Ukraine, located in Eastern Europe, is the second-largest country in Europe after Russia, which borders it. Its capital and largest city is Kyiv. With a rich history from the Kievan Rus' era to Soviet rule, Ukraine gained independence in 1991 after the Soviet Union dissolved. Since 2014, Ukraine has faced conflict due to Russia’s occupation of Crimea and the ongoing war in Donbas, culminating in a full-scale invasion in 2022. Ukraine is a unitary state with a transition economy and is an important grain exporter crucial for global food security. It is a member of the United Nations and seeks to join the European Union and NATO.
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Main article: Name of Ukraine
The name of Ukraine is frequently interpreted as coming from the old Slavic term for 'borderland' as is the word krajina.16 Another interpretation is that the name of Ukraine means "region" or "country".
In the English-speaking world during most of the 20th century, Ukraine (whether independent or not) was referred to as "the Ukraine".17 This is because in Russian, the word ukraina means 'borderland'18 so the definite article would be natural in the English language; this is similar to Nederlanden, which means 'low lands' and is rendered in English as "the Netherlands".19 However, since Ukraine's declaration of independence in 1991, this usage has become politicised and is now rarer, and style guides advise against its use.2021 U.S. ambassador William Taylor said that using "the Ukraine" implies disregard for Ukrainian sovereignty.22 The official Ukrainian position is that "the Ukraine" is both grammatically and politically incorrect.2324
History
Main article: History of Ukraine
Early history
Evidence for the earliest securely-dated hominin presence in Europe comes from 1.4 million-year-old stone tools from Korolevo, in western Ukraine.25 Settlement by modern humans in Ukraine and its vicinity dates back to 32,000 BC, with evidence of the Gravettian culture in the Crimean Mountains.2627 By 4,500 BC, the Neolithic Cucuteni–Trypillia culture was flourishing in wide areas of modern Ukraine, including Trypillia and the entire Dnieper-Dniester region. Ukraine is a probable location for the first domestication of the horse.28 The Kurgan hypothesis places the Volga-Dnieper region of Ukraine and southern Russia as the linguistic homeland of the Proto-Indo-Europeans.29 Early Indo-European migrations from the Pontic steppes in the 3rd millennium BC spread Yamnaya Steppe pastoralist ancestry and Indo-European languages across large parts of Europe.30 During the Iron Age, the land was inhabited by Iranian-speaking Cimmerians, Scythians, and Sarmatians.31 Between 700 BC and 200 BC it was part of the Scythian kingdom.32
From the 6th century BC, Greek, Roman, and Byzantine colonies were established on the north-eastern shore of the Black Sea, such as at Tyras, Olbia, and Chersonesus. These thrived into the 6th century AD. The Goths stayed in the area, but came under the sway of the Huns from the 370s. In the 7th century, the territory that is now eastern Ukraine was the centre of Old Great Bulgaria. At the end of the century, the majority of Bulgar tribes migrated in different directions, and the Khazars took over much of the land.33
In the 5th and 6th centuries, the Antes, which some relate as an early Slavic people, lived in Ukraine. Migrations from the territories of present-day Ukraine throughout the Balkans established many South Slavic nations. Northern migrations, reaching almost to Lake Ilmen, led to the emergence of the Ilmen Slavs and Krivichs. Following an Avar raid in 602 and the collapse of the Antes Union, most of these peoples survived as separate tribes until the beginning of the second millennium.34
Golden Age of Kyiv
Main articles: Kievan Rus', Principality of Kiev, and Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia
The establishment of the state of Kievan Rus' remains obscure and uncertain.35 The state included much of present-day Ukraine, Belarus and the western part of European Russia.36 According to the Primary Chronicle, the Rus' people initially consisted of Varangians from Scandinavia.37 In 882, the pagan Prince Oleg (Oleh) conquered Kyiv from Askold and Dir and proclaimed it as the new capital of the Rus'.38 Anti-Normanist historians however argue that the East Slavic tribes along the southern parts of the Dnieper River were already in the process of forming a state independently.39 The Varangian elite, including the ruling Rurik dynasty, later assimilated into the Slavic population.40 Kievan Rus' was composed of several principalities ruled by the interrelated Rurikid kniazes ("princes"), who often fought each other for possession of Kyiv.41
During the 10th and 11th centuries, Kievan Rus' became the largest and most powerful state in Europe, a period known as its Golden Age.42 It began with the reign of Vladimir the Great (980–1015), who introduced Christianity. During the reign of his son, Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054), Kievan Rus' reached the zenith of its cultural development and military power.43 The state soon fragmented as the relative importance of regional powers rose again. After a final resurgence under the rule of Vladimir II Monomakh (1113–1125) and his son Mstislav (1125–1132), Kievan Rus' finally disintegrated into separate principalities following Mstislav's death, though ownership of Kyiv would still carry great prestige for decades.44 In the 11th and 12th centuries, the nomadic confederacy of the Turkic-speaking Cumans and Kipchaks was the dominant force in the Pontic steppe north of the Black Sea.45
The Mongol invasions in the mid-13th century devastated Kievan Rus'; following the Siege of Kyiv in 1240, the city was destroyed by the Mongols.46 In the western territories, the principalities of Halych and Volhynia had arisen earlier, and were merged to form the Principality of Galicia–Volhynia.47 Daniel of Galicia, son of Roman the Great, re-united much of south-western Rus', including Volhynia, Galicia, as well as Kyiv. He was subsequently crowned by a papal envoy as the first king of Galicia–Volhynia (also known as the Kingdom of Ruthenia) in 1253.48
Foreign domination
Further information: Kiev Voivodeship
See also: Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, Crimean Khanate, Ottoman Empire, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and Russian Empire
In 1349, in the aftermath of the Galicia–Volhynia Wars, the region was partitioned between the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.49 From the mid-13th century to the late 1400s, the Republic of Genoa founded numerous colonies on the northern coast of the Black Sea and transformed these into large commercial centres headed by the consul, a representative of the Republic.50 In 1430, the region of Podolia was incorporated into Poland, and the lands of modern-day Ukraine became increasingly settled by Poles.51 In 1441, Genghisid prince Haci I Giray founded the Crimean Khanate on the Crimean Peninsula and the surrounding steppes;52 the Khanate orchestrated Tatar slave raids. Over the next three centuries, the Crimean slave trade would enslave an estimated two million in the region.5354
In 1569, the Union of Lublin established the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and most of the Ukrainian lands were transferred from Lithuania to the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, becoming de jure Polish territory. Under the pressures of Polonisation, many landed gentry of Ruthenia converted to Catholicism and joined the circles of the Polish nobility; others joined the newly created Ruthenian Uniate Church.55
Cossack Hetmanate
Main articles: Cossack Hetmanate and Zaporozhian Sich
Deprived of native protectors among the Ruthenian nobility, the peasants and townspeople began turning for protection to the emerging Zaporozhian Cossacks. In the mid-17th century, a Cossack military quasi-state, the Zaporozhian Host, was formed by Dnieper Cossacks and Ruthenian peasants.56 Poland exercised little real control over this population, but found the Cossacks to be useful against the Turks and Tatars,57 and at times the two were allies in military campaigns.58 However, the continued harsh enserfment of Ruthenian peasantry by Polish szlachta (many of whom were Polonised Ruthenian nobles) and the suppression of the Orthodox Church alienated the Cossacks.59 The latter did not shy from taking up arms against those they perceived as enemies and occupiers, including the Catholic Church with its local representatives.60
In 1648, Bohdan Khmelnytsky led the largest of the Cossack uprisings against the Commonwealth and the Polish king, which enjoyed wide support from the local population.61 Khmelnytsky founded the Cossack Hetmanate, which existed until 1764 (some sources claim until 1782).62 After Khmelnytsky suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Berestechko in 1651, he turned to the Russian tsar for help. In 1654, Khmelnytsky was subject to the Pereiaslav Agreement, forming a military and political alliance with Russia that acknowledged loyalty to the Russian monarch.
After his death, the Hetmanate went through a devastating 30-year war amongst Russia, Poland, the Crimean Khanate, the Ottoman Empire, and Cossacks, known as "The Ruin" (1657–1686), for control of the Cossack Hetmanate. The Treaty of Perpetual Peace between Russia and Poland in 1686 divided the lands of the Cossack Hetmanate between them, reducing the portion over which Poland had claimed sovereignty to Ukraine west of the Dnieper river. In 1686, the Metropolitanate of Kyiv was annexed by the Moscow Patriarchate through a synodal letter of the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople Dionysius IV, thus placing the Metropolitanate of Kyiv under the authority of Moscow. An attempt to reverse the decline was undertaken by Cossack Hetman Ivan Mazepa (1639–1709), who ultimately defected to the Swedes in the Great Northern War (1700–1721) in a bid to get rid of Russian dependence,63 but Hetmanate's capital city Baturyn was sacked (1708) and they were crushed in the Battle of Poltava (1709).6465
The Hetmanate's autonomy was severely restricted since Poltava. In the years 1764–1781, Catherine the Great incorporated much of Central Ukraine into the Russian Empire, abolishing the Cossack Hetmanate and the Zaporozhian Sich, and was one of the people responsible for the suppression of the last major Cossack uprising, the Koliivshchyna.66 After the annexation of Crimea by Russia in 1783, the newly acquired lands, now called Novorossiya, were opened up to settlement by Russians.67 The tsarist autocracy established a policy of Russification, suppressing the use of the Ukrainian language and curtailing the Ukrainian national identity.68 The western part of present-day Ukraine was subsequently split between Russia and Habsburg-ruled Austria after the fall of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1795.
19th and early 20th century
Main articles: Southwestern Krai, Kharkov Governorate, Chernigov Governorate, Ukrainian People's Republic, Ukrainian State, and Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic
Further information: Ukrainian national revival, Ukraine during World War I, Ukraine after the Russian Revolution, Ukrainian War of Independence, and Ukrainian–Soviet War
The 19th century saw the rise of Ukrainian nationalism. With growing urbanisation and modernisation and a cultural trend toward romantic nationalism, a Ukrainian intelligentsia committed to national rebirth and social justice emerged. The serf-turned-national-poet Taras Shevchenko (1814–1861) and political theorist Mykhailo Drahomanov (1841–1895) led the growing nationalist movement.6970 While conditions for its development in Austrian Galicia under the Habsburgs were relatively lenient,71 the Russian part (historically known as "Little Russia" or "South Russia")72 faced severe restrictions, going as far as banning virtually all books from being published in Ukrainian in 1876.
Ukraine, like the rest of the Russian Empire, joined the Industrial Revolution later than most of Western Europe73 due to the maintenance of serfdom until 1861. Other than near the newly discovered coal fields of the Donbas, and in some larger cities such as Odesa and Kyiv, Ukraine largely remained an agricultural and resource extraction economy.74 The Austrian part of Ukraine was particularly destitute, which forced hundreds of thousands of peasants into emigration, who created the backbone of an extensive Ukrainian diaspora in countries such as Canada, the United States and Brazil.75 Some of the Ukrainians settled in the Far East, too. According to the 1897 census, there were 223,000 ethnic Ukrainians in Siberia and 102,000 in Central Asia.76 An additional 1.6 million emigrated to the east in the ten years after the opening of the Trans-Siberian Railway in 1906.77 Far Eastern areas with an ethnic Ukrainian population became known as Green Ukraine.78
Ukraine plunged into turmoil with the beginning of World War I, and fighting on Ukrainian soil persisted until late 1921. Initially, the Ukrainians were split between Austria-Hungary, fighting for the Central Powers, though the vast majority served in the Imperial Russian Army, which was part of the Triple Entente, under Russia.79 As the Russian Empire collapsed, the conflict evolved into the Ukrainian War of Independence, with Ukrainians fighting alongside, or against, the Red, White, Black and Green armies, with the Poles, Hungarians (in Transcarpathia), and Germans also intervening at various times.
An attempt to create an independent state, the left-leaning Ukrainian People's Republic (UNR), was first announced by Mykhailo Hrushevsky, but the period was plagued by an extremely unstable political and military environment. It was first deposed in a coup d'état led by Pavlo Skoropadskyi, which yielded the Ukrainian State under the German protectorate, and the attempt to restore the UNR under the Directorate ultimately failed as the Ukrainian army was regularly overrun by other forces. The short-lived West Ukrainian People's Republic and Hutsul Republic also failed to join the rest of Ukraine.80
The result of the conflict was a partial victory for the Second Polish Republic, which annexed the Western Ukrainian provinces, as well as a larger-scale victory for the pro-Soviet forces, which succeeded in dislodging the remaining factions and eventually established the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (Soviet Ukraine). Meanwhile, modern-day Bukovina was occupied by Romania and Carpathian Ruthenia was admitted to Czechoslovakia as an autonomous region.81
The conflict over Ukraine, a part of the broader Russian Civil War, devastated the whole of the former Russian Empire, including eastern and central Ukraine. The fighting left over 1.5 million people dead and hundreds of thousands homeless in the former Russian Empire's territory. Famine in 1921 further hit the eastern provinces.8283
Inter-war period
See also: Holodomor
During the inter-war period, in Poland, Marshal Józef Piłsudski sought Ukrainian support by offering local autonomy as a way to minimise Soviet influence in Poland's eastern Kresy region.8485 However, this approach was abandoned after Piłsudski's death in 1935, due to continued unrest among the Ukrainian population, including assassinations of Polish government officials by the Organisation of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN); with the Polish government responding by restricting rights of people who declared Ukrainian nationality.8687 In consequence, the underground Ukrainian nationalist and militant movement, which arose in the 1920s gained wider support.
Meanwhile, the recently constituted Soviet Ukraine became one of the founding republics of the Soviet Union. During the 1920s,88 under the Ukrainisation policy pursued by the national Communist leadership of Mykola Skrypnyk, Soviet leadership at first encouraged a national renaissance in Ukrainian culture and language. Ukrainisation was part of the Soviet-wide policy of Korenisation (literally indigenisation), which was intended to promote the advancement of native peoples, their language and culture into the governance of their respective republics.
Around the same time, Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin instituted the New Economic Policy (NEP), which introduced a form of market socialism, allowing some private ownership of small and medium-sized productive enterprises, hoping to reconstruct the post-war Soviet Union that had been devastated by both WWI and later the civil war. The NEP was successful at restoring the formerly war-torn nation to pre-WWI levels of production and agricultural output by the mid-1920s, much of the latter based in Ukraine.89 These policies attracted many prominent former UNR figures, including former UNR leader Hrushevsky, to return to Soviet Ukraine, where they were accepted, and participated in the advancement of Ukrainian science and culture.90 In July 1922, arrests and deportations of Ukrainian intellectuals (e.g. university professors) began in Soviet Ukraine and continued throughout the 1920s.91
This period was cut short when Joseph Stalin became the leader of the USSR following Lenin's death. Stalin did away with the NEP in what became known as the Great Break. Starting from the late 1920s and now with a centrally planned economy, Soviet Ukraine took part in an industrialisation scheme which quadrupled its industrial output during the 1930s.
Nevertheless, Stalin sought to prevent the Ukrainians aspirations for the independence of Ukraine and took severe measures to eliminate Ukrainian peasantry and elite Ukrainian intellectuals and culturists.9293 As a consequence of Stalin's new policy, the Ukrainian peasantry suffered from the programme of collectivisation of agricultural crops. Collectivisation was part of the first five-year plan and was enforced by regular troops and the secret police known as Cheka. Those who resisted were arrested and deported to gulags and work camps. As members of the collective farms were sometimes not allowed to receive any grain until unrealistic quotas were met, millions starved to death in a famine known as the Holodomor or the "Great Famine", which was recognised by some countries as an act of genocide perpetrated by Joseph Stalin and other Soviet notables.94
Following on the Russian Civil War and collectivisation, the Great Purge, while killing Stalin's perceived political enemies, resulted in a profound loss of a new generation of Ukrainian intelligentsia, known today as the Executed Renaissance.95
World War II
See also: Eastern Front (World War II), Reichskommissariat Ukraine, and The Holocaust in Ukraine
Following the Invasion of Poland in September 1939, German and Soviet troops divided the territory of Poland. Thus, Eastern Galicia and Volhynia with their Ukrainian population became part of Ukraine. For the first time in history, the nation was united.9697 Further territorial gains were secured in 1940, when the Ukrainian SSR incorporated the northern and southern districts of Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region from the territories the USSR forced Romania to cede, though it handed over the western part of the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic to the newly created Moldavian SSR. These territorial gains of the USSR were internationally recognised by the Paris peace treaties of 1947.98
German armies invaded the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941, initiating nearly four years of total war. The Axis initially advanced against desperate but unsuccessful efforts of the Red Army. In the battle of Kyiv, the city was acclaimed as a "Hero City", because of its fierce resistance. More than 600,000 Soviet soldiers (or one-quarter of the Soviet Western Front) were killed or taken captive there, with many suffering severe mistreatment.99100 After its conquest, most of the Ukrainian SSR was organised within the Reichskommissariat Ukraine, with the intention of exploiting its resources and eventual German settlement. Some western Ukrainians, who had only joined the Soviet Union in 1939, hailed the Germans as liberators, but that did not last long as the Nazis made little attempt to exploit dissatisfaction with Stalinist policies.101 Instead, the Nazis preserved the collective-farm system, carried out genocidal policies against Jews, deported millions of people to work in Germany, and began a depopulation programme to prepare for German colonisation.102 They blockaded the transport of food on the Dnieper River.103
Although the majority of Ukrainians fought in or alongside the Red Army and Soviet resistance,104 in Western Ukraine an independent Ukrainian Insurgent Army movement arose (UPA, 1942). It was created as the armed forces of the underground Organisation of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN).105106 Both organisations, the OUN and the UPA, supported the goal of an independent Ukrainian state on the territory with a Ukrainian ethnic majority. Although this brought conflict with Nazi Germany, at times the Melnyk wing of the OUN allied with the Nazi forces. From mid-1943 until the end of the war, the UPA carried out massacres of ethnic Poles in the Volhynia and Eastern Galicia regions, killing around 100,000 Polish civilians, which brought reprisals.107108 These organised massacres were an attempt by the OUN to create a homogeneous Ukrainian state without a Polish minority living within its borders, and to prevent the post-war Polish state from asserting its sovereignty over areas that had been part of pre-war Poland.109 After the war, the UPA continued to fight the USSR until the 1950s.110111 At the same time, the Ukrainian Liberation Army, another nationalist movement, fought alongside the Nazis.112
In total, the number of ethnic Ukrainians who fought in the ranks of the Soviet Army is estimated from 4.5 million113 to 7 million;114115 half of the Pro-Soviet partisan guerrilla resistance units, which counted up to 500,000 troops in 1944, were also Ukrainian.116 Generally, the Ukrainian Insurgent Army's figures are unreliable, with figures ranging anywhere from 15,000 to as many as 100,000 fighters.117118
The vast majority of the fighting in World War II took place on the Eastern Front.119 The total losses inflicted upon the Ukrainian population during the war are estimated at 6 million,120121 including an estimated one and a half million Jews killed by the Einsatzgruppen,122 sometimes with the help of local collaborators. Of the estimated 8.6 million Soviet troop losses,123124125 1.4 million were ethnic Ukrainians.126127128129 The Victory Day is celebrated as one of eleven Ukrainian national holidays.130
Post–war Soviet Ukraine
Further information: Anti-Soviet resistance by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army and Chernobyl disaster
See also: History of the Soviet Union (1953–1964), History of the Soviet Union (1964–1982), and History of the Soviet Union (1982–1991)
The republic was heavily damaged by the war, and it required significant efforts to recover. More than 700 cities and towns and 28,000 villages were destroyed.131 The situation was worsened by a famine in 1946–1947, which was caused by a drought and the wartime destruction of infrastructure, killing at least tens of thousands of people.132 In 1945, the Ukrainian SSR became one of the founding members of the United Nations (UN),133 part of a special agreement at the Yalta Conference, and, alongside Belarus, had voting rights in the UN even though they were not independent.134135 Moreover, Ukraine once more expanded its borders as it annexed Zakarpattia, and the population became much more homogenised due to post-war population transfers, most of which, as in the case of Germans and Crimean Tatars, were forced. As of 1 January 1953, Ukrainians were second only to Russians among adult "special deportees", comprising 20% of the total.136
Following the death of Stalin in 1953, Nikita Khrushchev became the new leader of the USSR, who began the policies of de-stalinisation and the Khrushchev Thaw. During his term as head of the Soviet Union, Crimea was transferred from the Russian SFSR to the Ukrainian SSR, formally as a friendship gift to Ukraine and for economic reasons.137 This represented the final extension of Ukrainian territory and formed the basis for the internationally recognised borders of Ukraine to this day. Many top positions in the Soviet Union were occupied by Ukrainians, including notably Leonid Brezhnev, General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1964 to 1982. However, it was he and his appointee in Ukraine, Volodymyr Shcherbytsky, who presided over the extensive Russification of Ukraine and who were instrumental in repressing a new generation of Ukrainian intellectuals known as the Sixtiers.138
By 1950, the republic had fully surpassed pre-war levels of industry and production.139 Soviet Ukraine soon became a European leader in industrial production140 and an important centre of the Soviet arms industry and high-tech research, though heavy industry still had an outsided influence.141 The Soviet government invested in hydroelectric and nuclear power projects to cater to the energy demand that the development carried. On 26 April 1986, however, a reactor in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant exploded, resulting in the Chernobyl disaster, the worst nuclear reactor accident in history.142
Independence
Further information: Modern history of Ukraine, Dissolution of the Soviet Union, Orange Revolution, Revolution of Dignity, and Russo-Ukrainian War
Mikhail Gorbachev pursued a policy of limited liberalisation of public life, known as perestroika, and attempted to reform a stagnating economy. The latter failed, but the democratisation of the Soviet Union fuelled nationalist and separatist tendencies among the ethnic minorities, including Ukrainians.143 As part of the so-called parade of sovereignties, on 16 July 1990, the newly elected Supreme Soviet of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic adopted the Declaration of State Sovereignty of Ukraine.144 After a failed coup by some Communist leaders in Moscow at deposing Gorbachov, outright independence was proclaimed on 24 August 1991.145 It was approved by 92% of the Ukrainian electorate in a referendum on 1 December.146 Ukraine's new President, Leonid Kravchuk, went on to sign the Belavezha Accords and made Ukraine a founding member of the much looser Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS),147 though Ukraine never became a full member of the latter as it did not ratify the agreement founding CIS.148 These documents sealed the fate of the Soviet Union, which formally voted itself out of existence on 26 December.149
Ukraine was initially viewed as having favourable economic conditions in comparison to the other regions of the Soviet Union,150 though it was one of the poorer Soviet republics by the time of the dissolution.151 However, during its transition to the market economy, the country experienced deeper economic slowdown than almost all of the other former Soviet Republics. During the recession, between 1991 and 1999, Ukraine lost 60% of its GDP152153 and suffered from hyperinflation that peaked at 10,000% in 1993.154 The situation only stabilised well after the new currency, the hryvnia, fell sharply in late 1998 partially as a fallout from the Russian debt default earlier that year.155 The legacy of the economic policies of the nineties was the mass privatisation of state property that created a class of extremely powerful and rich individuals known as the oligarchs.156 The country then fell into a series of sharp recessions as a result of the Great Recession,157 the start of the Russo-Ukrainian War in 2014,158 and finally, the full-scale invasion by Russia in starting from 24 February 2022.159 Ukraine's economy in general underperformed since the time independence came due to pervasive corruption and mismanagement,160 which, particularly in the 1990s, led to protests and organised strikes.161 The war with Russia impeded meaningful economic recovery in the 2010s,162 while efforts to combat the COVID-19 pandemic, which arrived in 2020, were made much harder by low vaccination rates163 and, later in the pandemic, by the ongoing invasion.164
From the political perspective, one of the defining features of the politics of Ukraine is that for most of the time, it has been divided along two issues: the relation between Ukraine, the West and Russia, and the classical left-right divide.165 The first two presidents, Kravchuk and Leonid Kuchma, tended to balance the competing visions of Ukraine,166 though Yushchenko and Yanukovych were generally pro-Western and pro-Russian, respectively. There were two major protests against Yanukovych: the Orange Revolution in 2004, when tens of thousands of people went in protest of election rigging in his favour (Yushchenko was eventually elected president), and another one in the winter of 2013/2014, when more gathered on the Euromaidan to oppose Yanukovych's refusal to sign the European Union–Ukraine Association Agreement. By the end of the protests on 21 February 2014, he fled from Ukraine and was removed by the parliament in what is termed the Revolution of Dignity, but Russia refused to recognise the interim pro-Western government, calling it a junta and denouncing the events as a coup d'état sponsored by the United States.167168169
Despite the signing of the Budapest memorandum in 1994, in which Ukraine agreed to hand over nuclear weapons in exchange for guarantees of security and territorial integrity, Russia reacted violently to these developments and started a war against its western neighbour. In late February and early March 2014, it annexed Crimea using its Navy in Sevastopol as well as the so- called little green men; after this succeeded, it then launched a proxy war in the Donbas via the breakaway Donetsk People's Republic and Luhansk People's Republic.170 The first months of the conflict with the Russian-backed separatists were fluid, but Russian forces then started an open invasion in Donbas on 24 August 2014. Together they pushed back Ukrainian troops to the frontline established in February 2015, i.e. after Ukrainian troops withdrew from Debaltseve.171 The conflict remained in a sort of frozen state until the early hours of 24 February 2022,172 when Russia invaded.173 A year later, Russian troops controlled about 17% of Ukraine's internationally recognised territory, which constitutes 94% of Luhansk Oblast, 73% of Kherson Oblast, 72% of Zaporizhzhia Oblast, 54% of Donetsk Oblast and all of Crimea,174 though Russia failed with its initial plan, with Ukrainian troops recapturing some territory in counteroffensives.175
The military conflict with Russia shifted the government's policy towards the West. Shortly after Yanukovych fled Ukraine, the country signed the EU association agreement in June 2014, and its citizens were granted visa-free travel to the European Union three years later. In January 2019, the Orthodox Church of Ukraine was recognised as independent of Moscow, which reversed the 1686 decision of the patriarch of Constantinople and dealt a further blow to Moscow's influence in Ukraine.176 Finally, amid a full-scale war with Russia, Ukraine was granted candidate status to the European Union on 23 June 2022.177 A broad anti-corruption drive began in early 2023 with the resignations of several deputy ministers and regional heads during a reshuffle of the government.178
Geography
Main article: Geography of Ukraine
Ukraine is the second-largest European country, after Russia, and the largest country entirely in Europe. Lying between latitudes 44° and 53° N, and longitudes 22° and 41° E., it is mostly in the East European Plain. Ukraine covers an area of 603,550 square kilometres (233,030 sq mi), with a coastline of 2,782 kilometres (1,729 mi).179
The landscape of Ukraine consists mostly of fertile steppes (plains with few trees) and plateaus, crossed by rivers such as the Dnieper, Seversky Donets, Dniester and the Southern Bug as they flow south into the Black Sea and the smaller Sea of Azov. To the southwest, the Danube Delta forms the border with Romania. Ukraine's regions have diverse geographic features, ranging from the highlands to the lowlands. The country's only mountains are the Carpathian Mountains in the west, of which the highest is Hoverla at 2,061 metres (6,762 ft), and the Crimean Mountains, in the extreme south along the coast.180
Ukraine also has a number of highland regions such as the Volyn-Podillia Upland (in the west) and the Near-Dnipro Upland (on the right bank of the Dnieper). To the east there are the south-western spurs of the Central Russian Upland over which runs the border with Russia. Near the Sea of Azov are the Donets Ridge and the Near Azov Upland. The snow melt from the mountains feeds the rivers and their waterfalls.
Significant natural resources in Ukraine include lithium,181 natural gas,182 kaolin,183 timber184 and an abundance of arable land.185 Ukraine has many environmental issues.186187 Some regions lack adequate supplies of potable water.188 Air and water pollution affects the country, as well as deforestation, and radiation contamination in the northeast from the 1986 accident at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant.189 The environmental damage caused by the Russian invasion of Ukraine has been described as an ecocide,190 the destruction of Kakhovka Dam, severe pollution and millions of tonnes of contaminated debris is estimated to cost over USD 50 billion to repair.191192193194195[excessive citations]
Climate
Ukraine is in the mid-latitudes, and generally has a continental climate, except for its southern coasts, which have cold semi-arid and humid subtropical climates.196 Average annual temperatures range from 5.5–7 °C (41.9–44.6 °F) in the north, to 11–13 °C (51.8–55.4 °F) in the south.197 Precipitation is highest in the west and north and lowest in the east and southeast.198 Western Ukraine, particularly in the Carpathian Mountains, receives around 120 centimetres (47.2 in) of precipitation annually, while Crimea and the coastal areas of the Black Sea receive around 40 centimetres (15.7 in).199
Water availability from the major river basins is expected to decrease due to climate change, especially in summer. This poses risks to the agricultural sector.200 The negative impacts of climate change on agriculture are mostly felt in the south of the country, which has a steppe climate. In the north, some crops may be able to benefit from a longer growing season.201 The World Bank has stated that Ukraine is highly vulnerable to climate change.202
Biodiversity
Main article: Wildlife of Ukraine
See also: List of ecoregions in Ukraine
Ukraine contains six terrestrial ecoregions: Central European mixed forests, Crimean Submediterranean forest complex, East European forest steppe, Pannonian mixed forests, Carpathian montane conifer forests, and Pontic steppe.203 There is somewhat more coniferous than deciduous forest.204 The most densely forested area is Polisia in the northwest, with pine, oak, and birch.205 There are 45,000 species of animals (mostly invertebrates),206 with approximately 385 endangered species listed in the Red Data Book of Ukraine.207 Internationally important wetlands cover over 7,000 square kilometres (2,700 sq mi), with the Danube Delta being important for conservation.208209
Urban areas
Main article: List of cities in Ukraine
Ukraine has 457 cities, of which 176 are designated as oblast-class, 279 as smaller raion-class cities, and two as special legal status cities. There are also 886 urban-type settlements and 28,552 villages.210
| Largest cities or towns in Ukraine2022 211 | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rank | Name | Region | Pop. | Rank | Name | Region | Pop. | ||
| KyivKharkiv | 1 | Kyiv | Kyiv (city) | 2,952,301 | 11 | Mariupol | Donetsk | 425,681 | OdesaDnipro |
| 2 | Kharkiv | Kharkiv | 1,421,125 | 12 | Luhansk | Luhansk | 397,677 | ||
| 3 | Odesa | Odesa | 1,010,537 | 13 | Vinnytsia | Vinnytsia | 369,739 | ||
| 4 | Dnipro | Dnipropetrovsk | 968,502 | 14 | Simferopol | Crimea | 340,540 | ||
| 5 | Donetsk | Donetsk | 901,645 | 15 | Makiivka | Donetsk | 338,968 | ||
| 6 | Lviv | Lviv | 717,273 | 16 | Chernihiv | Chernihiv | 282,747 | ||
| 7 | Zaporizhzhia | Zaporizhzhia | 710,052 | 17 | Poltava | Poltava | 279,593 | ||
| 8 | Kryvyi Rih | Dnipropetrovsk | 603,904 | 18 | Kherson | Kherson | 279,131 | ||
| 9 | Sevastopol | Sevastopol (city) | 479,394 | 19 | Khmelnytskyi | Khmelnytskyi | 274,452 | ||
| 10 | Mykolaiv | Mykolaiv | 470,011 | 20 | Cherkasy | Cherkasy | 269,836 | ||
Politics
Main article: Politics of Ukraine
Ukraine is a republic under a semi-presidential system with separate legislative, executive, and judicial branches.212
Constitution
Main article: Constitution of Ukraine
The Constitution of Ukraine was adopted and ratified at the 5th session of the Verkhovna Rada, the parliament of Ukraine, on 28 June 1996.213 The constitution was passed with 315 ayes out of 450 votes possible (300 ayes minimum).214 All other laws and other normative legal acts of Ukraine must conform to the constitution. The right to amend the constitution through a special legislative procedure is vested exclusively in the parliament. The only body that may interpret the constitution and determine whether legislation conforms to it is the Constitutional Court of Ukraine. Since 1996, the public holiday Constitution Day is celebrated on 28 June.215216 On 7 February 2019, the Verkhovna Rada voted to amend the constitution to state Ukraine's strategic objectives as joining the European Union and NATO.217
Government
Main article: Government of Ukraine
The president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term and is the formal head of state.218 Ukraine's legislative branch includes the 450-seat unicameral parliament, the Verkhovna Rada.219 The parliament is primarily responsible for the formation of the executive branch and the Cabinet of Ministers, headed by the prime minister.220 The president retains the authority to nominate the ministers of foreign affairs and of defence for parliamentary approval, as well as the power to appoint the prosecutor general and the head of the Security Service.221
Laws, acts of the parliament and the cabinet, presidential decrees, and acts of the Crimean parliament may be abrogated by the Constitutional Court, should they be found to violate the constitution. Other normative acts are subject to judicial review. The Supreme Court is the main body in the system of courts of general jurisdiction. Local self-government is officially guaranteed. Local councils and city mayors are popularly elected and exercise control over local budgets. The heads of regional and district administrations are appointed by the president in accordance with proposals of the prime minister.222
Courts and law enforcement
Main articles: Judicial system of Ukraine and Law enforcement in Ukraine
Martial law was declared when Russia invaded in February 2022,223 and continues.224225 The courts enjoy legal, financial and constitutional freedom guaranteed by Ukrainian law since 2002. Judges are largely well protected from dismissal (except for gross misconduct). Court justices are appointed by presidential decree for an initial period of five years, after which Ukraine's Supreme Council confirms their positions for life. Although there are still problems, the system is considered to have been much improved since Ukraine's independence in 1991. The Supreme Court is regarded as an independent and impartial body, and has on several occasions ruled against the Ukrainian government. The World Justice Project ranks Ukraine 66 out of 99 countries surveyed in its annual Rule of Law Index.226
Prosecutors in Ukraine have greater powers than in most European countries, and according to the European Commission for Democracy through Law "the role and functions of the Prosecutor's Office is not in accordance with Council of Europe standards".227 The conviction rate is over 99%,228 equal to the conviction rate of the Soviet Union, with suspects often being incarcerated for long periods before trial.229
In 2010, President Yanukovych formed an expert group to make recommendations on how to "clean up the current mess and adopt a law on court organisation".230 One day later, he stated "We can no longer disgrace our country with such a court system."231 The criminal judicial system and the prison system of Ukraine remain quite punitive.232
Since 2010 court proceedings can be held in Russian by mutual consent of the parties. Citizens unable to speak Ukrainian or Russian may use their native language or the services of a translator.233234 Previously all court proceedings had to be held in Ukrainian.235
Law enforcement agencies are controlled by the Ministry of Internal Affairs. They consist primarily of the national police force and various specialised units and agencies such as the State Border Guard and the Coast Guard services. Law enforcement agencies, particularly the police, faced criticism for their heavy handling of the 2004 Orange Revolution. Many thousands of police officers were stationed throughout the capital, primarily to dissuade protesters from challenging the state's authority but also to provide a quick reaction force in case of need; most officers were armed.236
Foreign relations
Main articles: Foreign relations of Ukraine, International membership of Ukraine, Ukraine–European Union relations, Accession of Ukraine to the European Union, and Ukraine and the World Bank
From 1999 to 2001, Ukraine served as a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council. Historically, Soviet Ukraine joined the United Nations in 1945 as one of the original members following a Western compromise with the Soviet Union.237 Ukraine has consistently supported peaceful, negotiated settlements to disputes. It has participated in the quadripartite talks on the conflict in Moldova and promoted a peaceful resolution to the conflict in the post-Soviet state of Georgia. Ukraine also has made contributions to UN peacekeeping operations since 1992.238
Ukraine considers Euro-Atlantic integration its primary foreign policy objective,239 but in practice it has always balanced its relationship with the European Union and the United States with strong ties to Russia. The European Union's Partnership and Cooperation Agreement (PCA) with Ukraine went into force in 1998. The European Union (EU) has encouraged Ukraine to implement the PCA fully before discussions begin on an association agreement, issued at the EU Summit in December 1999 in Helsinki, recognises Ukraine's long-term aspirations but does not discuss association.240
In 1992, Ukraine joined the then-Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (now the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE)), and also became a member of the North Atlantic Cooperation Council. Ukraine–NATO relations are close and the country has declared interest in eventual membership.241
Ukraine is the most active member of the Partnership for Peace (PfP). All major political parties in Ukraine support full eventual integration into the European Union.242 The Association Agreement between Ukraine and the European Union was signed in 2014.243 Ukraine long had close ties with all its neighbours, but Russia–Ukraine relations rapidly deteriorated in 2014 due to the annexation of Crimea, energy dependence and payment disputes.
The Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area (DCFTA), which entered into force in January 2016 following the ratification of the Ukraine–European Union Association Agreement, formally integrates Ukraine into the European Single Market and the European Economic Area.244245 Ukraine receives further support and assistance for its EU-accession aspirations from the International Visegrád Fund of the Visegrád Group that consists of Central European EU members the Czech Republic, Poland, Hungary and Slovakia.246
In 2020, in Lublin, Lithuania, Poland and Ukraine created the Lublin Triangle initiative, which aims to create further cooperation between the three historical countries of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and further Ukraine's integration and accession to the EU and NATO.247
In 2021, the Association Trio was formed by signing a joint memorandum between the Foreign Ministers of Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine. The Association Trio is a tripartite format for enhanced cooperation, coordination, and dialogue between the three countries (that have signed the Association Agreement with the EU) with the European Union on issues of common interest related to European integration, enhancing cooperation within the framework of the Eastern Partnership, and committing to the prospect of joining the European Union.248 As of 2021, Ukraine was preparing to formally apply for EU membership in 2024, in order to join the European Union in the 2030s,249 however, with the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, Ukrainian president Volodymyr Zelenskyy requested that the country be admitted to the EU immediately.250 Candidate status was granted in June 2022.251 In recent years, Ukraine has dramatically strengthened its ties with the United States.252253
Military
Main article: Armed Forces of Ukraine
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Ukraine inherited a 780,000-man military force on its territory, equipped with the third-largest nuclear weapons arsenal in the world.254255 In 1992, Ukraine signed the Lisbon Protocol in which the country agreed to give up all nuclear weapons to Russia for disposal and to join the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty as a non-nuclear weapon state. By 1996 the country had become free of nuclear weapons.256
Ukraine took consistent steps toward reduction of conventional weapons. It signed the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe, which called for reduction of tanks, artillery, and armoured vehicles (army forces were reduced to 300,000). The country planned to convert the current conscript-based military into a professional volunteer military.257[better source needed] Ukraine's current military consist of 196,600 active personnel and around 900,000 reservists.258
Ukraine played an increasing role in peacekeeping operations. In 2014, the Ukrainian frigate Hetman Sagaidachniy joined the European Union's counter piracy Operation Atalanta and was part of the EU Naval Force off the coast of Somalia for two months.259 Ukrainian troops were deployed in Kosovo as part of the Ukrainian-Polish Battalion.260 In 2003–2005, a Ukrainian unit was deployed as part of the multinational force in Iraq under Polish command.261 Military units of other states participated in multinational military exercises with Ukrainian forces in Ukraine regularly, including U.S. military forces.262
Following independence, Ukraine declared itself a neutral state.263 The country had a limited military partnership with Russian Federation and other CIS countries and has had a partnership with NATO since 1994. In the 2000s, the government was leaning towards NATO, and deeper cooperation with the alliance was set by the NATO-Ukraine Action Plan signed in 2002. It was later agreed that the question of joining NATO should be answered by a national referendum at some point in the future.264 Deposed President Viktor Yanukovych considered the then level of co-operation between Ukraine and NATO sufficient, and was against Ukraine joining NATO. During the 2008 Bucharest summit, NATO declared that Ukraine would eventually become a member of NATO when it meets the criteria for accession.
As part of modernisation after the beginning of the Russo-Ukrainian War in 2014, junior officers were allowed to take more initiative and a territorial defence force of volunteers was established.265 Various defensive weapons including drones were supplied by many countries, but not fighter jets.266 During the first few weeks of the 2022 Russian invasion the military found it difficult to defend against shelling, missiles and high level bombing; but light infantry used shoulder-mounted weapons effectively to destroy tanks, armoured vehicles and low-flying aircraft.267 In August 2023, the U.S. officials estimated that up to 70,000 Ukrainian soldiers were killed and 100,000 to 120,000 wounded during the Russian invasion of Ukraine.268
Administrative divisions
Main articles: Administrative divisions of Ukraine, Ukrainian historical regions, and List of cities in Ukraine
Further information: Political status of Crimea and Russian-occupied territories
The system of Ukrainian subdivisions reflects the country's status as a unitary state (as stated in the country's constitution) with unified legal and administrative regimes for each unit.
Including Sevastopol and the Autonomous Republic of Crimea that were annexed by the Russian Federation in 2014, Ukraine consists of 27 regions: twenty-four oblasts (provinces), one autonomous republic (Autonomous Republic of Crimea), and two cities of special status—Kyiv, the capital, and Sevastopol. The 24 oblasts and Crimea are subdivided into 136269 raions (districts) and city municipalities of regional significance, or second-level administrative units.
Populated places in Ukraine are split into two categories: urban and rural. Urban populated places are split further into cities and urban-type settlements (a Soviet administrative invention), while rural populated places consist of villages and settlements (a generally used term). All cities have a certain degree of self-rule depending on their significance such as national significance (as in the case of Kyiv and Sevastopol), regional significance (within each oblast or autonomous republic) or district significance (all the rest of cities). A city's significance depends on several factors such as its population, socio-economic and historical importance and infrastructure.
Economy
Main article: Economy of Ukraine
In 2021, agriculture was the biggest sector of the economy. Ukraine is one of the world's largest wheat exporters. It remains among the poorest countries in Europe with the lowest nominal GDP per capita.270 Despite improvements, as in Moldova corruption in Ukraine remains an obstacle to joining the EU; the country was rated 104th out of 180 in the Corruption Perceptions Index for 2023.271 In 2021, Ukraine's GDP per capita by purchasing power parity was just over $14,000.272 Despite supplying emergency financial support, the IMF expected the economy to shrink considerably by 35% in 2022 due to Russia's invasion.273 One 2022 estimate was that post-war reconstruction costs might reach half a trillion dollars.274
In 2021, the average salary in Ukraine reached its highest level at almost ₴14,300 (US$525) per month.275 About 1% of Ukrainians lived below the national poverty line in 2019.276 Unemployment in Ukraine was 4.5% in 2019.277 In 2019 5–15% of the Ukrainian population were categorized as middle class.278 In 2020 Ukraine's government debt was roughly 50% of its nominal GDP.279280
In 2021 mineral commodities and light industry were important sectors.281 Ukraine produces nearly all types of transportation vehicles and spacecraft.282283284 The European Union is the country's main trade partner, and remittances from Ukrainians working abroad are important.285
Agriculture
Ukraine is among the world's top agricultural producers and exporters and is often described as the "bread basket of Europe". During the 2020/21 international wheat marketing season (July–June), it ranked as the sixth largest wheat exporter, accounting for nine percent of world wheat trade.286 The country is also a major global exporter of maize, barley and rapeseed. In 2020/21, it accounted for 12 percent of global trade in maize and barley and for 14 percent of world rapeseed exports. Its trade share is even greater in the sunflower oil sector, with the country accounting for about 50 percent of world exports in 2020/2021.287
According to the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO), further to causing the loss of lives and increasing humanitarian needs, the likely disruptions caused by the Russo-Ukrainian War to Ukraine's grain and oilseed sectors, could jeopardise the food security of many countries, especially those that are highly dependent on Ukraine and Russia for their food and fertiliser imports.288 Several of these countries fall into the Least Developed Country (LDC) group, while many others belong to the group of Low-Income Food-Deficit Countries (LIFDCs).289290 For example Eritrea sourced 47 percent of its wheat imports in 2021 from Ukraine. Overall, more than 30 nations depend on Ukraine and the Russian Federation for over 30 percent of their wheat import needs, many of them in North Africa and Western and Central Asia.291
Tourism
Main article: Tourism in Ukraine
Before the Russo-Ukrainian war the number of tourists visiting Ukraine was eighth in Europe, according to UN Tourism rankings.292 Ukraine has numerous tourist attractions: mountain ranges suitable for skiing, hiking and fishing; the Black Sea coastline as a popular summer destination; nature reserves of different ecosystems; and churches, castle ruins and other architectural and park landmarks. Kyiv, Lviv, Odesa and Kamianets-Podilskyi were Ukraine's principal tourist centres, each offering many historical landmarks and extensive hospitality infrastructure. The Seven Wonders of Ukraine and Seven Natural Wonders of Ukraine are selections of the most important landmarks of Ukraine, chosen by Ukrainian experts and an Internet-based public vote. Tourism was the mainstay of Crimea's economy before a major fall in visitor numbers following the Russian annexation in 2014.293
Transport
Main article: Transport in Ukraine
Many roads and bridges were destroyed, and international maritime travel was blocked by the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.294 Before that it was mainly through the Port of Odesa, from where ferries sailed regularly to Istanbul, Varna and Haifa. The largest ferry company operating these routes was Ukrferry.295 There are over 1,600 km (1,000 mi) of navigable waterways on 7 rivers, mostly on the Danube, Dnieper and Pripyat. All Ukraine's rivers freeze over in winter, limiting navigation.296
Ukraine's rail network connects all major urban areas, port facilities and industrial centres. The heaviest concentration of railway track is the Donbas region.297 Although rail freight transport fell in the 1990s, Ukraine is still one of the world's highest rail users.298
Ukraine International Airlines, is the flag carrier and the largest airline, with its head office in Kyiv299 and its main hub at Kyiv's Boryspil International Airport. It operated domestic and international passenger flights and cargo services to Europe, the Middle East, the United States,300 Canada,301 and Asia.
Energy
Main article: Energy in Ukraine
Energy in Ukraine is mainly from gas and coal, followed by nuclear then oil.302 The coal industry has been disrupted by conflict.303 Most gas and oil is imported, but since 2015 energy policy has prioritised diversifying energy supply.304
About half of electricity generation is nuclear and a quarter coal.305 The largest nuclear power plant in Europe, the Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant, is in Ukraine. Fossil fuel subsidies were US$2.2 billion in 2019.306 Until the 2010s all of Ukraine's nuclear fuel came from Russia, but now most does not.307
Some energy infrastructure was destroyed in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.308309 The contract to transit Russian gas expires at the end of 2024.310
In early 2022 Ukraine and Moldova decoupled their electricity grids from the Integrated Power System of Russia and Belarus; and the European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity synchronized them with continental Europe.311312
Information technology
Main articles: Economy of Ukraine § Information technology, and Internet in Ukraine
Key officials may use Starlink as backup.313 The IT industry contributed almost 5 per cent to Ukraine's GDP in 2021314 and in 2022 continued both inside and outside the country.315
Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of Ukraine and Ukrainians
Before the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine the country had an estimated population of over 41 million people, and was the eighth-most populous country in Europe. It is a heavily urbanized country, and its industrial regions in the east and southeast are the most densely populated—about 67% of its total population lives in urban areas.316 At that time Ukraine had a population density of 69.5 inhabitants per square kilometre (180 inhabitants/sq mi), and the overall life expectancy in the country at birth was 73 years (68 years for males and 77.8 years for females).317
Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Ukraine's population hit a peak of roughly 52 million in 1993. However, due to its death rate exceeding its birth rate, mass emigration, poor living conditions, and low-quality health care,318319 the total population decreased by 6.6 million, or 12.8% from the same year to 2014.
According to the 2001 census, ethnic Ukrainians made up roughly 78% of the population, while Russians were the largest minority, at some 17.3% of the population. Small minority populations included: Belarusians (0.6%), Moldovans (0.5%), Crimean Tatars (0.5%), Bulgarians (0.4%), Hungarians (0.3%), Romanians (0.3%), Poles (0.3%), Jews (0.3%), Armenians (0.2%), Greeks (0.2%) and Tatars (0.2%).320 It was also estimated that there were about 10–40,000 Koreans in Ukraine, who lived mostly in the south of the country, belonging to the historical Koryo-saram group,321322 as well as about 47,600 Roma (though the Council of Europe estimates a higher number of about 260,000).323
Outside the former Soviet Union, the largest source of incoming immigrants in Ukraine's post-independence period was from four Asian countries, namely China, India, Pakistan and Afghanistan.324 In the late 2010s 1.4 million Ukrainians were internally displaced due to the war in Donbas,325 and in early 2022, over 4.1 million fled the country in the aftermath of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, causing the Ukrainian refugee crisis.326 Most male Ukrainian nationals aged 18 to 60 were denied exit from Ukraine.327 The Ukrainian government estimates that the population in the regions controlled by Ukraine was 25 to 27 million in 2024.328
Language
Main article: Languages of Ukraine
Further information: Ukrainian language and Russian language in Ukraine
According to Ukraine's constitution, the state language is Ukrainian.329 Russian is widely spoken in the country, especially in eastern and southern Ukraine.330331 Most native Ukrainian speakers know Russian as a second language.332 Russian was the de facto dominant language of the Soviet Union but Ukrainian also held official status in the republic,333 and in the schools of the Ukrainian SSR, learning Ukrainian was mandatory.334
Effective in August 2012, a new law on regional languages entitled any local language spoken by at least a 10 percent minority be declared official within that area.335 Within weeks, Russian was declared a regional language of several southern and eastern oblasts (provinces) and cities.336 Russian could then be used in the administrative office work and documents of those places.337338
In 2014, following the Revolution of Dignity, the Ukrainian Parliament voted to repeal the law on regional languages, making Ukrainian the sole state language at all levels; however, the repeal was not signed by acting President Turchynov or by President Poroshenko.339340341 In 2019, the law allowing for official use of regional languages was found unconstitutional.342 According to the Council of Europe, this act fails to achieve fair protection of the linguistic rights of minorities.343
Ukrainian is the primary language used in the vast majority of Ukraine. 67% of Ukrainians speak Ukrainian as their primary language, while 30% speak Russian as their primary language.344 In eastern and southern Ukraine, Russian is the primary language in some cities, while Ukrainian is used in rural areas. Hungarian is spoken in Zakarpattia Oblast.345 There is no consensus among scholars whether Rusyn, also spoken in Zakarpattia, is a distinct language or a dialect of Ukrainian.346 The Ukrainian government does not recognise Rusyn and Rusyns as a distinct language and people.347
For a large part of the Soviet era, the number of Ukrainian speakers declined from generation to generation, and by the mid-1980s, the usage of the Ukrainian language in public life had decreased significantly.348 Following independence, the government of Ukraine began restoring the use of the Ukrainian language in schools and government through a policy of Ukrainisation.349350 Today, most foreign films and TV programmes, including Russian ones, are subtitled or dubbed in Ukrainian.351 Ukraine's 2017 education law bars primary education in public schools in grade five and up in any language but Ukrainian.352353
Diaspora
Main article: Ukrainian diaspora
The Ukrainian diaspora comprises Ukrainians and their descendants who live outside Ukraine around the world, especially those who maintain some kind of connection to the land of their ancestors and maintain their feeling of Ukrainian national identity within their own local community.354 The Ukrainian diaspora is found throughout numerous regions worldwide including other post-Soviet states as well as in Canada,355 and other countries such as Poland,356 the United States,357 the UK358359 and Brazil.360
The 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine has led to the Ukrainian refugee crisis in which millions of Ukrainian civilians moved to neighbouring countries. Most crossed into Poland, Slovakia, and the Czech Republic, and others proceeded to at least temporarily settle in Hungary, Moldova, Germany, Austria, Romania and other European countries.361
Religion
Main article: Religion in Ukraine
Ukraine has the world's second-largest Eastern Orthodox population, after Russia.362363 A 2021 survey conducted by the Kyiv International Institute of Sociology (KIIS) found that 82% of Ukrainians declared themselves to be religious, while 7% were atheists, and a further 11% found it difficult to answer the question.364 The level of religiosity in Ukraine was reported to be the highest in Western Ukraine (91%), and the lowest in the Donbas (57%) and Eastern Ukraine (56%).365
In 2019, 82% of Ukrainians were Christians; out of which 72.7% declared themselves to be Eastern Orthodox, 8.8% Ukrainian Greek Catholics, 2.3% Protestants and 0.9% Latin Church Catholics. Other Christians comprised 2.3%. Judaism, Islam, and Hinduism were the religions of 0.2% of the population each. According to the KIIS study, roughly 58.3% of the Ukrainian Orthodox population were members of the Orthodox Church of Ukraine, and 25.4% were members of the Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate).366 Protestants are a growing community in Ukraine, who made up 1.9% of the population in 2016,367 but rose to 2.2% of the population in 2018.
Health
Main article: Health in Ukraine
Ukraine's healthcare system is state subsidised and freely available to all Ukrainian citizens and registered residents. However, it is not compulsory to be treated in a state-run hospital as a number of private medical complexes do exist nationwide.368 The public sector employs most healthcare professionals, with those working for private medical centres typically also retaining their state employment as they are mandated to provide care at public health facilities on a regular basis.369
All of Ukraine's medical service providers and hospitals are subordinate to the Ministry of Healthcare, which provides oversight and scrutiny of general medical practice as well as being responsible for the day-to-day administration of the healthcare system. Despite this, standards of hygiene and patient-care have fallen.370
Ukraine faces a number of major public health issues and is considered to be in a demographic crisis because of its high death rate, low birth rate, and high emigration.371 A factor contributing to the high death rate is a high mortality rate among working-age males from preventable causes such as alcohol poisoning and smoking.372
Active reformation of Ukraine's healthcare system was initiated right after the appointment of Ulana Suprun as a head of the Ministry of Healthcare.373 Assisted by deputy Pavlo Kovtoniuk, Suprun first changed the distribution of finances in healthcare.374 Funds must follow the patient. General practitioners will provide basic care for patients. The patient will have the right to choose one. Emergency medical service is considered to be fully funded by the state. Emergency Medicine Reform is also an important part of the healthcare reform. In addition, patients who suffer from chronic diseases, which cause a high toll of disability and mortality, are provided with free or low-price medicine.375
Education
Main article: Education in Ukraine
According to the Ukrainian constitution, access to free education is granted to all citizens. Complete general secondary education is compulsory in the state schools which constitute the overwhelming majority. Free higher education in state and communal educational establishments is provided on a competitive basis.376
Because of the Soviet Union's emphasis on total access of education for all citizens, which continues today, the literacy rate is an estimated 99.4%.377 Since 2005, an eleven-year school programme has been replaced with a twelve-year one: primary education takes four years to complete (starting at age six), middle education (secondary) takes five years to complete; upper secondary then takes three years.378 Students in the 12th grade take Government tests, which are also referred to as school-leaving exams. These tests are later used for university admissions.
Among the oldest is also the Lviv University, founded in 1661. More higher education institutions were set up in the 19th century, beginning with universities in Kharkiv (1805), Kyiv (1834), Odesa (1865) and Chernivtsi (1875) and a number of professional higher education institutions, e.g.: Nizhyn Historical and Philological Institute (originally established as the Gymnasium of Higher Sciences in 1805), a Veterinary Institute (1873) and a Technological Institute (1885) in Kharkiv, a Polytechnic Institute in Kyiv (1898) and a Higher Mining School (1899) in Katerynoslav. Rapid growth followed in the Soviet period. By 1988 the number of higher education institutions increased to 146 with over 850,000 students.379
The Ukrainian higher education system comprises higher educational establishments, scientific and methodological facilities under national, municipal and self-governing bodies in charge of education.380 The organisation of higher education in Ukraine is built up in accordance with the structure of education of the world's higher developed countries, as is defined by UNESCO and the UN.381
Ukraine produces the fourth largest number of post-secondary graduates in Europe, while being ranked seventh in population.382 Higher education is either state funded or private. Most universities provide subsidised housing for out-of-city students. It is common for libraries to supply required books for all registered students. Ukrainian universities confer two degrees: the bachelor's degree (4 years) and the master's degree (5–6th year), in accordance with the Bologna process. Historically, Specialist degree (usually 5 years) is still also granted; it was the only degree awarded by universities in Soviet times.383 Ukraine was ranked 60th in 2024 in the Global Innovation Index.384
Regional differences
See also: Demographics of Ukraine § Regional differences, Central Ukraine, Eastern Ukraine, Southern Ukraine, and Western Ukraine
Ukrainian is the dominant language in Western Ukraine and in Central Ukraine, while Russian is the dominant language in the cities of Eastern Ukraine and Southern Ukraine. In the Ukrainian SSR schools, learning Russian was mandatory; in modern Ukraine, schools with Ukrainian as the language of instruction offer classes in Russian and in the other minority languages.385386387388
On the Russian language, on Soviet Union and Ukrainian nationalism, opinion in Eastern Ukraine and Southern Ukraine tends to be the exact opposite of those in Western Ukraine; while opinions in Central Ukraine on these topics tend be less extreme.389390391392
Similar historical divisions also remain evident at the level of individual social identification. Attitudes toward the most important political issue, relations with Russia, differed strongly between Lviv, identifying more with Ukrainian nationalism and the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, and Donetsk, predominantly Russian orientated and favourable to the Soviet era, while in central and southern Ukraine, as well as Kyiv, such divisions were less important and there was less antipathy toward people from other regions.393
However, all were united by an overarching Ukrainian identity based on shared economic difficulties, showing that other attitudes are determined more by culture and politics than by demographic differences.394395 Surveys of regional identities in Ukraine have shown that the feeling of belonging to a "Soviet identity" is strongest in the Donbas (about 40%) and the Crimea (about 30%).396
During elections voters of Western and Central Ukrainian oblasts (provinces) vote mostly for parties (Our Ukraine, Batkivshchyna)397398 and presidential candidates (Viktor Yuschenko, Yulia Tymoshenko) with a pro-Western and state reform platform, while voters in Southern and Eastern oblasts vote for parties (CPU, Party of Regions) and presidential candidates (Viktor Yanukovych) with a pro-Russian and status quo platform.399400401402 However, this geographical division is decreasing.403404405
Culture
Main article: Ukrainian culture
Ukrainian customs are heavily influenced by Orthodox Christianity, the dominant religion in the country.406 Gender roles also tend to be more traditional, and grandparents play a greater role in bringing up children, than in the West.407 The culture of Ukraine has also been influenced by its eastern and western neighbours, reflected in its architecture, music and art.408
The Communist era had quite a strong effect on the art and writing of Ukraine.409 In 1932, Stalin made socialist realism state policy in the Soviet Union when he promulgated the decree "On the Reconstruction of Literary and Art Organisations". This greatly stifled creativity. During the 1980s glasnost (openness) was introduced and Soviet artists and writers again became free to express themselves as they wanted.410
As of 2023[update], UNESCO inscribed 8 properties in Ukraine on the World Heritage List. Ukraine is also known for its decorative and folk traditions such as Petrykivka painting, Kosiv ceramics, and Cossack songs.411412413414 Between February 2022 and March 2023, UNESCO verified the damage to 247 sites, including 107 religious sites, 89 buildings of artistic or historical interest, 19 monuments and 12 libraries.415 Since January 2023, the historic centre of Odesa has been inscribed on the List of World Heritage in Danger.416
The tradition of the Easter eggs, known as pysanky, has long roots in Ukraine. These eggs were drawn on with wax to create a pattern; then, the dye was applied to give the eggs their pleasant colours, the dye did not affect the previously wax-coated parts of the egg. After the entire egg was dyed, the wax was removed leaving only the colourful pattern. This tradition is thousands of years old, and precedes the arrival of Christianity to Ukraine.417 In the city of Kolomyia near the foothills of the Carpathian Mountains, the museum of Pysanka was built in 2000 and won a nomination as the monument of modern Ukraine in 2007, part of the Seven Wonders of Ukraine action.
Since 2012, the Ministry of Culture of Ukraine has formed the National Inventory of Elements of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Ukraine,418 which consists of 103 items as of July 2024.419
Libraries
The Vernadsky National Library of Ukraine, is the main academic library and main scientific information centre in Ukraine.
During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine the Russians bombed the Maksymovych Scientific Library of the Taras Shevchenko Kyiv National University, Vernadsky National Library of Ukraine, the National Scientific Medical Library of Ukraine and the Kyiv city youth library.420
Literature
Main article: Ukrainian literature
Ukrainian literature has origins in Old Church Slavonic writings, which was used as a liturgical and literary language following Christianisation in the 10th and 11th centuries.421422[better source needed]423 Other writings from the time include chronicles, the most significant of which was the Primary Chronicle. Literary activity faced a sudden decline after the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus', before seeing a revival beginning in the 14th century, and was advanced in the 16th century with the invention of the printing press.424
The Cossacks established an independent society and popularised a new kind of epic poem, which marked a high point of Ukrainian oral literature.425 These advances were then set back in the 17th and early 18th centuries, as many Ukrainian authors wrote in Russian or Polish. Nonetheless, by the late 18th century, the modern literary Ukrainian language finally emerged.426 In 1798, the modern era of the Ukrainian literary tradition began with Ivan Kotliarevsky's publication of Eneida in the Ukrainian vernacular.427
By the 1830s, a Ukrainian romantic literature began to develop, and the nation's most renowned cultural figure, romanticist poet-painter Taras Shevchenko emerged. Whereas Ivan Kotliarevsky is considered to be the father of literature in the Ukrainian vernacular; Shevchenko is the father of a national revival.428
Then, in 1863, the use of the Ukrainian language in print was effectively prohibited by the Russian Empire.429 This severely curtailed literary activity in the area, and Ukrainian writers were forced to either publish their works in Russian or release them in Austrian controlled Galicia. The ban was never officially lifted, but it became obsolete after the revolution and the Bolsheviks' coming to power.430
Ukrainian literature continued to flourish in the early Soviet years when nearly all literary trends were approved. These policies faced a steep decline in the 1930s, when prominent representatives as well as many others were killed by the NKVD during the Great Purge. In general around 223 writers were repressed by what was known as the Executed Renaissance.431 These repressions were part of Stalin's implemented policy of socialist realism. The doctrine did not necessarily repress the use of the Ukrainian language, but it required that writers follow a certain style in their works.
Literary freedom grew in the late 1980s and early 1990s alongside the decline and collapse of the USSR and the reestablishment of Ukrainian independence in 1991.432
Architecture
Main article: Ukrainian architecture
Ukrainian architecture includes the motifs and styles that are found in structures built in modern Ukraine, and by Ukrainians worldwide. These include initial roots which were established in the state of Kievan Rus'. Following the Christianisation of Kievan Rus', Ukrainian architecture has been influenced by Byzantine architecture. After the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus', it continued to develop in the Kingdom of Galicia-Volhynia.433
After the union with the Tsardom of Russia, architecture in Ukraine began to develop in different directions, with many structures in the larger eastern, Russian-ruled area built in the styles of Russian architecture of that period, whilst the western region of Galicia developed under Polish and Austro-Hungarian architectural influences. Ukrainian national motifs would eventually be used during the period of the Soviet Union and in modern independent Ukraine.434 However, much of the contemporary architectural skyline of Ukraine is dominated by Soviet-style Khrushchyovkas, or low-cost apartment buildings.435
Weaving and embroidery
Artisan textile arts play an important role in Ukrainian culture,436 especially in Ukrainian wedding traditions. Ukrainian embroidery, weaving and lace-making are used in traditional folk dress and in traditional celebrations. Ukrainian embroidery varies depending on the region of origin437 and the designs have a long history of motifs, compositions, choice of colours and types of stitches.438 Use of colour is very important and has roots in Ukrainian folklore. Embroidery motifs found in different parts of Ukraine are preserved in the Rushnyk Museum in Pereiaslav.
National dress is woven and highly decorated. Weaving with handmade looms is still practised in the village of Krupove, situated in Rivne Oblast. The village is the birthplace of two internationally recognised personalities in the scene of national crafts fabrication: Nina Myhailivna439 and Uliana Petrivna.440
Music
Main article: Music of Ukraine
Music is a major part of Ukrainian culture, with a long history and many influences. From traditional folk music, to classical and modern rock, Ukraine has produced several internationally recognised musicians including Kirill Karabits, Okean Elzy and Ruslana. Elements from traditional Ukrainian folk music made their way into Western music and even into modern jazz. Ukrainian music sometimes presents a perplexing mix of exotic melismatic singing with chordal harmony. The most striking general characteristic of authentic ethnic Ukrainian folk music is the wide use of minor modes or keys which incorporate augmented second intervals.441
During the Baroque period, music had a place of considerable importance in the curriculum of the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy. Much of the nobility was well versed in music with many Ukrainian Cossack leaders such as (Mazepa, Paliy, Holovatyj, Sirko) being accomplished players of the kobza, bandura or torban.
The first dedicated musical academy was set up in Hlukhiv in 1738 and students were taught to sing and play violin and bandura from manuscripts. As a result, many of the earliest composers and performers within the Russian empire were ethnically Ukrainian, having been born or educated in Hlukhiv or having been closely associated with this music school.442 Ukrainian classical music differs considerably depending on whether the composer was of Ukrainian ethnicity living in Ukraine, a composer of non-Ukrainian ethnicity who was a citizen of Ukraine, or part of the Ukrainian diaspora.443
Since the mid-1960s, Western-influenced pop music has been growing in popularity in Ukraine. Folk singer and harmonium player Mariana Sadovska is prominent. Ukrainian pop and folk music arose with the international popularity of groups and performers like Vopli Vidoplyasova, Dakh Daughters, Dakha Brakha, Ivan Dorn and Okean Elzy.
Media
Main article: Media of Ukraine
The Ukrainian legal framework on media freedom is deemed "among the most progressive in eastern Europe", although implementation has been uneven.444[needs update] The constitution and laws provide for freedom of speech445 and press. The main regulatory authority for the broadcast media is the National Television and Radio Broadcasting Council of Ukraine (NTRBCU), tasked with licencing media outlets and ensure their compliance with the law.446
Kyiv dominates the media sector in Ukraine: National newspapers Den, Dzerkalo Tyzhnia, tabloids, such as The Ukrainian Week or Focus, and television and radio are largely based there, although Lviv is also a significant national media centre. The National News Agency of Ukraine, Ukrinform was founded here in 1918. BBC Ukrainian started its broadcasts in 1992.447 As of 2022[update] 75% of the population use the internet, and social media is widely used by government and people.448
On 10 March 2024, creators of a documentary film 20 Days in Mariupol were awarded with the Oscar in the category "Best Documentary Feature Film", the first Oscar in Ukraine's history.449
Sport
Main article: Sport in Ukraine
Ukraine greatly benefited from the Soviet emphasis on physical education. These policies left Ukraine with hundreds of stadia, swimming pools, gymnasia and many other athletic facilities.450 The most popular sport is football. The top professional league is the Vyscha Liha ("premier league").
Many Ukrainians also played for the Soviet national football team, most notably Ballon d'Or winners Ihor Belanov and Oleh Blokhin. This award was only presented to one Ukrainian after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Andriy Shevchenko. The national team made its debut in the 2006 FIFA World Cup, and reached the quarterfinals before losing to eventual champions, Italy.
Ukrainian boxers are amongst the best in the world.451 Since becoming the undisputed cruiserweight champion in 2018, Oleksandr Usyk has also gone on to win the unified WBA (Super), IBF, WBO and IBO heavyweight titles. This feat made him one of only three boxers to have unified the cruiserweight world titles and become a world heavyweight champion.452 The brothers Vitali and Wladimir Klitschko are former heavyweight world champions who held multiple world titles throughout their careers. Also hailing from Ukraine is Vasyl Lomachenko, a 2008 and 2012 Olympic gold medalist. He is the unified lightweight world champion who ties the record for winning a world title in the fewest professional fights; three. As of September 2018, he is ranked as the world's best active boxer, pound for pound, by ESPN.453
Sergey Bubka held the record in the Pole vault from 1993 to 2014; with great strength, speed and gymnastic abilities, he was voted the world's best athlete on several occasions.454455
Basketball has gained popularity in Ukraine. In 2011, Ukraine was granted a right to organise EuroBasket 2015. Two years later the Ukraine national basketball team finished sixth in EuroBasket 2013 and qualified to FIBA World Cup for the first time in its history. Euroleague participant Budivelnyk Kyiv is the strongest professional basketball club in Ukraine.
Chess is a popular sport in Ukraine. Ruslan Ponomariov is the former world champion. There are about 85 Grandmasters and 198 International Masters in Ukraine. Rugby league is played throughout Ukraine.456
Cuisine
Main article: Ukrainian cuisine
Ukrainian cuisine has been formed by the nation's tumultuous history, geography, culture and social customs. Chicken is the most consumed type of protein, accounting for about half of the meat intake. It is followed by pork and beef.457: 12 Vegetables such as potatoes, cabbages, mushrooms and beetroots are widely consumed.458 Pickled vegetables are considered a delicacy.459460 Salo, which is cured pork fat, is considered the national delicacy.461 Widely used herbs include dill, parsley, basil, coriander and chives.462
Ukraine is often called the "Breadbasket of Europe", and its plentiful grain and cereal resources such as rye and wheat play an important part in its cuisine; essential in making various kinds of bread.463464 Chernozem, the country's black-colored highly fertile soil, produces some of the world's most flavorful crops.465
Popular traditional dishes varenyky (dumpling), nalysnyky (crêpe), kapusnyak (cabbage soup), nudli (dumpling stew), borscht (sour soup) and holubtsi (cabbage roll).466 Among traditional baked goods are decorated korovai and paska (easter bread).467 Ukrainian specialties also include Chicken Kiev468 and Kyiv cake. Popular drinks include uzvar (kompot),469470 ryazhanka,471 and horilka.472473 Liquor (spirits) are the most consumed type of alcoholic beverage.474 Alcohol consumption has seen a stark decrease, though by per capita, it remains among the highest the world.475476
See also
- Ukraine portal
Notes
Print sources
Reference books
- Encyclopedia of Ukraine (University of Toronto Press, 1984–1993) 5 vol; partial online version, from Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies
- Ukraine: A Concise Encyclopedia Vol.1 ed by Volodymyr E. KubijovyC; University of Toronto Press. 1963; 1188pp
Recent (since 1991)
- Aslund, Anders, and Michael McFaul. Revolution in Orange: The Origins of Ukraine's Democratic Breakthrough (2006)
- Birch, Sarah. Elections and Democratization in Ukraine Macmillan, 2000 online edition
- Edwards Mike: "Ukraine – Running on empty" National Geographic Magazine March 1993
- Ivan Katchanovski: Cleft Countries: Regional Political Divisions and Cultures in Post-Soviet Ukraine and Moldova, Ibidem-Verlag, 2006, ISBN 978-3-89821-558-9
- Kuzio, Taras: Contemporary Ukraine: Dynamics of Post-Soviet Transformation, M.E. Sharpe, 1998, ISBN 0-7656-0224-5
- Kuzio, Taras. Ukraine: State and Nation Building, Routledge, 1998 online edition
- Shamshur O. V., Ishevskaya T. I., Multilingual education as a factor of inter-ethnic relations: the case of the Ukraine, in Language Education for Intercultural Communication, by D. E. Ager, George Muskens, Sue Wright, Multilingual Matters, 1993, ISBN 1-85359-204-8
- Shen, Raphael (1996). Ukraine's Economic Reform: Obstacles, Errors, Lessons. Praeger/Greenwood. ISBN 978-0-275-95240-2.
- Whitmore, Sarah. State Building in Ukraine: The Ukrainian Parliament, 1990–2003 Routledge, 2004 online edition
- Wilson, Andrew, Ukraine's Orange Revolution (2005)
- Wilson, Andrew, The Ukrainians: Unexpected Nation, 2nd ed. 2002;
- Wilson, Andrew, Ukrainian Nationalism in the 1990s: A Minority Faith, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-57457-9
- Zon, Hans van. The Political Economy of Independent Ukraine. 2000 online edition
History
- Sapozhnykov, Игорь Сапожников / Igor; Stepanchuk, Vadim (1 January 2009). "Ukrainian Upper Palaeolithic between 40/10.000 BP: current insights into environmental-climatic change and cultural development". Le concept de territoires dans le Paléolithique supérieur européen, F.Djindjian, J.Kozlowski, N.Bicho (eds).
- Bilinsky, Yaroslav The Second Soviet Republic: The Ukraine after World War II (Rutgers University Press, 1964) online Archived 7 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine
- Hrushevsky, Michael. A History of Ukraine (1986)
- Katchanovski Ivan; Kohut, Zenon E.; Nebesio, Bohdan Y.; and Yurkevich, Myroslav. Historical Dictionary of Ukraine. Second Edition. Scarecrow Press, 2013. 968 pp.
- Kononenko, Konstantyn. Ukraine and Russia: A History of the Economic Relations between Ukraine and Russia, 1654–1917 (Marquette University Press 1958) online Archived 7 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine
- Luckyj, George S. Towards an Intellectual History of Ukraine: An Anthology of Ukrainian Thought from 1710 to 1995. (1996)
- Magocsi, Paul Robert, A History of Ukraine. University of Toronto Press, 1996 ISBN 0-8020-7820-6
- Reid, Anna. Borderland: A Journey Through the History of Ukraine (2003) online edition
- Subtelny, Orest. Ukraine: A History, 1st edition. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1988. ISBN 0-8020-8390-0.
- Yekelchyk, Serhy. Ukraine: Birth of a Modern Nation (Oxford University Press 2007) online Archived 7 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine
World War II
- Boshyk, Yuri (1986). Ukraine During World War II: History and Its Aftermath. Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies. ISBN 978-0-920862-37-7.
- Berkhoff, Karel C. Harvest of Despair: Life and Death in Ukraine Under Nazi Rule. Harvard U. Press, 2004. 448 pp.
- Cliff, Tony (1984). Class Struggle and Women's Liberation. Bookmarks. ISBN 978-0-906224-12-0.
- Gross, Jan T. Revolution from Abroad: The Soviet Conquest of Poland's Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia (1988).
- Lower, Wendy. Nazi Empire-Building and the Holocaust in Ukraine. U. of North Carolina Press, 2005. 307 pp.
- Piotrowski Tadeusz, Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide in the Second Republic, 1918–1947, McFarland & Company, 1998, ISBN 0-7864-0371-3.
- Redlich, Shimon. Together and Apart in Brzezany: Poles, Jews, and Ukrainians, 1919–1945. Indiana U. Press, 2002. 202 pp.
- Zabarko, Boris, ed. Holocaust in the Ukraine, Mitchell Vallentine & Co, 2005. 394 pp.
External links
- Ukraine information from the United States Department of State
- Key Development Forecasts for Ukraine from International Futures
- Encyclopedia of Ukraine
- World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Ukraine
- Ukraine Corruption Profile Archived 3 March 2022 at the Wayback Machine from the Risk & Compliance Portal
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