Menu
Home Explore People Places Arts History Plants & Animals Science Life & Culture Technology
On this page
History of the Jews in Ukraine
Ethnic group

The history of the Jewish community in Ukraine spans over a thousand years, beginning in the era of the Kievan Rus'. Jewish cultural movements such as Hasidism and Zionism originated there. Throughout history, Ukrainian Jews faced periods of flourishing and severe challenges, including persecution, pogroms, and violence during events like the Khmelnytsky Uprising and World War II under German occupation. Despite losses and emigration, Ukraine’s Jewish community remains significant, currently ranking as Europe’s fourth largest per the World Jewish Congress. Today, Volodymyr Zelenskyy, Ukraine’s president, is Jewish, symbolizing the community’s enduring presence in the country.

Related Image Collections Add Image
Profiles
1 Image
We don't have any YouTube videos related to History of the Jews in Ukraine yet.
We don't have any PDF documents related to History of the Jews in Ukraine yet.
We don't have any Books related to History of the Jews in Ukraine yet.
We don't have any archived web articles related to History of the Jews in Ukraine yet.

Medieval and Early Modern era

Kyivan Rus

Main articles: Kievan Rus' and Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia

The presence of a Jewish community in the territory of modern-day Ukraine is first mentioned in the Kievan Letter, which was composed in the 10th century and became the first written mention of the Ukrainian capital. The document is especially valuable because mentiones the names of members of the city's Jewish community, some of them of obvious Slavic and Turkic origin.

By the 11th century, Byzantine Jews of Constantinople had familial, cultural, and theological ties with the Jews of Kyiv. For instance, some 11th-century Jews from Kievan Rus participated in an anti-Karaite assembly held in either Thessaloniki or Constantinople.21 One of the three Kyivan city gates in the times of Yaroslav the Wise was called Zhydovski (Jewish).

Popular dissatisfaction with the influence of Jewish financiers was claimed by chronicles to be one of the causes of a popular uprising, which engulfed Kyiv in 1113 after the death of prince Sviatopolk Iziaslavich.22 The rebels plundered the houses of Kyiv's Jews, who were accused by them of usury.23

In Galicia, Jews were mentioned for the first time in 1030. From the second part of the 14th century, they were subjects of Polish kings and magnates.

Polish-Lithuanian rule

Main articles: Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, History of the Jews in Poland, Lithuanian Jews, and Shtetl

Founded in 1569, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth became one of the most diverse countries in Europe. Massive settlement of Jews in lands under Polish rule started in the 14th century in the aftermath of the adoption of the Statute of Kalisz. As a result, the kingdom became home to one of the world's largest and most vibrant Jewish communities. Jewish settlement also began in nearby Lithuania, which controlled many lands of today's Ukraine during that time.24

The Jewish community became one of the largest and most important ethnic minority groups in the territory of Ukraine during the Commonwealth era. Jews constituted 3 to 5% of the entire population of the Commonwealth, but in cities their share reached up to 20%. Many Jews worked as traders, but some also managed the estates of noble landowners (szlachta), which made them especially unpopular among Ukrainian peasants. Unlike the rest of the population, Jews spoke their own language - Yiddish, and governed themselves through autonomous communities, whose leaders were elected in a democratic manner. On the other hand, many elements of Jewish culture, such as folk beliefs, clothing and architecture (e.g. the construction technology of wooden synagogues) were shared with the Christian majority. The supreme representative organ of Jews in the Commonwealth, including Ukrainian lands, was the Council of Four Lands, which included members of Jewish communities from Greater Poland, Lesser Poland, Volhynia and Podolia.25

17-18th centuries

Khmelnytsky Uprising

Main article: Khmelnytsky Uprising

In 1648-1657 Ukrainian Cossack Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky led a Cossack and peasant rebellion, known as Khmelnytsky Uprising, during which Jews were targeted for their role as managers of noble estates, which was seen as oppression of Orthodox population on behalf of Catholic Poles.26 It is estimated that at that time the Jewish population in Ukraine numbered 51,325.27 As a result, hundreds of Jewish communities were destroyed by the rebels, and tens of thousands of Jews were killed or sold as slaves.

Historians consider the massacres under Khmelnytsky to have been the bloodiest episode of anti-Jewish violence until the 20th century.28 A 1996 estimate reported that 15,000-30,000 Jews were killed or taken captive, and that 300 Jewish communities were destroyed.29 A 2014 estimate reduced the toll to 3,000-6,000 from 1648 to 1649; of these, 3,000-6,000 Jews were killed by Cossacks in Nemyriv in May 1648 and 1,500 in Tulczyn in July 1648.30 Among contemporary Jews the effect of Khmelnytsky Uprising was compared to the destruction of the First and Second Temples. As a result of the massacres, many Jews from Ukraine moved to western regions of Poland, or emigrated to German lands, Amsterdam and the Ottoman Empire.31

Rise of Hasidism and internal struggles

Main articles: Hasidic Judaism, Jacob Frank, and Haskalah

The Cossack Uprising and following massacres left a deep and lasting impression on Jewish social and spiritual life and led to the rise in popularity of Jewish mysticism including Kabbalah. The 1648 events in Ukraine played a role in the development of a number of messianic movements in Judaism, such as the sect of Sabbatai Zevi.32 These movements opposed traditional rabbinism and put an emphasis on magical healing practices, amulets and physical activity such as singing, dancing and prayer.

The teachings of Israel ben Eliezer, better known as the Baal Shem Tov, or BeShT (1698–1760), who lived in the Ukrainian town of Medzhybizh, produced a massive religious movement which had a profound effect on Eastern European Jews. Known as Hasidism, it influenced Haredi Judaism, with a continuous influence through many Hasidic dynasties.33 The emergence of Hasidism with its specific rules and rites produced a strong opposition from traditional Ashkenazi Jewish circles. As a result of a split between Hasidic Jewish communities and their opponents (Mitnagdim) in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, a teritorial division emerged, with Hasidic rites dominating among poorer and less educated Jews in Volhynia, Podolia, Galicia and Hungarian-ruled territories of modern-day Ukraine.34

A different movement was started by Jacob Frank in the middle of the 18th century. Frank's teachings were unorthodox (such as purification through transgression and adoption of elements of Christianity) and were supported by part of the Catholic clergy, including the bishop of Kamieniec Podolski, which led to his excommunication along with his numerous followers. In 1759 Frank and his supporters converted to Catholicism in Lemberg. As a result, a group of up to 20,000 Jewish converts emerged, who gradually assimilated with Christians, but preserved some peculiar traditions. In 1817 Frankists were officially recognized as Catholics by the Russian imperial government.3536

19th century

In the Russian Empire

Main articles: Pale of Settlement, Cantonist, Pogrom, May Laws, Jewish agricultural colonies in the Russian Empire, History of the Jews in Odesa, and Jewish-Ukrainian relations in Eastern Galicia

In Russian Empire until the partitions of Poland Jewish communities were not officially recognized. However, as a result of the partitions, between 1772 and 1795 around 750,000 Jews in Belarus, Ukraine and Lithuania became subjects of the Russian Empire, followed by Jews of Central Poland, which also came under Russian control as a result of the Congress of Vienna. As a result, Imperial Russia became home to the largest Jewish community in the world. Empress Catherine the Great (1762-1796), a follower of the European Enlightenment ideas, initially provided the Jews equal rights with the rest of her subjects, categorizing them as burghers. However, due to protests of Moscow merchants, whose businesses suffered due to competition with their Jewish counterparts, in 1791 the Jewish right of residence was limited to the Pale of Settlement, which included territories annexed from Poland-Lithuania, as well as the Black Sea region.37

The 1804 Statute for the Jews obliged Jews in the Russian Empire to adopt surnames, required them to use official languages in documentation and put rabbis under special supervision of the state. In rural localities Jews were limited in their right to act as tavernkeepers, and the government made unsuccessful attempts to expel Jews from villages to cities. Under the rule of Nicholas I Jewish families were required to provide recruits for the army, with boys as young as 12 years old (cantonists) having to leave their families to receive military training; many of them later converted to Orthodox Christianity. In 1844 the government abolished the kahal, depriving Jewish communities of their officialy recognized autonomy. Special taxes were also introduced on kosher meat and sabbath candles. Those rules were partially relaxed under the rule of Alexander II of Russia, but after 1870 Jews were still limited from executing rights in many areas. For example, Jewish members were banned from taking more than one-third of places in local councils , even if the locality had a Jewish majority, and Jews were also banned from being appointed mayors.38

Odesa became the home of a large Jewish community during the 19th century, and by 1897 Jews were estimated to account for some 37% of the population.39 The city also became known as a centre of publishing and education, with the first Jewish magazines in Russian (Rassvet, 1860) and Yiddish (Kol Mevasser, 1863) being published there.40

In the Habsburg Empire

After the establishment of Austrian rule in formerly Polish Galicia, a number of requirements were introduced for local Jews, such as the need to pass a German language exam in order to receive a marriage ceritficate, as well as taxes on kosher meat and candles. Activists of the Haskala introduced measures against Hasidic influence in the region, which included publishing of rabbinical texts and foundation of schools. However, reform movements in Judaism remained unpopular among the majority of Galician Jews.

After 1848 emancipation was gradually introduced, and by 1874 71 Jews were represented in local parliaments, as well as 5 in the Galician Sejm; many Jewish representatives were also active in local councils, and 10 of them served as mayors. In Hungarian-ruled areas most limitations against the Jewish population were abolished in 1859-1860, and after the formation of Austria-Hungary in 1867 Jews were recognized as equal citizens.41

In the late 19th century the Jewish population of Austria-Hungary reached about 2 million people and comprised the seccond biggest Jewish community in the world. In Galicia Jews formed around 10% of the local population, but in some cities, such as Brody, their share stood at 90%. In Lemberg during that time more than one third of the population was Jewish. Many localities in the region served as points of pilgrimage for followers of various Hasidic dynasties.42

Pogroms and persecutions

During 1821 anti-Jewish riots in Odesa after the death of the Greek Orthodox patriarch in Constantinople, 14 Jews were killed. Some sources mark this episode as the first pogrom,43 while according to others (such as the Jewish Encyclopedia, 1911 ed.) say the first pogrom was an 1859 riot in Odesa. The term became common after a wave of anti-Jewish violence swept the southern Russian Empire (including Ukraine) between 1881 and 1884, after Jews were blamed for the assassination of Alexander II.

In May 1882, Alexander III of Russia introduced temporary regulations called May Laws that remained in effect until 1917. Systematic policies of discrimination, strict quotas on the number of Jews allowed to obtain education and professions caused widespread poverty and mass emigration. In 1886, an edict of Expulsion was applied to Jews in Kyiv. In 1893–1894, some areas of Crimea were removed from the Pale.

When Alexander III died in Crimea on 20 October 1894, according to Simon Dubnow: "as the body of the deceased was carried by railway to St. Petersburg, the same rails were carrying the Jewish exiles from Yalta to the Pale. The reign of Alexander III began with pogroms and concluded with expulsions."44

Political activism and emigration

Main articles: Bilu (movement); Odessa Committee; General Jewish Labour Bund in Lithuania, Poland and Russia; October Revolution; and Jewish Bolshevism

Jews were over-represented in the Russian revolutionary leadership. However, most were hostile to Jewish culture and Jewish political parties, and were loyal to the Communist Party's atheism and proletarian internationalism, and committed to stamping out any sign of "Jewish cultural particularism".

Counter-revolutionary groups, including the Black Hundreds, opposed the Revolution with violent attacks on socialists and pogroms against Jews. A backlash came from the conservative elements of society, notably in spasmodic anti-Jewish attacks – around five hundred were killed in a single day in Odesa. Nicholas II claimed that 90% of revolutionaries were Jews.

Leon Pinsker, a doctor from Odessa, became one of the founders of political Zionism with his pamphlet Auto-Emancipation (1882), which called for the emergence of Jews as a separate political nation.45

Early 20th century

Before WW1

At the start of the 20th century, anti-Jewish pogroms continued to occur in cities and towns across the Russian Empire such as Kishinev, Kyiv, Odesa, and many others. Numerous Jewish self-defense groups were organized to prevent the outbreak of pogroms among which the most successful one was under the leadership of Mishka Yaponchik in Odesa.

In 1905, a series of pogroms erupted at the same time as the Revolution against the government of Nicholas II. The chief organizers of the pogroms were the members of the Union of the Russian People (commonly known as the "Black Hundreds").46

From 1911 to 1913, the antisemitic tenor of the period was characterized by a number of blood libel cases (accusations of Jews murdering Christians for ritual purposes). One of the most famous was the two-year trial of Menahem Mendel Beilis, a Jew from Kyiv, who was charged with the murder of a Christian boy.47 The trial was showcased by the authorities to illustrate the perfidy of the Jewish population.48

In 1912-1914, S. An-sky led the Jewish Ethnographic Expedition to the Pale, which visited around 70 shtetls in Volyn, Podolia, and Galicia (all in modern Ukraine) gathering folk stories, artifacts, recording music, and making photos, as an attempt to preserve and salvage traditional Ashkenazim culture that was vanishing because of modernization, pogroms, and emigration.

From March to May 1915, in the face of the German army, the government expelled thousands of Jews from the Empire's border areas, mainly the Pale of Settlement.4950

Ukrainian People's Republic

Main articles: Ukrainian People's Republic and Pogroms of the Russian Civil War

After the establishment of the Ukrainian People's Republic (UPR, 1917–1921) in the aftermath of the February Revolution,51 Yiddish was recognized as one of its official languages,52 while all government institutions had Jewish members.53 A Ministry for Jewish Affairs was established (Ukraine was the first modern state to do so)5455 and rights of Jewish culture were guaranteed.56 However, Jewish deputies abstained or voted against the Tsentralna Rada's Fourth Universal of 25 January 1918 which was aimed at breaking ties with Bolshevik Russia and proclaiming a sovereign Ukrainian state,57 since all Jewish parties were strongly against Ukrainian independence.58

During the ensuing Russian Civil War, an estimated 70,000 to 250,000 Jewish civilians were killed in atrocities throughout the former Russian Empire. In modern Ukraine an estimated 31,071 died in 1918–1920.59 Other estimates give the number of civilian Jews killed during the period as 35,000 to 50,000. Archives declassified after 1991 provide evidence of a higher number; in the period from 1918 to 1921, "according to incomplete data, at least 100,000 Jews were killed in Ukraine in the pogroms."60 The Ukrainian People's Republic did issue orders condemning pogroms and attempted to investigate them,61 but it lacked authority to stop the violence.62 In the last months of its existence the state lacked any power to create social stability.63

Among the prominent Ukrainian Jewish statesmen of this period were Moisei Rafes, Pinkhas Krasny, Abram Revutsky, Moishe Zilberfarb, and many others. (see General Secretariat of Ukraine) The autonomy of Ukraine was openly greeted by Volodymyr Zhabotinsky, himself a native of Ukraine.

Between April and December 1918 the Ukrainian People's Republic was non-existent and overthrown by the Ukrainian State of Pavlo Skoropadsky,6465 who ended the experiment in Jewish autonomy.66

Provisional Government of Russia and Soviets

The February 1917 revolution brought a liberal Provisional Government to power in the Russian Empire. On 21 March/3 April, the government removed all "discrimination based upon ethnic religious or social grounds".67 The Pale was officially abolished. The removal of the restrictions on Jews' geographical mobility and educational opportunities led to a migration to the country's major cities.68

One week after the 25 October / 7 November 1917 Bolshevik Revolution, the new government proclaimed the "Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples [Nations] of Russia," promising all nationalities the rights of equality, self-determination and secession. Jews were not specifically mentioned in the declaration, reflecting Lenin's view that Jews did not constitute a nation.69

In 1918, the RSFSR Council of Ministers issued a decree entitled "On the Separation of Church from State and School from Church", depriving religious communities of the status of juridical persons, the right to own property and the right to enter into contracts. The decree nationalized the property of religious communities and banned their assessment of religious tuition. As a result, religion could be taught or studied only in private.70

On 1 February 1918 the Commissariat for Jewish National Affairs was established as a subsection of the Commissariat for Nationality Affairs. It was mandated to establish the "dictatorship of the proletariat in the Jewish streets" and attract the Jewish masses to the regime while advising local and central institutions on Jewish issues. The Commissariat was also expected to fight the influence of Zionist and Jewish-Socialist Parties.7172 On 27 July 1918 the Council of People's Commissars issued a decree stating that antisemitism is "fatal to the cause of the ... revolution". Pogroms were officially outlawed.73 On 20 October 1918 the Jewish section of the CPSU (Yevsektsia) was established for the Party's Jewish members; its goals were similar to those of the Jewish Commissariat.7475767778

During the Hryhoriv Uprising in May 1919, almost 3000 Jews of Yelisavetgrad (today Kropyvnytskyi) were murdered and their property stolen during a mutiny of Bolshevik troops.

The White Army and counterrevolutionary pogroms

In contrast with the Bolshevik government's official policy of equality among citizens, antisemitism remained deeply entrenched in the political and social ideologies of the tsarist counterrevolutionaries, especially among paramilitary groups such as the Black Hundreds. These militias incited and organized pogroms against Russian Jews. The official slogan of the Black Hundreds was "Bei Zhidov," meaning 'Beat the Jews.'79 Thus, during the Russian Civil War that followed the 1917 Revolution, the Jews became a crucial site of the conflict between revolutionary Reds and counterrevolutionary Whites, particularly in the contested territory of Ukraine. The Bolsheviks' official opposition to antisemitism—coupled with the prominence of Jews such as Leon Trotsky within the Bolshevik ranks—allowed the Christian nationalist movements of both the White Army and the emergent Ukrainian National Republic to link Ukrainian Jews to the despised communism. These connections, combined with the cultural tradition of antisemitism among Russian peasantry,80 provided ample justification for the Whites to attack Ukraine's Jewish population. Between 1918 and 1921, almost all[dubious – discuss] of the approximately 2,000 pogroms carried out in Ukraine were organized by White Army forces.81 eyewitnesses reported hearing counterrevolutionary militia members expound slogans such as, "We beat the Yids, we beat the Commune", and "This is the answer to the Bolsheviks for the Red Terror."82 Recent studies hold that about 30,000 Jews were killed in these pogroms, while another 150,000 died from wounds sustained during the violence.83

Pogroms in western Ukraine

During the Polish-Ukrainian War in late 1918 Galician Jews were suspected by many Poles to have collaborated with forces of the West Ukrainian People's Republic. As a result, after Polish troops entered Lviv on 22 November 1918 a pogrom was perpetrated by Poles in the city's Jewish quarter, killing at least 75 inhabitants, although higher estimates also exist. The event caused indignation in global press. After the pogrom Polish military command accused Lviv's Jews of not restraining their compatriots and threatened with catastrophic circumstances in case of their opposition to Polish authorities.84

In the territory controlled by Ukrainian forces pogroms erupted in January 1919 in the northwest province of Volhynia and spread during February and March to the cities, towns, and villages of many other regions of Ukraine.85 After Sarny it was the turn of Ovruch, northwest of Kyiv. In Tetiev on 25 March, approximately 4,000 Jews were murdered, half in a synagogue set ablaze by Cossack troops under Colonels Kurovsky, Cherkowsy, and Shliatoshenko.86 Then Vashilkov (6 and 7 April).87 In Dubovo (17 June) 800 Jews were decapitated in assembly-line fashion.88 According to David A. Chapin, the town of Proskurov (now Khmelnitsky), near the city of Sudilkov, "was the site of the worst atrocity committed against Jews this century before the Nazis." Pogroms continued until 1921.89

Pogroms across Podolia

See also: Schwartzbard trial

On 15 February 1919, during the Ukrainian-Soviet war, Otaman Ivan Semesenko initiated a pogrom Proskurov in which many Jews were massacred on Shabbat (parashah Tesaveh). Semesenko claimed that the pogrom was in retaliation for a previous Bolshevik uprising that he believed was led by Jews.90

According to the pinqasim record books those murdered in the pogrom included 390 men, 309 women and 76 children. The number of wounded exceeded 500. Two weeks later Order 131 was published in the central newspaper by the head of Directorate of Ukraine. In it Symon Petliura denounced such actions and eventually executed Otaman Semesenko by firing-squad in 1920. Semesenko's brigade was disarmed and dissolved. This event is especially remarkable because it was used to justify Sholem Schwarzbard's assassination of the Ukrainian leader in 1926. Although Petliura's direct involvement was never proven, Schwartzbard was acquitted in revenge. The series of Jewish pogroms around Ukraine culminated in the Kyiv pogroms of 1919 between June and October of that year.9192

Interwar era

Consolidation of Soviet power

In July 1919, the Central Jewish Commissariat dissolved the kehillot (Jewish Communal Councils). The kehillot had provided social services to the Jewish community.93

From 1919 to 1920, Jewish parties and Zionist organizations were driven underground as the Communist government sought to abolish all potential opposition.9495 The Yevsektsiya Jewish section of the Soviet Communist party was at the forefront of the anti-religious campaigns of the 1920s that led to the closing of religious institutions, the break-up of religious communities and the further restriction of access to religious education.96 To that end a series of "community trials" against the Jewish religion were held. The last known such trial, on the subject of circumcision, was held in 1928 in Kharkiv.9798 At the same time, the body worked to establish a secular identity for the Jewish community.99

In 1921 many Jews100 emigrated to Poland, as they were entitled by a peace treaty in Riga to choose the country they preferred. Several hundred thousand joined the already numerous Jewish minority of the Polish Second Republic. Also, during the interwar period, thousands of Jewish refugees from the Soviet Ukraine migrated to Romania.101102103

On 31 January 1924 the Commissariat for Nationalities' Affairs was disbanded.104 On 29 August 1924 an official agency for Jewish resettlement, the Commission for the Settlement of Jewish Toilers on the Land (KOMZET), was established. KOMZET studied, managed and funded projects for Jewish resettlement in rural areas.105106 A public organization, the Society for the Agricultural Organization of Working Class Jews in the USSR (OZET), was created in January 1925 to help recruit colonists and support the colonization work of KOMZET.107 For the first few years the government encouraged Jewish settlements, particularly in Ukraine. Support for the project dwindled throughout the next decade.108 In 1938 OZET was disbanded, following years of declining activity. The Soviets set up three Jewish national raions in Ukraine as well as two in the Crimea – national raions occupied the 3rd level of the Soviet system, but were all disbanded by the end of World War II.109

The cities with the largest populations of Jews in 1926 were Odesa, 154,000 or 36.5% of the total population; Kyiv, 140,500 or 27.3%; Kharkiv, 81,500 or 19.5%; and Dnipropetrovsk, 62,000 or 26.7%. In 1931 Lviv's Jewish population numbered 98,000 or 31.9%, and in Chernivtsi, 42,600 or 37.9%.110

On 8 April 1929 the new Law on Religious Associations codified all previous religious legislation. All meetings of religious associations were required to have their agenda approved in advance; lists of members of religious associations had to be provided to the authorities.111 In 1930 the Yevsektsia was dissolved,112 leaving no central Soviet-Jewish organization. Although the body had served to undermine Jewish religious life, its dissolution led to the disintegration of Jewish secular life as well; Jewish cultural and educational organizations gradually disappeared.113 When the Soviet government reintroduced the use of internal passports in 1933, "Jewish" was considered an ethnicity for those purposes.114

The Soviet famine of 1932–1933 affected the Jewish population,115 and led to a migration from shtetls to overcrowded cities.116

As the Soviet government annexed territory from Poland, Romania (both would be incorporated into the Ukrainian SSR after World War II117) and the Baltic states,118 roughly two million Jews became Soviet citizens.119120 Restrictions on Jews that had existed in those countries were lifted.121 At the same time, Jewish organizations in the transferred territories were shut down and their leaders were arrested and exiled.122 Approximately 250,000 Jews escaped or were evacuated from the annexed territories to the Soviet interior prior to the Nazi invasion.123

Jewish settlement in Crimea

Main article: Jewish autonomy in Crimea

Further information: Khazar Judaism, Crimean Karaites, and Krymchaks

In 1921, Crimea became an autonomous republic. In 1923, the All-Union Central Committee passed a motion to resettle a large number of the Jewish population from Ukrainian and Belarusian cities to Crimea, numbering 570,400 families. The plan to further resettle Jewish families was confirmed by the Central Committee of the USSR on 15 July 1926, assigning 124 million roubles to the task and also receiving 67 million from foreign sources.124

The Soviet initiative of Jewish settlement in Crimea was opposed by Symon Petliura,125 who regarded it as a provocation. This train of thought was supported by Arnold Margolin126 who stated that it would be dangerous to set up Jewish colonies there.

The Soviets twice sought to establish Jewish autonomy in Crimea; once, in the 1920s, with the support of the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, and again in 1944, by the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee.127128

World War II and aftermath

Holocaust in Ukraine

Main articles: The Holocaust in Ukraine, Lviv pogroms, Reichskommissariat Ukraine, Ukrainian collaboration with Nazi Germany, Babi Yar, and 1941 Odessa massacre

The total number of civilians who died during the war and the German occupation of Ukraine is estimated to be as high as seven million. This estimate includes over one million Jews who were shot and killed by the Einsatzgruppen and local Ukrainian collaborators.129 The excuse of "Jewish Bolshevism" was also used to carry them out.130131

The total number of Jews killed in the Holocaust in Eastern Ukraine, or the Ukrainian SSR (within its 1938 borders), is estimated to be slightly less than 700,000 out of a total pre-Holocaust Jewish population of slightly over 1.5 million.132 Within the borders of Modern Ukraine, the death toll is estimated to be around 900,000.

Post-war situation

Ukraine had 840,000 Jews in 1959, a decrease of almost 70% from 1941 (within Ukraine's current borders). Ukraine's Jewish population declined significantly during the Cold War. In 1989, Ukraine's Jewish population was only slightly more than half of what it had been in 1959.

Such immigrants included artists, such as Marina Maximilian Blumin and street artist Klone,133 as well as activists including Gennady Riger and Lia Shemtov.

Independent Ukraine

Historical Ukrainian Jewish population134135136137138139140
YearPop.±%
165040,000—    
1765300,000+650.0%
18972,680,000+793.3%
19262,720,000+1.5%
19412,700,000−0.7%
1959840,446−68.9%
1970777,406−7.5%
1979634,420−18.4%
1989487,555−23.1%
2001106,600−78.1%
201071,500−32.9%
201467,000−6.3%
Source:

Emigration

In 1989, a Soviet census counted 487,000 Jews living in Ukraine.144145 Although discrimination by the state all but halted after Ukrainian independence in 1991, Jews were still discriminated against during the 1990s.146 For instance, Jews were not allowed to attend some educational institutions.147 Antisemitism has since declined.148

The overwhelming majority of the Jews who remained in Ukraine in 1989 then moved to other countries in the 1990s during and after the collapse of Communism.149

Some 266,300 Ukrainian Jews emigrated to Israel in the 1990s.150 The 2001 Ukrainian Census counted 106,600 Jews living in Ukraine151 (the number of Jews also dropped due to a negative birthrate).152 According to the Public Diplomacy and Diaspora Affairs Minister of Israel, early 2012 there were 250,000 Jews in Ukraine, half of them living in Kyiv.153 According to the European Jewish Congress, as of 2014, 360,000–400,000 Jews remained.154

Jewish life and organizations in independent Ukraine

By 1999 there were various Ukrainian Jewish organizations that disputed each other's legitimacy.155

In November 2007, an estimated 700 Torah scrolls confiscated from Jewish communities during the Soviet era were returned to Jewish communes by state authorities.156

The Ukrainian Jewish Committee was established in 2008 in Kyiv to concentrate the efforts of Jewish leaders in Ukraine on resolving the community's strategic problems and addressing socially significant issues. The Committee declared its intention to become one of the world's most influential organizations protecting the rights of Jews and "the most important and powerful structure protecting human rights in Ukraine".157

Rise of far-right sympathies and Jewish reaction

In the 2012 Ukrainian parliamentary elections, All-Ukrainian Union "Svoboda" won its first seats in the Ukrainian Parliament,158159160161162163 garnering 10.44% of the popular vote and the fourth most seats among national political parties;164165 This led to concern among Jewish organizations that accused "Svoboda" of Nazi sympathies and antisemitism.166167168169170171172173 In May 2013, the World Jewish Congress listed the party as neo-Nazi.174 "Svoboda" has denied the charges.175176177178179180181

Antisemitic graffiti and violence against Jews were still a problem in 2010.182

Revolution of 2014 and start of Russo-Ukrainian war

After the Euromaidan protests, unrest gripped southern and eastern Ukraine, and this escalated in April 2014 into the war in Donbas183 and the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.

In April 2014, in the city of Donetsk occupied by Russian-backed forces, leaflets were distributed by three masked men as people left a synagogue, ordering Jews to register to avoid losing their property and citizenship "given that the leaders of the Jewish community of Ukraine support the Banderite junta in Kyiv184 and are hostile to the Orthodox Donetsk Republic and its citizens".185186187 After the distribution of the flyers was reported, Denis Pushilin, whom the leaflets claimed had issued the discriminatory order, denied any involvement on behalf of himself and the government of the Donetsk People's Republic. The chief rabbi of the city of Donetsk, Pinchas Vishedski, later called the distribution of the flyers a "hoax" that was carried out by an unknown party, adding "I think it's someone trying to use the Jewish community in Donetsk as an instrument in this conflict. That's why we're upset."188

After the Euromaidan, the number of Ukrainian Jews making aliyah from Ukraine grew 142% during the first four months of 2014 compared to the previous year.189 800 people arrived in Israel over January–April, and over 200 signed up for May 2014.190 However, chief rabbi and Chabad emissary of Kyiv Rabbi Jonathan Markovitch said in late April 2014 "Today, you can come to Kyiv, Dnipro or Odesa and walk through the streets openly dressed as a Jew, with nothing to be afraid of".191

In August 2014, the Jewish Telegraphic Agency reported that the International Fellowship of Christians and Jews was organizing chartered flights to allow at least 150 Ukrainian Jews to immigrate to Israel in September. Jewish organizations within Ukraine, as well as the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, the Jewish Agency for Israel and the Jewish community of Dnipropetrovsk, arranged temporary homes and shelters for hundreds of Jews who fled the war in Donbas in eastern Ukraine. Hundreds of Jews reportedly fled the cities of Luhansk and Donetsk.192193

In 2014 Ihor Kolomoyskyi and Volodymyr Groysman were appointed Governor of Dnipropetrovsk Oblast and Speaker of the Parliament respectively.194195196197 Groysman became Prime Minister of Ukraine in April 2016.198

Presidency of Volodymyr Zelenskyy

Ukraine elected its first Jewish president in the 2019 presidential election, when comedian, head of Kvartal 95 Studio, and lead actor in the TV series Servant of the People Volodymyr Zelenskyy defeated incumbent Petro Poroshenko with 73.23% of the vote, the biggest landslide victory in the history of Ukrainian presidential elections.199 During the brief overlap of Zelenskyy's and Groysman's terms (20 May to 29 August 2019), Ukraine was the only country in the world apart from Israel to have both a Jewish president and prime minister.200201202

2022 Russian invasion

See also: Ukrainian refugee crisis (2022–present)

In February 2022 Russia invaded Ukraine. The Israeli Embassy stayed open on the Sabbath to facilitate the evacuation of Jews. A total of 97 Jews chose to travel to Israel.203 In addition, 140 Jewish orphans fled to Romania and Moldova.204205 100 Jews fled to Belarus in order to prepare for their eventual move to Israel.206 On 2 March 2022, the Jewish Agency for Israel reported that hundreds of Jewish war refugees sheltering in Poland, Romania and Moldova were scheduled to leave for Israel the following week.207 Refugee estimates ranged from 10,000208 to 15,200 refugees had arrived in Israel.209 In September 2023 it was reported that over 43,000 Jews from Russia and over 15,000 Jews from Ukraine have fled to Israel.210 By August 2024, out of an estimated 30,000 Jews who immigrated to Israel since 7 October 2023, 17,000 Jews were from Russia and 900 Jews from Ukraine.211

On 22 August 2024, Israeli Ynet news reported that at least 100 Jewish Ukrainian soldiers had been killed fighting Russia since the beginning of the invasion.212

Jewish communities in modern Ukraine

As of 2012, Ukraine had the fifth-largest Jewish community in Europe and the twelfth-largest in the world, behind South Africa and ahead of Mexico. The majority live in Kyiv (about half),213 Dnipro, Kharkiv and Odesa.214 Rabbis Jonathan Markovitch of Kyiv and Shmuel Kaminetsky215 of Dnipro are considered to be among the most influential foreigners in the country.216 Opened in October 2012 in Dnipro, the multifunctional Menorah center is among the world's largest Jewish community centers.217218

A growing trend among Israelis is to visit Ukraine on a "roots trip" to learn of Jewish life there.219 Kyiv is usually mentioned, where it is possible to trace the paths of Sholem Aleichem and Golda Meir; Zhytomyr and Korostyshiv, where one can follow the steps of Haim Nahman Bialik; Berdychiv, where one can trace the life of Mendele Mocher Sforim; Rivne, where one can follow the course of Amos Oz; Buchach – the path of S.Y. Agnon; Drohobych – the place of Maurycy Gottlieb and Bruno Schulz.220

Ukraine is known as a major exporter of handmade matzah to the United States.221222

Notable Ukrainian Jews

Main article: List of Ukrainian Jews

See also: Category:People of Ukrainian-Jewish descent

Ukrainian-born Jews

Notable Jews of Ukrainian descent

See also

  • Judaism portal
  • Ukraine portal

Notes

Further reading

Wikimedia Commons has media related to History of Judaism in Ukraine.

References

  1. "Серія "Між Львівською площею та Євбазом (сучасна площа Перемоги)" (Фото Києва ::: Фото Киева ::: Photo of Kiev ::: Pictures of Kyiv)". 21 November 2014. Archived from the original on 21 November 2014. Retrieved 10 May 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20141121004717/http://serg-klymenko.narod.ru/Kyiv/Kyiv.Evbaz.htm ↩

  2. Kipiani, V. "Interesting Books": Jewish addresses of Kyiv. News Broadcasting Service (TSN). 6 April 2012 https://web.archive.org/web/20141121013737/http://tsn.ua/analitika/cikavi-knizhki-evreyskie-adresa-kieva.html ↩

  3. Ukraine. World Jewish Congress. https://www.worldjewishcongress.org/en/about/communities/UA ↩

  4. Paul Magocsi, A History of Ukraine, p. 350. University of Washington Press, 1996. /wiki/Paul_Magocsi ↩

  5. Batista, Jakub (2014). "Chmielnicki Massacres (1648–1649)". In Mikaberidze, Alexander (ed.). Atrocities, Massacres, and War Crimes: An Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-Clio. pp. 100–101. ISBN 978-1-59884-926-4. 978-1-59884-926-4 ↩

  6. "Virtual Excursion on Jewish Odessa - Pogroms". 21 January 2007. Archived from the original on 21 January 2007. Retrieved 3 April 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20070121190823/http://www.moria.farlep.net/vjodessa/en/pogroms.html ↩

  7. Pinkus 1988, p. 31. - Pinkus, Benjamin (1988). The Jews of the Soviet Union: The History of a National Minority. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-38926-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=52Ew77pZsNUC ↩

  8. Baron 1976, p. 188–91. - Baron, Salo Wittmayer (1976). The Russian Jew Under Tsars and Soviets. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-02-507300-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=KbRtAAAAMAAJ ↩

  9. National policy of the Central Council in conditions of Ukrainian independence (January-April 1918). Electronic library of handbooks. https://web.archive.org/web/20141121015737/http://www.info-library.com.ua/books-text-10395.html ↩

  10. Money with Yiddish labels. Hadashot by Vaad of Ukraine. January of 2008 https://web.archive.org/web/20141121012341/http://vaadua.org/Hadasot/2008-01/Had%2004-2008.htm ↩

  11. Abramson, Henry (1991). "Jewish Representation in the Independent Ukrainian Governments of 1917-1920". Slavic Review. 50 (03). Cambridge University Press: 542–550. doi:10.2307/2499851. JSTOR 2499851: Table, pg. 548 /wiki/Henry_Abramson ↩

  12. Yekelchyk, Serhy (2007). Ukraine: Birth of a Modern Nation. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530546-3. 978-0-19-530546-3 ↩

  13. "20 years before the Holocaust, pogroms killed 100,000 Jews – then were forgotten". The Times of Israel. https://www.timesofisrael.com/20-years-before-the-holocaust-pogroms-killed-100000-jews-then-were-forgotten/ ↩

  14. Midlarsky, Manus I. (2005). The Killing Trap: Genocide in the Twentieth Century. Cambridge University Press. pp. 46–47. ISBN 978-0-521-81545-1. Retrieved 17 October 2017. 978-0-521-81545-1 ↩

  15. Mayer, Arno J. (15 January 2002). The Furies: Violence and Terror in the French and Russian Revolutions. Princeton University Press. p. 516. ISBN 978-0-691-09015-3. 978-0-691-09015-3 ↩

  16. Сергійчук, В. Український Крим К. 2001, p.156 ↩

  17. "Jewish Urban Population: 1897". Geschichteinchronologie.ch. 7 May 2007. Archived from the original on 23 June 2013. Retrieved 16 April 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20130623053824/http://www.geschichteinchronologie.ch/eu/ukraine/EncJud_Ukraine01-16jh-1917-ENGL.html ↩

  18. Timothy Snyder (16 July 2009). "Holocaust: The Ignored Reality". The New York Review of Books. Archived from the original (Internet Archive) on 9 January 2014. Retrieved 17 March 2015. /wiki/Timothy_Snyder ↩

  19. "Table 30. Immigrants from the USSR (former) by last republic of residence: 1990-2001" (PDF). Central Bureau of Statistics, State of Israel. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 16 April 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20140714135307/http://www1.cbs.gov.il/publications/alia2001/pdf/tab30.pdf ↩

  20. "Ukraine: Treatment of ethnic minorities, including Roma; state protection". Refworld. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. 17 September 2012. Retrieved 31 January 2023. https://www.refworld.org/docid/507294fe2.html ↩

  21. Kevin A. Brook, The Jews of Khazaria, Second Edition, Rowman and Littlefield, pg. 198. ↩

  22. "Право на повстання: тисячолітня традиція". 21 November 2021. Retrieved 2 June 2025. https://uain.press/articles/pravo-na-povstannya-tisyacholitnya-traditsiya-880549#google_vignette ↩

  23. "Як за старих часів кияни князів проганяли". Den. 23 May 2014. Retrieved 2 June 2025. https://day.kyiv.ua/article/ukrayina-incognita/yak-za-starykh-chasiv-kyyany-knyaziv-prohanyaly ↩

  24. Michael Brenner (2019). Kleine jüdische Geschichte (in German). München: C.H.Beck. p. 142. ISBN 9783406738159. 9783406738159 ↩

  25. Michael Brenner (2019). Kleine jüdische Geschichte (in German). München: C.H.Beck. pp. 145–147. ISBN 9783406738159. 9783406738159 ↩

  26. Michael Brenner (2019). Kleine jüdische Geschichte (in German). München: C.H.Beck. p. 148. ISBN 9783406738159. 9783406738159 ↩

  27. Subtelny, Orest; Studies, Canadian Institute of Ukrainian (1994). Ukraine: A History. University of Toronto Press. p. 599. ISBN 978-0-8020-7191-0. 978-0-8020-7191-0 ↩

  28. Michael Brenner (2019). Kleine jüdische Geschichte (in German). München: C.H.Beck. p. 148. ISBN 9783406738159. 9783406738159 ↩

  29. Paul Magocsi, A History of Ukraine, p. 350. University of Washington Press, 1996. /wiki/Paul_Magocsi ↩

  30. Batista, Jakub (2014). "Chmielnicki Massacres (1648–1649)". In Mikaberidze, Alexander (ed.). Atrocities, Massacres, and War Crimes: An Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-Clio. pp. 100–101. ISBN 978-1-59884-926-4. 978-1-59884-926-4 ↩

  31. Michael Brenner (2019). Kleine jüdische Geschichte (in German). München: C.H.Beck. p. 148. ISBN 9783406738159. 9783406738159 ↩

  32. Michael Brenner (2019). Kleine jüdische Geschichte (in German). München: C.H.Beck. p. 137. ISBN 9783406738159. 9783406738159 ↩

  33. Michael Brenner (2019). Kleine jüdische Geschichte (in German). München: C.H.Beck. pp. 150–151. ISBN 9783406738159. 9783406738159 ↩

  34. Michael Brenner (2019). Kleine jüdische Geschichte (in German). München: C.H.Beck. pp. 152–153. ISBN 9783406738159. 9783406738159 ↩

  35. "This Day: 230 years since Jewish messiah claimant Jacob Frank's death". The Jerusalem Post (jpost.com). 10 December 2021. Retrieved 10 February 2024. https://www.jpost.com/judaism/on-this-day-230-years-since-jewish-messiah-claimant-jacob-franks-death-688402 ↩

  36. Michael Brenner (2019). Kleine jüdische Geschichte (in German). München: C.H.Beck. pp. 153–154. ISBN 9783406738159. 9783406738159 ↩

  37. Michael Brenner (2019). Kleine jüdische Geschichte (in German). München: C.H.Beck. pp. 202–205. ISBN 9783406738159. 9783406738159 ↩

  38. Michael Brenner (2019). Kleine jüdische Geschichte (in German). München: C.H.Beck. pp. 205–206. ISBN 9783406738159. 9783406738159 ↩

  39. "Odessa: A City Born Again and Again", by Katherine Avgerinos and Josh Wilson https://web.archive.org/web/20170711235736/http://www.sras.org/odessa ↩

  40. Michael Brenner (2019). Kleine jüdische Geschicte (in German). München: C.H.Beck. p. 209. ISBN 9783406738159. 9783406738159 ↩

  41. Michael Brenner (2019). Kleine jüdische Geschicte (in German). München: C.H.Beck. pp. 210–214. ISBN 9783406738159. 9783406738159 ↩

  42. Michael Brenner (2019). Kleine jüdische Geschicte (in German). München: C.H.Beck. pp. 210–211. ISBN 9783406738159. 9783406738159 ↩

  43. Odessa pogroms Archived 21 January 2007 at the Wayback Machine at the Center of Jewish Self-Education "Moria" http://www.moria.farlep.net/vjodessa/en/pogroms.html ↩

  44. The Newest History of the Jewish People, 1789–1914 by Simon Dubnow, vol. 3, Russian ed., p. 153. /wiki/Simon_Dubnow ↩

  45. Michael Brenner (2019). Kleine jüdische Geschicte (in German). München: C.H.Beck. p. 238. ISBN 9783406738159. 9783406738159 ↩

  46. Baron 1976, p. 67. - Baron, Salo Wittmayer (1976). The Russian Jew Under Tsars and Soviets. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-02-507300-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=KbRtAAAAMAAJ ↩

  47. Lowe 1993, 284–90 ↩

  48. Pinkus 1988, p. 30. - Pinkus, Benjamin (1988). The Jews of the Soviet Union: The History of a National Minority. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-38926-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=52Ew77pZsNUC ↩

  49. Pinkus 1988, p. 31. - Pinkus, Benjamin (1988). The Jews of the Soviet Union: The History of a National Minority. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-38926-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=52Ew77pZsNUC ↩

  50. Baron 1976, p. 188–91. - Baron, Salo Wittmayer (1976). The Russian Jew Under Tsars and Soviets. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-02-507300-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=KbRtAAAAMAAJ ↩

  51. Yekelchyk, Serhy (2007). Ukraine: Birth of a Modern Nation. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530546-3. 978-0-19-530546-3 ↩

  52. Magocsi, Paul R. (2010). A History of Ukraine: The Land and Its Peoples. University of Toronto Press. p. 537. ISBN 978-1-4426-4085-6. 978-1-4426-4085-6 ↩

  53. Magocsi, Paul R. (2010). A History of Ukraine: The Land and Its Peoples. University of Toronto Press. p. 537. ISBN 978-1-4426-4085-6. 978-1-4426-4085-6 ↩

  54. Yekelchyk, Serhy (2007). Ukraine: Birth of a Modern Nation. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530546-3. 978-0-19-530546-3 ↩

  55. Magocsi, Paul R. (2010). A History of Ukraine: The Land and Its Peoples. University of Toronto Press. p. 537. ISBN 978-1-4426-4085-6. 978-1-4426-4085-6 ↩

  56. Yekelchyk, Serhy (2007). Ukraine: Birth of a Modern Nation. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530546-3. 978-0-19-530546-3 ↩

  57. Magocsi, Paul R. (2010). A History of Ukraine: The Land and Its Peoples. University of Toronto Press. p. 537. ISBN 978-1-4426-4085-6. 978-1-4426-4085-6 ↩

  58. Magocsi, Paul R. (2010). A History of Ukraine: The Land and Its Peoples. University of Toronto Press. p. 537. ISBN 978-1-4426-4085-6. 978-1-4426-4085-6 ↩

  59. Abramson, Henry (1991). "Jewish Representation in the Independent Ukrainian Governments of 1917-1920". Slavic Review. 50 (03). Cambridge University Press: 542–550. doi:10.2307/2499851. JSTOR 2499851: Table, pg. 548 /wiki/Henry_Abramson ↩

  60. Kyiv District Commission of the Jewish Public Committee for Relief to Victims of Pogroms. State Archive of the Kyiv Oblast. Fond FR-3050 Archived 30 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine by Vladimir Danilenko, Director of the State Archive of the Kyiv Oblast. http://www.eastview.com/docs/FR-3050-vstuplenie%20Eng.pdf ↩

  61. Yekelchyk, Serhy (2007). Ukraine: Birth of a Modern Nation. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530546-3. 978-0-19-530546-3 ↩

  62. Yekelchyk, Serhy (2007). Ukraine: Birth of a Modern Nation. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530546-3. 978-0-19-530546-3 ↩

  63. Magocsi, Paul R. (2010). A History of Ukraine: The Land and Its Peoples. University of Toronto Press. p. 537. ISBN 978-1-4426-4085-6. 978-1-4426-4085-6 ↩

  64. Yekelchyk, Serhy (2007). Ukraine: Birth of a Modern Nation. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530546-3. 978-0-19-530546-3 ↩

  65. Europa Publications (1999). Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States, 1999. Taylor & Francis Group. p. 849. ISBN 978-1-85743-058-5. 978-1-85743-058-5 ↩

  66. Magocsi, Paul R. (2010). A History of Ukraine: The Land and Its Peoples. University of Toronto Press. p. 537. ISBN 978-1-4426-4085-6. 978-1-4426-4085-6 ↩

  67. Korey 1978, 90. ↩

  68. Insight on the News 21 May 1990b, 17. ↩

  69. Sawyer 2019, pp. 14–15. - Sawyer, Thomas E. (11 July 2019), "The Jewish Minority in the Soviet Union: Demographic and Cultural Profiles", The Jewish Minority in the Soviet Union, Routledge, pp. 29–55, doi:10.4324/9780429312090-2, ISBN 978-0-429-31209-0, S2CID 211404686, retrieved 1 February 2023 https://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780429312090-2 ↩

  70. Soviet Jewish Affairs Autumn-Winter 1990, 27. ↩

  71. Korey 1978, 79 ↩

  72. Pinkus 1988, p. 58–59. - Pinkus, Benjamin (1988). The Jews of the Soviet Union: The History of a National Minority. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-38926-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=52Ew77pZsNUC ↩

  73. Weinryb 1970, p. 306. - Weinryb, Bernard Dov (1970). "Antisemitism in Soviet Russia". In Kochan, Lionel (ed.). The Jews in Soviet Russia Since 1917. London: Institute of Jewish Affairs. https://archive.org/details/jewsinsovietruss0000unse ↩

  74. Korey 1978, 90. ↩

  75. Survey January 1968, 77–81. ↩

  76. Rothenberg 1970, pp. 172–73. - Rothenberg, Joshua (1970). "Jewish Religion in the Soviet Union". In Kochan, Lionel (ed.). The Jews in Soviet Russia Since 1917. London: Institute of Jewish Affairs. https://archive.org/details/jewsinsovietruss0000unse ↩

  77. Levin 1988, pp. 78–80. - Levin, Nora (1988). The Jews in the Soviet Union Since 1917: Paradox of Survival. New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-5034-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=IRrDQgAACAAJ ↩

  78. Pinkus 1988, p. 62. - Pinkus, Benjamin (1988). The Jews of the Soviet Union: The History of a National Minority. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-38926-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=52Ew77pZsNUC ↩

  79. Klier, John D., and Shlomo Lambroza, eds. Pogroms: Anti-Jewish Violence in Modern Russian History. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992. ↩

  80. Bemporad, Elissa (2019). Legacy of blood : Jews, pogroms, and ritual murder in the lands of the Soviets. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-046645-9. OCLC 1135962272. 978-0-19-046645-9 ↩

  81. Hanebrink, Paul (2018). A Specter Haunting Europe The Myth of Judeo-Bolshevism. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-98856-9. OCLC 1357256139. 978-0-674-98856-9 ↩

  82. Bemporad, Elissa (2019). Legacy of blood : Jews, pogroms, and ritual murder in the lands of the Soviets. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-046645-9. OCLC 1135962272. 978-0-19-046645-9 ↩

  83. Hanebrink, Paul (2018). A Specter Haunting Europe The Myth of Judeo-Bolshevism. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-98856-9. OCLC 1357256139. 978-0-674-98856-9 ↩

  84. "Львів.1918.Єврейський погром". 4 December 2019. Retrieved 3 June 2025. https://www.istpravda.com.ua/articles/5de7745143964/ ↩

  85. Midlarsky, Manus I. (2005). The Killing Trap: Genocide in the Twentieth Century. Cambridge University Press. pp. 46–47. ISBN 978-0-521-81545-1. Retrieved 17 October 2017. 978-0-521-81545-1 ↩

  86. Midlarsky, Manus I. (2005). The Killing Trap: Genocide in the Twentieth Century. Cambridge University Press. pp. 46–47. ISBN 978-0-521-81545-1. Retrieved 17 October 2017. 978-0-521-81545-1 ↩

  87. Tcherikower, Elias. "The Pogroms in Ukraine in 1919". www.berdichev.org. Retrieved 1 February 2023. originally in Yiddish, YIVO Institute, 1965; The Berdichev Revival http://www.berdichev.org/the_pogroms_in_ukraine_in_1919.htm ↩

  88. Midlarsky, Manus I. (2005). The Killing Trap: Genocide in the Twentieth Century. Cambridge University Press. pp. 46–47. ISBN 978-0-521-81545-1. Retrieved 17 October 2017. 978-0-521-81545-1 ↩

  89. Mayer, Arno J. (15 January 2002). The Furies: Violence and Terror in the French and Russian Revolutions. Princeton University Press. p. 516. ISBN 978-0-691-09015-3. 978-0-691-09015-3 ↩

  90. "The Pogroms". Grossmanproject.net. 7 November 1905. Retrieved 16 April 2013. http://grossmanproject.net/pogroms.htm ↩

  91. Brown, Michael L. (10 May 1992). Our Hands Are Stained with Blood. Destiny Image Publishers. p. 105. ISBN 9781560430681. Retrieved 10 May 2022 – via Google Books. 9781560430681 ↩

  92. "Reflections of a post-Auschwitz Christian". Detroit : Wayne State University Press. 10 May 1989. Retrieved 10 May 2022 – via Internet Archive. http://archive.org/details/reflectionsofpos0000carg ↩

  93. Levin 1988, pp. 81. - Levin, Nora (1988). The Jews in the Soviet Union Since 1917: Paradox of Survival. New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-5034-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=IRrDQgAACAAJ ↩

  94. Schechtman 1970, p. 113. - Schechtman, J.B. (1970). "The Jews in Soviet Russia". In Kochan, Lionel (ed.). The Jews in Soviet Russia Since 1917. London: Institute of Jewish Affairs. https://archive.org/details/jewsinsovietruss0000unse ↩

  95. Levin 1988, pp. 90–91. - Levin, Nora (1988). The Jews in the Soviet Union Since 1917: Paradox of Survival. New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-5034-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=IRrDQgAACAAJ ↩

  96. Survey January 1968, 77–81. ↩

  97. Rothenberg 1970, pp. 172–73. - Rothenberg, Joshua (1970). "Jewish Religion in the Soviet Union". In Kochan, Lionel (ed.). The Jews in Soviet Russia Since 1917. London: Institute of Jewish Affairs. https://archive.org/details/jewsinsovietruss0000unse ↩

  98. Levin 1988, pp. 78–80. - Levin, Nora (1988). The Jews in the Soviet Union Since 1917: Paradox of Survival. New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-5034-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=IRrDQgAACAAJ ↩

  99. Pinkus 1988, p. 62. - Pinkus, Benjamin (1988). The Jews of the Soviet Union: The History of a National Minority. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-38926-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=52Ew77pZsNUC ↩

  100. Carr 1971, pp. 401, 413. - Carr, Edward Hallett (1971). The Bolshevik Revolution: 1917-1923. Penguin Books. https://books.google.com/books?id=nt_MswEACAAJ ↩

  101. "Refugiaţi, emigranţi din URSS către România interbelică". https://www.romania-actualitati.ro/emisiuni/istorica/refugiati-emigranti-din-urss-catre-romania-interbelica-id46059.html ↩

  102. "Cum a gestionat România criza refugiaţilor din perioada interbelică. 100.000 de evrei, ruşi şi ucraineni s-au refugiat aici la începutul anilor '20". 29 September 2015. https://adevarul.ro/stiri-locale/piatra-neamt/cum-a-gestionat-romania-criza-refugiatilor-din-1654737.html ↩

  103. "Refugiaţii evrei, din Ucraina sovietică în Basarabia română". https://historia.ro/sectiune/general/refugiatii-evrei-din-ucraina-sovietica-in-582478.html ↩

  104. Pinkus 1988, p. 59. - Pinkus, Benjamin (1988). The Jews of the Soviet Union: The History of a National Minority. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-38926-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=52Ew77pZsNUC ↩

  105. Levin 1988, pp. 131. - Levin, Nora (1988). The Jews in the Soviet Union Since 1917: Paradox of Survival. New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-5034-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=IRrDQgAACAAJ ↩

  106. Schwarz 1951, p. 162–63. - Schwarz, Solomon M. (1951). The Jews in the Soviet Union. Syracuse University Press. https://books.google.com/books?id=3cZtAAAAMAAJ ↩

  107. Pinkus 1988, p. 64. - Pinkus, Benjamin (1988). The Jews of the Soviet Union: The History of a National Minority. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-38926-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=52Ew77pZsNUC ↩

  108. Levin 1988, pp. 131–51. - Levin, Nora (1988). The Jews in the Soviet Union Since 1917: Paradox of Survival. New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-5034-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=IRrDQgAACAAJ ↩

  109. Pinkus 1988, p. 65. - Pinkus, Benjamin (1988). The Jews of the Soviet Union: The History of a National Minority. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-38926-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=52Ew77pZsNUC ↩

  110. Jews, encyclopediaofukraine.com http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/pages/J/E/Jews.htm ↩

  111. Problems of Communism May–June 1973, 10–11. ↩

  112. Pinkus 1988, p. 62. - Pinkus, Benjamin (1988). The Jews of the Soviet Union: The History of a National Minority. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-38926-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=52Ew77pZsNUC ↩

  113. Rothenberg 1970, pp. 177–78. - Rothenberg, Joshua (1970). "Jewish Religion in the Soviet Union". In Kochan, Lionel (ed.). The Jews in Soviet Russia Since 1917. London: Institute of Jewish Affairs. https://archive.org/details/jewsinsovietruss0000unse ↩

  114. Pinkus 1988, p. 57. - Pinkus, Benjamin (1988). The Jews of the Soviet Union: The History of a National Minority. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-38926-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=52Ew77pZsNUC ↩

  115. Medvedev, R. (ed.). "Losses Suffered by the Population of the USSR, 1918–1958". The Samizdat Register. ↩

  116. Khiterer, V. (2020). The Holodomor and Jews in Kyiv and Ukraine: An Introduction and Observations on a Neglected Topic. Nationalities Papers, 48(3), 460-475. doi:10.1017/nps.2018.79 ↩

  117. Yekelchyk, Serhy (2007). Ukraine: Birth of a Modern Nation. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530546-3. 978-0-19-530546-3 ↩

  118. Dmytryshyn 1965, pp. 210–14. - Dmytryshyn, Basil (1965). U S S R: A Concise History. Charles Scribner's Sons. https://books.google.com/books?id=kih1zQEACAAJ ↩

  119. Rothenberg 1970, pp. 180. - Rothenberg, Joshua (1970). "Jewish Religion in the Soviet Union". In Kochan, Lionel (ed.). The Jews in Soviet Russia Since 1917. London: Institute of Jewish Affairs. https://archive.org/details/jewsinsovietruss0000unse ↩

  120. Altshuler 1993, p. 85. - Altshuler, Mordechai (1993). Distribution of the Jewish population of the USSR 1939. Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Centre for Research and Documentation of East-European Jewry. OCLC 31729141. http://worldcat.org/oclc/31729141 ↩

  121. Soviet Jewish Affairs Summer 1991, 53–54. ↩

  122. Baron 1976, p. 294. - Baron, Salo Wittmayer (1976). The Russian Jew Under Tsars and Soviets. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-02-507300-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=KbRtAAAAMAAJ ↩

  123. Gitelman 1993, p. 4. - Gitelman, Zvi (1993). Jewish Identities in Postcommunist Russia and Ukraine: An Uncertain Ethnicity. ↩

  124. Сергійчук, В. Український Крим К. 2001, p. 150 ↩

  125. Петлюра С. Статті, листи, документи – Н. Й. 1979 – Vol 2, p. 428 ↩

  126. Margolin A. "The New Palestine", December 1926 also Тризуб, 1927 ч. 14 p. 13-14 ↩

  127. Сергійчук, В. Український Крим К. 2001, p.156 ↩

  128. Mykola Vladzimirsky. "Віктор Даниленко Проекти Єврейської Автономії В Радянському Криму". Ukrlife.org. Retrieved 16 April 2013. http://ukrlife.org/main/uacrim/conf_hebr.htm ↩

  129. "Демоскоп Weekly - Приложение. Справочник статистических показателей". www.demoscope.ru. Retrieved 24 May 2019. http://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/ussr_nac_26.php?reg=4 ↩

  130. Smith, Stephen A., ed. (16 December 2013). "The Oxford Handbook of the History of Communism". Oxford Handbooks Online: 245–. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199602056.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-960205-6. 978-0-19-960205-6 ↩

  131. Richard, J. Evans (19 March 2009). The Third Reich at War: 1939-1945. Penguin Books. pp. 203–223. ISBN 978-1-101-02230-6. 978-1-101-02230-6 ↩

  132. Arad, Yitzhak (27 May 2020). The Holocaust in the Soviet Union. U of Nebraska Press. ISBN 9781496210791. 9781496210791 ↩

  133. "Studio visit : Klone | Documenting the real and unreal". The Bubblist. 15 June 2013. Retrieved 24 May 2019. https://thebubblist.org/2013/06/15/studio-visit-klone/ ↩

  134. Yivoencyclopedia.org. Retrieved on 2013-04-14. http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Ukraine ↩

  135. "Jews in Ukraine 1897 and 1900". http://www.berdichev.org/imagens/Jews_Table1.jpg ↩

  136. "Jews in Ukraine 1926 and 1933". http://www.berdichev.org/imagens/Jews_Table2.jpg ↩

  137. Greg Dawson (2012). Judgment Before Nuremberg: The Holocaust in the Ukraine and the First Nazi. Open Road Media. ISBN 9781453226339. Retrieved 16 April 2013. 9781453226339 ↩

  138. "Приложение Демоскопа Weekly". Demoscope.ru. 15 January 2013. Archived from the original on 12 October 2013. Retrieved 14 April 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20131012173257/http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/census_types.php?ct=6 ↩

  139. "World Jewish Population, 2002" (PDF). www.ajcarchives.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20200721161017/http://www.ajcarchives.org/AJC_DATA/Files/2002_13_WJP.pdf ↩

  140. "Powered by Google Docs". Retrieved 14 April 2013. https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:Rv2hLhme008J:www.jewishdatabank.org/Reports/World_Jewish_Population_2010.pdf+world+jewish+population+2010&gl=us&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEEShFmlEo2XYeBjYVUGgz_STm8ZXvaFqIMHdpfxUC8uWpDuLqb9l7GvJbF2piXHqxgDaGkOY3jfCA_RkpUlKLSByoSQC3cLV-5LcpxgXggqUIYwzK9hdfmwVv4Sz0BdeFMxJ_-2To ↩

  141. YIVO | Population and Migration: Population since World War I. Yivoencyclopedia.org. Retrieved on 2013-04-14. http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Population_and_Migration/Population_since_World_War_I ↩

  142. American Jewish Year Book 2012. Springer Publishing. 2012. p. 225. ISBN 9789400752047. 9789400752047 ↩

  143. "Ukraine". European Jewish Congress. Retrieved 10 May 2022. https://eurojewcong.org/communities/ukraine/ ↩

  144. "Динамика численности еврейского населения Украины". www.demoscope.ru. Retrieved 24 May 2019. http://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/2007/0303/analit02.php ↩

  145. "The Virtual Jewish History Tour – Ukraine". Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 16 April 2013. https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/ukraine.html ↩

  146. Stewart, Susan (1994). Demonen aan de Dnipr: de moeizame staatsvorming van Oekraïne (PDF) (in Dutch). Instituut voor Publiek en Politiek. p. 84. ISBN 978-90-6473-295-9. Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Author bio Archived 21 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine 978-90-6473-295-9 ↩

  147. Stewart, Susan (1994). Demonen aan de Dnipr: de moeizame staatsvorming van Oekraïne (PDF) (in Dutch). Instituut voor Publiek en Politiek. p. 84. ISBN 978-90-6473-295-9. Archived from the original on 21 July 2011. Author bio Archived 21 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine 978-90-6473-295-9 ↩

  148. Stephen Roth Institute; League, Bnai Brith Anti-defamation. Anti-Semitism Worl Wide. Ramot Publishing. p. 150. /wiki/Stephen_Roth_Institute ↩

  149. "Table 30. Immigrants from the USSR (former) by last republic of residence: 1990-2001" (PDF). Central Bureau of Statistics, State of Israel. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 16 April 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20140714135307/http://www1.cbs.gov.il/publications/alia2001/pdf/tab30.pdf ↩

  150. Stephen Roth Institute; League, Bnai Brith Anti-defamation. Anti-Semitism Worl Wide. Ramot Publishing. p. 150. /wiki/Stephen_Roth_Institute ↩

  151. About number and composition population of UKRAINE by data All-Ukrainian population census'2001 data Archived 17 December 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Ukrainian Census (2001) http://2001.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/results/general/nationality/ ↩

  152. Stephen Roth Institute; League, Bnai Brith Anti-defamation. Anti-Semitism Worl Wide. Ramot Publishing. p. 150. /wiki/Stephen_Roth_Institute ↩

  153. Conservative Judaism movement to establish first community in Ukraine, Haaretz (5 February 2012) http://www.haaretz.com/jewish-world/conservative-judaism-movement-to-establish-first-community-in-ukraine-1.411066 ↩

  154. "Ukraine". European Jewish Congress. Retrieved 10 May 2022. https://eurojewcong.org/communities/ukraine/ ↩

  155. Gorchinskaya, Katya (7 April 1999). "Rabinovich rallies his supporters - Apr. 08, 1999". Kyiv Post. Retrieved 1 May 2025. https://archive.kyivpost.com/article/content/ukraine-politics/rabinovich-rallies-his-supporters-331.html ↩

  156. "Ukraine President Orders Return of 700 Torah Scrolls Confiscated by Communist Government", Religious Information Service of Ukraine News, November 2007. ↩

  157. "RISU /English /News /Ukrainian Jewish Committee Established to Address Jewish Issues in Ukraine". archive.is. 8 September 2012. Archived from the original on 8 September 2012. Retrieved 24 May 2019. http://old.risu.org.ua/eng/news/article;21193 ↩

  158. "Ukraine election: President Yanukovych party claims win". BBC News. 29 October 2012. Retrieved 10 May 2022. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-20113616 ↩

  159. Faryna, Oksana (18 October 2012). "Extreme Choices: Svoboda plays nationalist card - Oct. 18, 2012". KyivPost. Retrieved 10 May 2022. https://www.kyivpost.com/article/content/ukraine-politics/extreme-choices-svoboda-plays-nationalist-card-314617.html ↩

  160. "2012 Top Ten Anti-Israel/Anti-Semitic Slurs:Mainstream Anti-Semitism Threatens World Peace". Archived from the original on 21 December 2013. Retrieved 10 May 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20131221013625/http://www.wiesenthal.com/site/apps/nlnet/content2.aspx?c=lsKWLbPJLnF&b=7929811&ct=12697485 ↩

  161. Winer, Stuart. "Ukraine okays 'zhyd' slur for Jews". www.timesofisrael.com. Retrieved 10 May 2022. https://www.timesofisrael.com/ukraine-okays-slur-zhyd-for-jews/ ↩

  162. "Svoboda: The rise of Ukraine's ultra-nationalists". BBC News. 26 December 2012. Retrieved 10 May 2022. https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-20824693 ↩

  163. "Svoboda: The Rising Spectre Of Neo-Nazism In The Ukraine". International Business Times. 27 December 2012. Retrieved 10 May 2022. https://www.ibtimes.com/svoboda-rising-spectre-neo-nazism-ukraine-974110 ↩

  164. "Results of the vote count - Nov. 09, 2012". KyivPost. 9 November 2012. Retrieved 10 May 2022. https://www.kyivpost.com/article/content/oct-28-parliamentary-election/results-of-the-vote-count-continuously-updated-315153.html ↩

  165. "Party of Regions gets 185 seats in Ukrainian parliament, Batkivschyna 101 - CEC". Interfax-Ukraine. Retrieved 10 May 2022. https://en.interfax.com.ua/news/general/126937.html ↩

  166. "Experts weigh in on rise of Ukrainian Svoboda party | JPost | Israel News". Archived from the original on 27 April 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20130427140748/http://www.jpost.com/Jewish-World/Jewish-News/Experts-weigh-in-on-rise-of-Ukrainian-Svoboda-party ↩

  167. "Ukraine election: President Yanukovych party claims win". BBC News. 29 October 2012. Retrieved 10 May 2022. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-20113616 ↩

  168. Faryna, Oksana (18 October 2012). "Extreme Choices: Svoboda plays nationalist card - Oct. 18, 2012". KyivPost. Retrieved 10 May 2022. https://www.kyivpost.com/article/content/ukraine-politics/extreme-choices-svoboda-plays-nationalist-card-314617.html ↩

  169. "2012 Top Ten Anti-Israel/Anti-Semitic Slurs:Mainstream Anti-Semitism Threatens World Peace". Archived from the original on 21 December 2013. Retrieved 10 May 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20131221013625/http://www.wiesenthal.com/site/apps/nlnet/content2.aspx?c=lsKWLbPJLnF&b=7929811&ct=12697485 ↩

  170. Winer, Stuart. Ukraine okays 'zhyd' slur for Jews, The Times of Israel, 19 December 2012. https://www.timesofisrael.com/ukraine-okays-slur-zhyd-for-jews/ ↩

  171. "Svoboda: The rise of Ukraine's ultra-nationalists". BBC News. 26 December 2012. Retrieved 10 May 2022. https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-20824693 ↩

  172. "Svoboda: The Rising Spectre Of Neo-Nazism In The Ukraine". International Business Times. 27 December 2012. Retrieved 10 May 2022. https://www.ibtimes.com/svoboda-rising-spectre-neo-nazism-ukraine-974110 ↩

  173. "Svoboda promoting hatred in Ukraine - Feb. 14, 2013". KyivPost. 14 February 2013. Retrieved 10 May 2022. https://www.kyivpost.com/article/opinion/op-ed/svoboda-promoting-hatred-in-ukraine-320445.html ↩

  174. "Ukrinform - Ukrainian National News Agency". www.ukrinform.net. Retrieved 10 May 2022. https://www.ukrinform.net/ ↩

  175. Faryna, Oksana (18 October 2012). "Extreme Choices: Svoboda plays nationalist card - Oct. 18, 2012". KyivPost. Retrieved 10 May 2022. https://www.kyivpost.com/article/content/ukraine-politics/extreme-choices-svoboda-plays-nationalist-card-314617.html ↩

  176. "Oleh Tyahnybok: "The three opposition parties should not be required to act completely in sync" - The Ukrainian Week". 31 March 2013. Retrieved 2 May 2025. https://ukrainianweek.com/oleh-tyahnybok-the-three-opposition-parties-should-not-be-required-to-act-completely-in-sync/ ↩

  177. "Svoboda". Kyiv Post. 25 September 2011. Retrieved 25 September 2011. http://www.kyivpost.com/news/nation/detail/113523/ ↩

  178. "Ukrainian party picks xenophobic candidate". Jewish Telegraphic Agency. Archived from the original on 9 June 2012. Retrieved 10 May 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20120609170927/http://www.jta.org/news/article/2009/05/25/1005397/ukrainian-partys-presidential-candidate-worries-jews ↩

  179. "Tiahnybok denies anti-Semitism in Svoboda - Dec. 27, 2012". KyivPost. 27 December 2012. Retrieved 10 May 2022. https://www.kyivpost.com/article/content/ukraine-politics/tiahnybok-denies-anti-semitism-in-svoboda-318205.html ↩

  180. Herszenhorn, David M. (9 November 2012). "Ukraine's Ultranationalists Show Surprising Strength at Polls". The New York Times. Retrieved 10 May 2022. https://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/09/world/europe/ukraines-ultranationalists-do-well-in-elections.html ↩

  181. "Ukraine party attempts to lose anti-Semitic image". The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com. 21 January 2013. Retrieved 10 May 2022. https://www.jpost.com/jewish-world/jewish-news/ukraine-party-attempts-to-lose-anti-semitic-image ↩

  182. "Anti-Semitism in Ukraine in 2010" (PDF). Human Rights Watch. 7 October 2010. http://www.hrwf.net/images/reports/2010/2010%20antisemitism%20ukraine.pdf ↩

  183. "Ukraine crisis: Timeline". BBC News. 13 November 2014. Retrieved 10 May 2022. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-26248275 ↩

  184. Apparently referring to the support of the Euromaidan protests (that ousted president Viktor Yanukovich) by prominent Jews in Ukraine.[147] /wiki/Euromaidan ↩

  185. "Antisemitic flyer 'by Donetsk People's Republic' in Ukraine a hoax". the Guardian. 18 April 2014. Retrieved 10 May 2022. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/apr/18/antisemitic-donetsk-peoples-republic-ukraine-hoax ↩

  186. Dorell, Oren. "Leaflet tells Jews to register in East Ukraine". USA TODAY. Retrieved 10 May 2022. https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2014/04/17/jews-ordered-to-register-in-east-ukraine/7816951/ ↩

  187. Donetsk leaflet: Jews must register or face deportation, antisemitism.org (16 April 2014)] http://antisemitism.org.il/article/86590/donetsk-leaflet-jews-must-register-or-face-deportation ↩

  188. "Antisemitic flyer 'by Donetsk People's Republic' in Ukraine a hoax". the Guardian. 18 April 2014. Retrieved 10 May 2022. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/apr/18/antisemitic-donetsk-peoples-republic-ukraine-hoax ↩

  189. "Ukrainian Jews immigrate to Israel amid growing unrest". The Times of Israel. 4 May 2014. Retrieved 12 May 2014. https://www.timesofisrael.com/19-ukrainian-jews-make-aliyah-to-flee-growing-unrest/ ↩

  190. "Ukrainian Jews immigrate to Israel amid growing unrest". The Times of Israel. 4 May 2014. Retrieved 12 May 2014. https://www.timesofisrael.com/19-ukrainian-jews-make-aliyah-to-flee-growing-unrest/ ↩

  191. Margolin, Dovid. "In Dnepropetrovsk, a Stylish Passover Despite Ukraine's Rumblings". www.chabad.org. Retrieved 2 May 2025. https://www.chabad.org/news/article_cdo/aid/2565176/jewish/In-Dnepropetrovsk-a-Stylish-Passover-Despite-Ukraines-Rumblings.htm ↩

  192. Liphshiz, Cnaan (7 August 2014). "150 Jews who fled Ukraine fighting expected in Israel". Jewish Telegraphic Agency. Retrieved 1 May 2025. https://www.jta.org/2014/08/07/global/150-jews-who-fled-ukraine-fighting-expected-in-israel ↩

  193. "Israel rescues Ukrainian Jews stranded by fighting". The Jerusalem Post. 27 May 2014. Retrieved 1 May 2025. https://www.jpost.com:443/National-News/Israel-rescues-Ukrainian-Jews-stranded-by-fighting-354543 ↩

  194. Bershidsky, Leonid (4 March 2014). "Putin Gets Personal in Ukraine". Bloomberg.com. Retrieved 10 May 2022 – via www.bloomberg.com. https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2014-03-04/putin-gets-personal-in-ukraine ↩

  195. Liphshiz, Cnaan (27 March 2014). "Russia and Ukraine at war - among the Jews anyway". Jewish Telegraphic Agency. Retrieved 10 May 2022. https://www.jta.org/2014/03/27/global/russia-and-ukraine-at-war-among-the-jews-anyway ↩

  196. "Hroisman elected Rada speaker". Interfax-Ukraine. Retrieved 10 May 2022. https://en.interfax.com.ua/news/general/236648.html ↩

  197. "The Ukrainian Crisis and the Jews: A Time for Hope or Despair?" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 August 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2014. "The Ukrainian Crisis and the Jews: A Time for Hope or Despair," Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs VIII : 2 (2014) pp 77–85. https://web.archive.org/web/20140812080239/http://www.israelcfr.com/documents/8-2/simon-geissbuhler.pdf ↩

  198. "Ukrainian president taps Jewish politician to be next prime minister". The Jerusalem Post. 14 April 2016. Retrieved 1 May 2025. https://www.jpost.com/Diaspora/Ukrainian-president-taps-Jewish-politician-to-be-next-prime-minister-451215 ↩

  199. Higgins, Andrew (24 April 2019). "Ukraine's Newly Elected President Is Jewish. So Is Its Prime Minister. Not All Jews There Are Pleased". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 25 April 2019. Retrieved 25 April 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/24/world/europe/volodomyr-zelensky-ukraine-jewish-president.html ↩

  200. Higgins, Andrew (24 April 2019). "Ukraine's Newly Elected President Is Jewish. So Is Its Prime Minister. Not All Jews There Are Pleased". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 25 April 2019. Retrieved 25 April 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/24/world/europe/volodomyr-zelensky-ukraine-jewish-president.html ↩

  201. Liphshiz, Cnaan (22 April 2019). "Zelensky win makes Ukraine 1st country outside Israel with Jewish PM, president". Times of Israel. Retrieved 29 November 2024. https://www.timesofisrael.com/zelensky-win-makes-ukraine-1st-country-outside-israel-with-jewish-pm-president/ ↩

  202. Sokol, Sam (24 April 2019). "With two Jews in the country's top jobs, what is next for Ukraine?". The Jewish Chronicle. Retrieved 29 November 2024. https://www.thejc.com/lets-talk/analysis/with-two-jews-in-the-countrys-top-jobs-what-is-next-for-ukraine-u223pbh6 ↩

  203. Hersh (27 February 2022). "In Ukraine, The Escape Road Not Taken". aish.com. Retrieved 10 May 2022. https://aish.com/in-ukraine-the-escape-road-not-taken/ ↩

  204. "Jewish-Children-From-Orphanage-and-Yeshiva-Arrive-Safely-in-Romania-and-Moldova.htm Chabbad.com March 1,2022". Retrieved 10 May 2022. https://www.chabad.org/news/article_cdo/aid/5423595/jewish/Jewish-Children-From-Orphanage-and-Yeshiva-Arrive-Safely-in-Romania-and-Moldova.html ↩

  205. "WATCH: Moving Havdalah With Jewish Refugees From Odessa". 6 March 2022. Retrieved 10 May 2022. https://www.theyeshivaworld.com/news/headlines-breaking-stories/2066471/watch-moving-havdalah-with-jewish-refugees-from-odessa.html ↩

  206. "Rescuing 100 Jews in Ukraine on Shabbat". aish.com. 3 March 2022. Retrieved 10 May 2022. https://aish.com/leading-100-jews-out-of-ukraine/ ↩

  207. Gross, Judah Ari. "Hundreds of Jews fleeing Ukraine to arrive in Israel next week". www.timesofisrael.com. Retrieved 10 May 2022. https://www.timesofisrael.com/hundreds-of-jews-fleeing-ukraine-to-arrive-in-israel-next-week/ ↩

  208. "In time for Passover: Israeli immigration minister visits Ukraine to get Jews to Israel". Israel365 News | Latest News. Biblical Perspective. 7 April 2022. Retrieved 10 May 2022. https://www.jns.org/israeli-immigration-minister-visits-ukraine-to-boost-aliyah-efforts/ ↩

  209. Kershner, Isabel (23 March 2022). "Ukraine War Ignites Israeli Debate Over Purpose of a Jewish State". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 26 March 2022. /wiki/ISSN_(identifier) ↩

  210. Jansezian, Nicole (1 September 2023). "Will Jews Continue To Flee Russia in Large Numbers?". The Media Line. Retrieved 1 May 2025. https://themedialine.org/by-region/will-jews-continue-to-flee-russia-in-large-numbers/ ↩

  211. Lefkovits, Etgar (27 August 2024). "30,000 new immigrants since Oct. 7 massacre". Jewish News Syndicate. Retrieved 1 May 2025. https://www.jns.org/aliyah-up-by-30000-since-oct-7-massacre/ ↩

  212. "Dnipro's Jewish community bids farewell to a special ops. soldier". Ynet. 22 August 2024. https://www.ynetnews.com/article/sycg7msoc ↩

  213. Conservative Judaism movement to establish first community in Ukraine, Haaretz (5 February 2012) http://www.haaretz.com/jewish-world/conservative-judaism-movement-to-establish-first-community-in-ukraine-1.411066 ↩

  214. "RISU on Jewish Communities". Archived from the original on 20 April 2005. Retrieved 10 May 2022. http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20050420001149/http://www.risu.org.ua/eng/major.religions/jewish/ ↩

  215. "Chabad of Dnepropetrovsk - Dnepropetrovsk, Ukraine". Chabad.org. Retrieved 1 December 2015. http://www.chabad.org/centers/default_cdo/aid/117953/jewish/Chabad-of-Dnepropetrovsk.htm ↩

  216. "Ukrainian rabbis seen as 'powerful foreigners'," Jewish & Israel News ↩

  217. Shulman, Ian (15 January 2013). "World's biggest Jewish community center opens in Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine". Jewish Journal. Archived from the original on 5 March 2013. Retrieved 1 December 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20130305112604/http://jewishjournal.com/jewrnalism/item/worlds_biggest_jewish_community_center_opens_in_dnipropetrovsk_ukraine ↩

  218. Chesler, Chaim (22 October 2012). "The Menorah Center: Largest Jewish complex in world". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 1 December 2016. http://www.jpost.com/Opinion/Op-Ed-Contributors/The-Menorah-Center-Largest-Jewish-complex-in-world ↩

  219. A mile in their shoes, By Moshe Gilad, RISU ↩

  220. A mile in their shoes, By Moshe Gilad, RISU ↩

  221. Barberá, Marcel Gascón (26 August 2024). "Baking matzah and defying blackouts, Dnipro's Jews press on despite the grind of Russia's war on Ukraine". Jewish Telegraphic Agency. Retrieved 16 March 2025. https://www.jta.org/2024/08/26/global/baking-matzah-and-defying-blackouts-dnipros-jews-press-on-despite-the-grind-of-russias-war-on-ukraine ↩

  222. Wilensky, David A.M. (18 March 2022). "In Ukraine, much of the world's matzah supply is under fire". J. Archived from the original on 26 August 2024. Retrieved 16 March 2025. http://web.archive.org/web/20240826183242/https://jweekly.com/2022/03/18/in-ukraine-much-of-the-worlds-matzah-supply-is-under-fire/ ↩

  223. "ראש הממשלה היהודי של המדינה המוז". 28 January 2024. https://www.kikar.co.il/world-news/s7zdsr ↩

  224. Arbure, Zamfir C. (1898). "Basarabia in secolul XIX". https://books.google.com/books?id=kqUKAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA756 ↩

  225. "The Reform Advocate". 1914. https://books.google.com/books?id=FUkcAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA855 ↩

  226. http://filosofieromaneasca.uv.ro/bogdanpetriceicuhasdeu.htm [bare URL] http://filosofieromaneasca.uv.ro/bogdanpetriceicuhasdeu.htm ↩

  227. "Home". Archived from the original on 20 April 2009. https://web.archive.org/web/20090420193005/http://www.muzeulhasdeu.ro/index.php?meniu=11 ↩

  228. "Персона: Мендель Юлія Володимирівна". comments.ua (in Ukrainian). Retrieved 6 June 2025. Припускають, що прізвище спікерки має єврейське походження. https://comments.ua/ua/dossier/item/person/149-mendel-yuliya-volodimirivna.html ↩

  229. "Belarsky, Sidor | BYU Library - Special Collections". archives.lib.byu.edu. https://archives.lib.byu.edu/agents/people/2213 ↩