5 June 2014. Retrieved 17 January 2023. On June 5, 1934, violent actions against Jews of several towns in the Turkish region of Thrace began. Although no Jews were killed, the extensive destruction of property, and the very fact of the attacks in a country that was always known for its hospitality to Jews, led to many of them moving from Thrace, or emigrating from Turkey altogether. Recent historical research has led some scholars to conclude that this was the goal of the government in the actions it took in the weeks prior to the pogroms... https://www.haaretz.com/jewish/2014-06-05/ty-article/.premium/1934-a-rare-kind-of-pogrom-begins-in-turkey/0000017f-e60b-dea7-adff-f7fbbe590000 ↩

227. It was followed by the vandalizing of Jewish houses and shops. The tensions started in June 1934 and spread to a few other villages in Eastern Thrace region and to some small cities in Western Aegean region. At the height of the violent events, it was rumoured that a rabbi was stripped naked and was dragged through the streets shamefully while his daughter was raped. Over 15,000 Jews had to flee from the region.[173][174] ↩

228. Some of the Jewish residents gathered in the town square in anticipation of the attack by the peasants, but nothing happened on that day. Two days later, however, on a market day, as historians Martin Gilbert and David Vital state, peasants attacked their Jewish neighbors. /wiki/Martin_Gilbert ↩

229. Coordinated attacks against Jews throughout Nazi Germany and parts of Austria, carried out by SA paramilitary forces and non-Jewish civilians. Accounts from the foreign journalists working in Germany sent shock waves around the world. /wiki/Nazi_Germany ↩

230. Romanian military units carried out a pogrom against the local Jews, during which, according to an official Romanian report, 53 Jews were murdered, and dozens injured. ↩

231. One of the most violent pogroms in Jewish history, launched by governmental forces in the Romanian city of Iași (Jassy) against its Jewish population. /wiki/Jewish_history ↩

232. One of the few pogroms of Belgian history. Flemish collaborators attacked and burned synagogues and attacked a rabbi in the city of Antwerp /wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Belgium ↩

233. As the privileges of the paramilitary organisation Iron Guard were being cut off by Conducător Ion Antonescu, members of the Iron Guard, also known as the Legionnaires, revolted. During the rebellion and pogrom, the Iron Guard killed 125 Jews and 30 soldiers died in the confrontation with the rebels. /wiki/Iron_Guard ↩

234. Mass murder of Jewish residents of Tykocin in occupied Poland during World War II, soon after Nazi German attack on the Soviet Union. /wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland ↩

235. The local rabbi was forced to lead a procession of about 40 people to a pre-emptied barn, killed and buried along with fragments of a destroyed monument of Lenin. A further 250–300 Jews were led to the same barn later that day, locked inside and burned alive using kerosene. /wiki/Rabbi ↩

236. 180 Jews were killed and over 1,000 injured in attacks on Shavuot following British victory in the Anglo-Iraqi War. /wiki/Shavuot ↩

237. Massacres of Jews by the Ukrainian People's Militia and a German Einsatzgruppe. /wiki/Ukrainian_People%27s_Militia ↩

238. Violence amid rumors of kidnappings of children by Jews. ↩

239. A frenzy instigated by the crowd's libelous belief that some Jews had made sausage out of Christian children. ↩

240. Riots started as demonstrations against economic hardships and later became antisemitic. ↩

241. Violence against the Jewish community centre, initiated by Polish Communist armed forces LWP, KBW, GZI WP and continued by a mob of local townsfolk. /wiki/Jews ↩

242. Organized mob attacks directed primarily at Istanbul's Greek minority. Accelerated the emigration of ethnic Greeks from Turkey (Jews were also targeted in this event).[175][176] /wiki/Angry_mob ↩

243. 1956 anti-Tamil pogrom or Gal Oya massacre/riots were the first ethnic riots that targeted the minority Tamils in independent Sri Lanka. ↩

244. 1958 anti-Tamil pogrom also known as 58 riots, refer to the first island wide ethnic riots and pogrom in Sri Lanka. /wiki/Sri_Lanka ↩

245. Ethnic tension between Kurds and Turkmen. ↩

246. A series of massacres directed at Igbo and other southern Nigerian residents throughout Nigeria before and after the overthrow (and assassination) of the Aguiyi-Ironsi junta by Murtala Mohammed. /wiki/Igbo_people ↩

247. 6 Catholics were killed, 4 by state force & 2 by anti-Catholic mob. ↩

248. Along with the 6 murders, 500 Irish Catholics were injured by the state forces and anti-Catholic mob, 72 of those injured were injured from gun shot wounds, also 150+ Catholic homes and 275+ businesses had been destroyed – 83% of all buildings destroyed were owned by Catholics. Catholics generally fled across the border into the Republic of Ireland as refugees. After Belfast the other areas that saw violence were Newry, Armagh, Crossmaglen, Dungannon, Coalisland and Dungiven. The bloodiest clashes were in Belfast, where seven people were killed and hundreds wounded, in what some viewed as an attempted pogrom against the Catholic minority. Protesters clashed with both the police and with loyalists, who attacked Catholic districts. Scores of homes and businesses were burnt out, most of them owned by Catholics, and thousands of mostly Catholic families were driven from their homes. In some cases, RUC officers helped the loyalists and failed to protect Catholic areas. /wiki/Belfast ↩

249. The 1977 anti-Tamil pogrom followed the 1977 general elections in Sri Lanka where the Sri Lankan Tamil nationalistic Tamil United Liberation Front won a plurality of minority Sri Lankan Tamil votes in which it stood for secession. /wiki/Sri_Lankan_Tamil_Nationalism ↩

250. Yücel, Hakan (25 December 2021). "ŞİDDET OLAYLARININ ALEVİ TOPLUMU ÜZERİNDEKİ ETKİSİ" (in Turkish). Alevi Düşünce Ocağı. https://aleviocagi.org/siddet-olaylarinin-alevi-toplumu-uzerindeki-etkisi ↩

251. Sönmez, Seyit (19 December 2020). "Maraş pogromu". T24 (in Turkish). https://t24.com.tr/yazarlar/seyit-sonmez/maras-pogromu,29112 ↩

252. Over seven days mobs of mainly Sinhalese attacked Tamil targets, burning, looting and killing. ↩

253. Sikhs were targeted in Delhi and other parts of India during a pogrom in October 1984.[103][104][105] /wiki/Sikhs ↩

254. "Anti-Sikh riots a pogrom: Khushwant". Rediff. Archived from the original on 22 October 2018. Retrieved 23 September 2009. http://www.rediff.com/news/2001/may/09sikh.htm ↩

255. Mobs made up largely of ethnic Azeris formed into groups that went on to attack and kill Armenians both on the streets and in their apartments; widespread looting and a general lack of concern from police officers allowed the situation to worsen. ↩

256. Ethnic Azeris attacked Armenians throughout the city. ↩

257. Seven-day attack during which Armenians were beaten, tortured, murdered and expelled from the city. There were also many raids on apartments, robberies and Parsons. ↩

258. Media use of the term pogrom to refer to the 1991 Crown Heights riot caused public controversy.[29][27] For example, Joyce Purnick of The New York Times wrote in 1993 that the use of the word pogrom was "inflammatory"; she accused politicians of "trying to enlarge and twist the word" in order to "pander to Jewish voters".[179] /wiki/Crown_Heights_riot ↩

259. A three-day riot that occurred in the Crown Heights section of Brooklyn, New York. The riots incited by the death of the seven-year-old Gavin Cato, unleashed simmering tensions within Crown Heights' black community against the Orthodox Jewish community. In its wake, several Jews were seriously injured; one Orthodox Jewish man, Yankel Rosenbaum, was killed; and a non-Jewish man, allegedly mistaken by rioters for a Jew, was killed by a group of African-American men.[180][181] /wiki/Riot ↩

260. The Srebrenica massacre, also known as the Srebrenica genocide, was the July 1995 killing of more than 8,000 Bosniak Muslim men and boys in and around the town of Srebrenica, during the Bosnian War. The killings were perpetrated by units of the Bosnian Serb Army of Republika Srpska (VRS) under the command of Ratko Mladić. The Scorpions, a paramilitary unit from Serbia, who had been part of the Serbian Interior Ministry until 1991, also participated in the massacre.[182] /wiki/Bosniaks ↩

261. "The Soul-Wounds of Massacre, or Why We Should Not Forget the 2002 Gujarat Pogrom". The Wire. 27 February 2022. Retrieved 26 May 2024. This article is extracted and adapted from the author's book Between Memory and Forgetting: Massacre and the Modi Years in Gujarat, Yoda Press, 2019. https://m.thewire.in/article/communalism/2002-gujarat-anti-muslim-pogrom ↩

262. 790 Muslims and 254 Hindus (official)1,926 to 2,000+ total (other sources)[183][184][185] ↩

263. Over 4,000 Serbs were forced to leave their homes, 935 Serb houses, 10 public facilities and 35 Serbian Orthodox church-buildings were desecrated, damaged or destroyed, and six towns and nine villages were ethnically cleansed. ↩

264. "Al-Natour, Ryan --- "'Of Middle Eastern Appearance' is a Flawed Racial Profiling Descriptor" [2017] CICrimJust 17; (2017) 29(2) Current Issues in Criminal Justice 107". https://classic.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/CICrimJust/2017/17.html ↩

265. Muslims in Australia and Arab Australians and people misidentified as belonging to those groups. /wiki/Muslims_in_Australia ↩

266. Dr. Shaikh Mujibur Rehman (1 November 2023). "Violence against Muslims: A Case of Muzaffarnagar Pogrom 2013 and its Aftermath". Tufts University. Retrieved 20 July 2024. https://tufts.app.box.com/s/0k6h37jcybsgx6ooe2stlx5ab4d6xotk ↩

267. Dr. Shaikh Mujibur Rehman (1 November 2023). "Academics, Lectures & Seminars: Violence against Muslims: A Case of Muzaffarnagar Pogrom 2013 and its Aftermath". Tufts University. Retrieved 20 July 2024. https://events.tufts.edu/?trumbaEmbed=view%3Devent%26eventid%3D170272419%26view%3Devent%26eventid%3D170272419 ↩

268. "Expecting justice for Muslim victims of 2013 Muzaffarnagar pogrom is ludicrous". People's Review. 20 July 2019. Retrieved 20 July 2024. https://www.peoplesreview.in/politics/2019/07/expecting-justice-for-muslim-victims-of-2013-muzaffarnagar-pogrom-is-ludicrous/ ↩

269. "The Rohingya pogrom". The Jerusalem Post. 11 September 2017. Retrieved 2 July 2024. https://www.jpost.com/opinion/the-rohingya-pogrom-504814#google_vignette ↩

270. McIntyre, Juliette; Simpson, Adam (26 May 2022). "A tale of two genocide cases: International justice in Ukraine and Myanmar". Retrieved 2 July 2024. https://eastasiaforum.org/2022/05/26/a-tale-of-two-genocide-cases-international-justice-in-ukraine-and-myanmar/ ↩

271. Facebook was accused of inciting mob violence.[119] /wiki/Facebook ↩

272. Levy, Gideon (4 March 2023). "Shock, rage and despair in Hawara in wake of settler pogrom". Haaretz. Retrieved 25 May 2024. Photo caption: A building set on fire during the Hawara pogrom. Credit: Majdi Mohammed/AP https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/twilight-zone/2023-03-04/ty-article-magazine/.highlight/shock-rage-and-despair-in-hawara-in-wake-of-settler-pogrom/00000186-a298-d6e6-a3af-fbdc8e1b0000 ↩

273. homes demolished and communities depopoulated by intimidation[120] ↩

274. Oren Ziv (אורן זיו) (28 March 2024). תחקיר: ההרוג בפוגרום חווארה נורה כנראה על ידי מתנחלים [Investigation: The person killed in the Huwara pogrom was probably shot by settlers]. local call (שיחה מקומית) (in Hebrew). Retrieved 20 July 2024. תחקיר: ההרוג בפוגרום חווארה נורה כנראה על ידי מתנחלים ↩

275. Levy, Gideon (4 March 2023). "Shock, rage and despair in Hawara in wake of settler pogrom". Haaretz. Retrieved 25 May 2024. Photo caption: A building set on fire during the Hawara pogrom. Credit: Majdi Mohammed/AP https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/twilight-zone/2023-03-04/ty-article-magazine/.highlight/shock-rage-and-despair-in-hawara-in-wake-of-settler-pogrom/00000186-a298-d6e6-a3af-fbdc8e1b0000 ↩

276. Salameh, Rula (18 March 2023). "I Witnessed a Shocking Attack on Palestinian Civilians. What I Saw May Be a Sign of What's to Come". TIME. Retrieved 26 May 2024. This pogrom on Huwara was far from isolated. Settlers, backed by the Israeli military, have attacked Palestinians communities for years, violence which has been rapidly spiraling. https://time.com/6264116/west-bank-attack-palestinian-civilians/ ↩

277. Oren Ziv (אורן זיו) (28 March 2024). תחקיר: ההרוג בפוגרום חווארה נורה כנראה על ידי מתנחלים [Investigation: The person killed in the Huwara pogrom was probably shot by settlers]. local call (שיחה מקומית) (in Hebrew). Retrieved 20 July 2024. תחקיר: ההרוג בפוגרום חווארה נורה כנראה על ידי מתנחלים ↩

278. Aytekin, Ayse Betul. "Israeli settlers kill Palestinian man who helped quake victims in Türkiye". TRT. Retrieved 20 July 2024. https://www.trtworld.com/middle-east/israeli-settlers-kill-palestinian-man-who-helped-quake-victims-in-t%C3%BCrkiye-65719 ↩