Philosophy

<h2 id="etymology">Etymology</h2>
The word philosophy comes from the <a href="/facts/Ancient_Greek/LIK7NlUh">Ancient Greek</a> words φίλος (philos) 'love' and σοφία (<a href="/facts/Sophia_(wisdom)/XRDuVlIL">sophia</a>) 'wisdom'.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:1" href="#fn:1">1</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:2" href="#fn:2">2</a> Some sources say that the term was coined by the <a href="/facts/Pre-Socratic/AMBQt1TU">pre-Socratic</a> philosopher <a href="/facts/Pythagoras/8oe8UgCj">Pythagoras</a>, but this is not certain.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:3" href="#fn:3">3</a>

The word entered the English language primarily from <a href="/facts/Old_French/QcRpPdAc">Old French</a> and <a href="/facts/Anglo-Norman_language/GmwkRAzQ">Anglo-Norman</a> starting around 1175 CE. The French philosophie is itself a borrowing from the Latin philosophia. The term philosophy acquired the meanings of "advanced study of the speculative subjects (<a href="/facts/Logic/8JnpJLtt">logic</a>, <a href="/facts/Ethics/wNVNgL5q">ethics</a>, <a href="/facts/Physics/a7aH2y08">physics</a>, and <a href="/facts/Metaphysics/fSFt6SHe">metaphysics</a>)", "deep wisdom consisting of love of truth and virtuous living", "profound learning as transmitted by the ancient writers", and "the study of the fundamental nature of <a href="/facts/Knowledge/joozoaup">knowledge</a>, <a href="/facts/Reality/oC1xokDB">reality</a>, and <a href="/facts/Existence/IRAl4dlu">existence</a>, and the basic limits of human understanding".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:4" href="#fn:4">4</a>
Before the modern age, the term philosophy was used in a wide sense. It included most forms of <a href="/facts/Rational/ueS0w9lk">rational</a> inquiry, such as the individual <a href="/facts/Sciences/IJoaD7rs">sciences</a>, as its subdisciplines.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:5" href="#fn:5">5</a> For instance, <a href="/facts/Natural_philosophy/CUAsDWdk">natural philosophy</a> was a major branch of philosophy.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:6" href="#fn:6">6</a> This branch of philosophy encompassed a wide range of fields, including disciplines like physics, <a href="/facts/Chemistry/SrNqkGVm">chemistry</a>, and <a href="/facts/Biology/1M1ee3pB">biology</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:7" href="#fn:7">7</a> An example of this usage is the 1687 book <a href="/facts/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica/DRdvI3yx">Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica</a> by <a href="/facts/Isaac_Newton/4L7gTncN">Isaac Newton</a>. This book referred to natural philosophy in its title, but it is today considered a book of physics.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:8" href="#fn:8">8</a>
The meaning of philosophy changed toward the end of the modern period when it acquired the more narrow meaning common today. In this new sense, the term is mainly associated with disciplines like metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. Among other topics, it covers the rational study of reality, knowledge, and values. It is distinguished from other disciplines of rational inquiry such as the empirical sciences and <a href="/facts/Mathematics/pxTouaz4">mathematics</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:9" href="#fn:9">9</a>

<h2 id="conceptions-of-philosophy">Conceptions of philosophy</h2>
See also: <a href="/facts/Metaphilosophy/ryokbVR3">Metaphilosophy</a>
<h3>General conception</h3>
The practice of philosophy is characterized by several general features: it is a form of rational inquiry, it aims to be systematic, and it tends to critically reflect on its own methods and presuppositions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:10" href="#fn:10">10</a> It requires attentively thinking long and carefully about the provocative, vexing, and enduring problems central to the human condition.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:11" href="#fn:11">11</a>
The philosophical pursuit of wisdom involves asking general and fundamental questions. It often does not result in straightforward answers but may help a person to better understand the topic, examine their life, dispel confusion, and overcome prejudices and self-deceptive ideas associated with common sense.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:12" href="#fn:12">12</a> For example, <a href="/facts/Socrates/djIKjImv">Socrates</a> stated that "<a href="/facts/The_unexamined_life_is_not_worth_living/zGN7cVdb">the unexamined life is not worth living</a>" to highlight the role of philosophical inquiry in understanding one's own existence.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:13" href="#fn:13">13</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:14" href="#fn:14">14</a> And according to <a href="/facts/Bertrand_Russell/SRpwNX2U">Bertrand Russell</a>, "the man who has no tincture of philosophy goes through life imprisoned in the prejudices derived from common sense, from the habitual beliefs of his age or his nation, and from convictions which have grown up in his mind without the cooperation or consent of his deliberate reason."<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:15" href="#fn:15">15</a>

<h3>Academic definitions</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Definitions_of_philosophy/nIG1nTg1">Definitions of philosophy</a>
Attempts to provide more precise definitions of philosophy are controversial<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:16" href="#fn:16">16</a> and are studied in <a href="/facts/Metaphilosophy/ryokbVR3">metaphilosophy</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:17" href="#fn:17">17</a> Some approaches argue that there is a set of essential features shared by all parts of philosophy. Others see only weaker family resemblances or contend that it is merely an empty blanket term.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:18" href="#fn:18">18</a> Precise definitions are often only accepted by theorists belonging to a certain <a href="/facts/Philosophical_movement/AHRxhrfl">philosophical movement</a> and are revisionistic according to Søren Overgaard et al. in that many presumed parts of philosophy would not deserve the title "philosophy" if they were true.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:19" href="#fn:19">19</a>
Some definitions characterize philosophy in relation to its method, like pure reasoning. Others focus on its topic, for example, as the study of the biggest patterns of the world as a whole or as the attempt to answer the big questions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:20" href="#fn:20">20</a> Such an approach is pursued by <a href="/facts/Immanuel_Kant/vIxjdy6I">Immanuel Kant</a>, who holds that the task of philosophy is united by four questions: "What can I know?"; "What should I do?"; "What may I hope?"; and "What is the human being?"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:21" href="#fn:21">21</a> Both approaches have the problem that they are usually either too wide, by including non-philosophical disciplines, or too narrow, by excluding some philosophical sub-disciplines.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:22" href="#fn:22">22</a>
Many definitions of philosophy emphasize its intimate relation to science.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:23" href="#fn:23">23</a> In this sense, philosophy is sometimes understood as a proper science in its own right. According to some <a href="/facts/Naturalism_(philosophy)/Glvu6ASA">naturalistic philosophers</a>, such as <a href="/facts/W._V._O._Quine/2RrhATxa">W. V. O. Quine</a>, philosophy is an empirical yet abstract science that is concerned with wide-ranging empirical patterns instead of particular observations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:24" href="#fn:24">24</a> Science-based definitions usually face the problem of explaining why philosophy in its long history has not progressed to the same extent or in the same way as the sciences.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:25" href="#fn:25">25</a> This problem is avoided by seeing philosophy as an immature or provisional science whose subdisciplines cease to be philosophy once they have fully developed.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:26" href="#fn:26">26</a> In this sense, philosophy is sometimes described as "the midwife of the sciences".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:27" href="#fn:27">27</a>
Other definitions focus on the contrast between science and philosophy. A common theme among many such conceptions is that philosophy is concerned with <a href="/facts/Meaning_(philosophy)/WvFm4kKM">meaning</a>, <a href="/facts/Understanding/D8UXbWuJ">understanding</a>, or the clarification of language.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:28" href="#fn:28">28</a> According to one view, philosophy is <a href="/facts/Conceptual_analysis/5mFCG4UP">conceptual analysis</a>, which involves finding the <a href="/facts/Necessary_and_sufficient_conditions/G45aDCY9">necessary and sufficient conditions</a> for the application of concepts.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:29" href="#fn:29">29</a> Another definition characterizes philosophy as <a href="/facts/Thinking/loD3aFv9">thinking</a> about thinking to emphasize its self-critical, reflective nature.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:30" href="#fn:30">30</a> A further approach presents philosophy as a <a href="/facts/Linguistic/oQuamvf2">linguistic</a> therapy. According to <a href="/facts/Ludwig_Wittgenstein/wN9bAgMz">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a>, for instance, philosophy aims at dispelling misunderstandings to which humans are susceptible due to the confusing structure of <a href="/facts/Natural_language/B4gLS7Kd">ordinary language</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:31" href="#fn:31">31</a>
<a href="/facts/Phenomenology_(philosophy)/AILzLkKx">Phenomenologists</a>, such as <a href="/facts/Edmund_Husserl/xKlMH2KN">Edmund Husserl</a>, characterize philosophy as a "rigorous science" investigating <a href="/facts/Essence/X1uqmlSm">essences</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:32" href="#fn:32">32</a> They practice a radical <a href="/facts/Epoche/K8mK5L27">suspension</a> of theoretical assumptions about reality to get back to the "things themselves", that is, as originally given in experience. They contend that this base-level of experience provides the foundation for higher-order theoretical knowledge, and that one needs to understand the former to understand the latter.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:33" href="#fn:33">33</a>
An early approach found in <a href="/facts/Ancient_Greek_philosophy/LWEkp8JX">ancient Greek</a> and <a href="/facts/Roman_philosophy/cgbtSJbU">Roman philosophy</a> is that philosophy is the spiritual practice of developing one's rational capacities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:34" href="#fn:34">34</a> This practice is an expression of the philosopher's love of wisdom and has the aim of improving one's <a href="/facts/Well-being/h1dsU4VU">well-being</a> by leading a reflective life.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:35" href="#fn:35">35</a> For example, the <a href="/facts/Stoics/hQu81X5x">Stoics</a> saw philosophy as an exercise to train the mind and thereby achieve <a href="/facts/Eudaimonia/wGWdwPL3">eudaimonia</a> and flourish in life.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:36" href="#fn:36">36</a>

<h2 id="history">History </h2>
Main article: <a href="/facts/History_of_philosophy/zAH5PVD6">History of philosophy</a>
As a discipline, the history of philosophy aims to provide a systematic and chronological exposition of philosophical concepts and doctrines.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:37" href="#fn:37">37</a> Some theorists see it as a part of <a href="/facts/Intellectual_history/363gKSRc">intellectual history</a>, but it also investigates questions not covered by intellectual history such as whether the theories of past philosophers are true and have remained philosophically relevant.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:38" href="#fn:38">38</a> The history of philosophy is primarily concerned with theories based on rational inquiry and argumentation; some historians understand it in a looser sense that includes <a href="/facts/Myth/kG8UTfem">myths</a>, <a href="/facts/Religion/cxntrD0R">religious teachings</a>, and proverbial lore.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:39" href="#fn:39">39</a>
Influential traditions in the history of philosophy include <a href="/facts/Western_philosophy/4m6EnYCI">Western</a>, <a href="/facts/Islamic_philosophy/QSzAKr2j">Arabic–Persian</a>, <a href="/facts/Indian_philosophy/ddnT7Vec">Indian</a>, and <a href="/facts/Chinese_philosophy/Tx4ruDzB">Chinese philosophy</a>. Other philosophical traditions are <a href="/facts/Japanese_philosophy/Gbk9KBDV">Japanese philosophy</a>, <a href="/facts/Latin_American_philosophy/IkQabPIv">Latin American philosophy</a>, and <a href="/facts/African_philosophy/reXAo68o">African philosophy</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:40" href="#fn:40">40</a>

<h3>Western</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Western_philosophy/4m6EnYCI">Western philosophy</a>

Western philosophy originated in <a href="/facts/Ancient_Greece/PTVBrWXq">Ancient Greece</a> in the 6th century BCE with the <a href="/facts/Pre-Socratics/AMBQt1TU">pre-Socratics</a>. They attempted to provide rational explanations of the <a href="/facts/Cosmos/VTPCNeNQ">cosmos</a> as a whole.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:41" href="#fn:41">41</a> The philosophy following them was shaped by <a href="/facts/Socrates/djIKjImv">Socrates</a> (469–399 BCE), <a href="/facts/Plato/jGtT1UD5">Plato</a> (427–347 BCE), and <a href="/facts/Aristotle/U2bDlBFW">Aristotle</a> (384–322 BCE). They expanded the range of topics to questions like <a href="/facts/Ethics/wNVNgL5q">how people should act</a>, <a href="/facts/Epistemology/NsDwpcYH">how to arrive at knowledge</a>, and what the <a href="/facts/Metaphysics/fSFt6SHe">nature of reality</a> and <a href="/facts/Mind/Y5JhtFj4">mind</a> is.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:42" href="#fn:42">42</a> The later part of the ancient period was marked by the emergence of philosophical movements, for example, <a href="/facts/Epicureanism/qRaaJRg4">Epicureanism</a>, <a href="/facts/Stoicism/hQu81X5x">Stoicism</a>, <a href="/facts/Skepticism/qXAgbbVT">Skepticism</a>, and <a href="/facts/Neoplatonism/Tyq4uTG0">Neoplatonism</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:43" href="#fn:43">43</a> The medieval period started in the 5th century CE. Its focus was on religious topics and many thinkers used ancient philosophy to explain and further elaborate <a href="/facts/Christian_doctrine/sLefEsAd">Christian doctrines</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:44" href="#fn:44">44</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:45" href="#fn:45">45</a>
The <a href="/facts/Renaissance/4D9Bc6KU">Renaissance</a> period started in the 14th century and saw a renewed interest in schools of ancient philosophy, in particular <a href="/facts/Platonism/0mvr2x2p">Platonism</a>. <a href="/facts/Renaissance_humanism/wUYJgfR5">Humanism</a> also emerged in this period.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:46" href="#fn:46">46</a> The modern period started in the 17th century. One of its central concerns was how philosophical and scientific knowledge are created. Specific importance was given to the <a href="/facts/Rationalism/MNk171TG">role of reason</a> and <a href="/facts/Empiricism/f68IpCeE">sensory experience</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:47" href="#fn:47">47</a> Many of these innovations were used in the <a href="/facts/Age_of_Enlightenment/Uj2Fa8Mk">Enlightenment movement</a> to challenge traditional authorities.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:48" href="#fn:48">48</a> Several attempts to develop comprehensive systems of philosophy were made in the 19th century, for instance, by <a href="/facts/German_idealism/SStyy9Bx">German idealism</a> and <a href="/facts/Marxism/sgnnLfax">Marxism</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:49" href="#fn:49">49</a> Influential developments in 20th-century philosophy were the emergence and application of <a href="/facts/Formal_logic/SaI7Y3wN">formal logic</a>, the focus on the <a href="/facts/Linguistic_turn/UaYp65Rc">role of language</a> as well as <a href="/facts/Pragmatism/v1zMTt3m">pragmatism</a>, and movements in <a href="/facts/Continental_philosophy/uVbXljJo">continental philosophy</a> like phenomenology, <a href="/facts/Existentialism/ylQ1HF6b">existentialism</a>, and <a href="/facts/Post-structuralism/N1GPxB42">post-structuralism</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:50" href="#fn:50">50</a> The 20th century saw a rapid expansion of academic philosophy in terms of the number of philosophical publications and philosophers working at <a href="/facts/Academic_institution/86R40VzT">academic institutions</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:51" href="#fn:51">51</a> There was also a noticeable growth in the number of <a href="/facts/Female_philosophers/fzMhn7gt">female philosophers</a>, but they still remained underrepresented.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:52" href="#fn:52">52</a>

<h3>Arabic–Persian</h3>
Main articles: <a href="/facts/Islamic_philosophy/QSzAKr2j">Islamic philosophy</a> and <a href="/facts/Iranian_philosophy/QFt4nARX">Iranian philosophy</a>

Arabic–Persian philosophy arose in the early 9th century CE as a response to discussions in the <a href="/facts/Kalam/86GebkgK">Islamic theological tradition</a>. Its classical period lasted until the 12th century CE and was strongly influenced by ancient Greek philosophers. It employed their ideas to elaborate and interpret the teachings of the <a href="/facts/Quran/39rkStko">Quran</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:53" href="#fn:53">53</a>
<a href="/facts/Al-Kindi/JBAlstwD">Al-Kindi</a> (801–873 CE) is usually regarded as the first philosopher of this tradition. He translated and interpreted many works of Aristotle and Neoplatonists in his attempt to show that there is a harmony between <a href="/facts/Reason/tcBImN8J">reason</a> and <a href="/facts/Faith/XmGVmhEl">faith</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:54" href="#fn:54">54</a> <a href="/facts/Avicenna/EYKG4Vez">Avicenna</a> (980–1037 CE) also followed this goal and developed a comprehensive philosophical system to provide a rational understanding of reality encompassing science, religion, and mysticism.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:55" href="#fn:55">55</a> <a href="/facts/Al-Ghazali/haPCCftt">Al-Ghazali</a> (1058–1111 CE) was a strong critic of the idea that reason can arrive at a true understanding of reality and God. He formulated a detailed <a href="/facts/The_Incoherence_of_the_Philosophers/7qBq1b3E">critique of philosophy</a> and tried to assign philosophy a more limited place besides the teachings of the Quran and mystical insight.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:56" href="#fn:56">56</a> Following Al-Ghazali and the end of the classical period, the influence of philosophical inquiry waned.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:57" href="#fn:57">57</a> <a href="/facts/Mulla_Sadra/GG91NqRx">Mulla Sadra</a> (1571–1636 CE) is often regarded as one of the most influential philosophers of the subsequent period.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:58" href="#fn:58">58</a> The increasing influence of Western thought and institutions in the 19th and 20th centuries gave rise to the intellectual movement of <a href="/facts/Islamic_modernism/H657Th7r">Islamic modernism</a>, which aims to understand the relation between traditional Islamic beliefs and modernity.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:59" href="#fn:59">59</a>

<h3>Indian</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Indian_philosophy/ddnT7Vec">Indian philosophy</a>

One of the distinguishing features of Indian philosophy is that it integrates the exploration of the nature of reality, the ways of arriving at knowledge, and the <a href="/facts/Spirituality/o2neYDkN">spiritual</a> question of how to reach <a href="/facts/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism/AGFXqGgz">enlightenment</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:60" href="#fn:60">60</a> It started around 900 BCE when the <a href="/facts/Vedas/yQgc8B2x">Vedas</a> were written. They are the foundational scriptures of <a href="/facts/Hinduism/oxV9YvQh">Hinduism</a> and contemplate issues concerning the relation between the <a href="/facts/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)/8X7tehzj">self</a> and <a href="/facts/Brahman/GM0QaQ9U">ultimate reality</a> as well as the question of how <a href="/facts/Jiva/0PAGER0D">souls</a> are reborn based on their <a href="/facts/Karma/lI4wDYby">past actions</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:61" href="#fn:61">61</a> This period also saw the emergence of non-Vedic teachings, like <a href="/facts/Buddhism/G0wsjrSl">Buddhism</a> and <a href="/facts/Jainism/h0glxhjH">Jainism</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:62" href="#fn:62">62</a> Buddhism was founded by <a href="/facts/Gautama_Siddhartha/8UchTM1s">Gautama Siddhartha</a> (563–483 BCE), who challenged the Vedic idea of a <a href="/facts/Anicca/6nvXEckW">permanent self</a> and proposed <a href="/facts/Noble_Eightfold_Path/jfJVDCm4">a path</a> to liberate oneself from <a href="/facts/Du%E1%B8%A5kha/d6eRFcXo">suffering</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:63" href="#fn:63">63</a> Jainism was founded by <a href="/facts/Mahavira/46A5AGc3">Mahavira</a> (599–527 BCE), who emphasized <a href="/facts/Ahi%E1%B9%83s%C4%81/gV8J0KQI">non-violence</a> as well as respect toward all forms of life.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:64" href="#fn:64">64</a>
The subsequent classical period started roughly 200 BCE<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:65" href="#fn:65">65</a> and was characterized by the emergence of the six <a href="/facts/Astika/Hc14oDK2">orthodox schools of Hinduism</a>: <a href="/facts/Nyaya/XXUBDXdE">Nyāyá</a>, <a href="/facts/Vai%C5%9Be%E1%B9%A3ika/lYrQo47l">Vaiśeṣika</a>, <a href="/facts/S%C4%81%E1%B9%83khya/KWysYyfE">Sāṃkhya</a>, <a href="/facts/Yoga/9chp89lL">Yoga</a>, <a href="/facts/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81/NxmVHUuc">Mīmāṃsā</a>, and <a href="/facts/Vedanta/CIeFg7fC">Vedanta</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:66" href="#fn:66">66</a> The school of <a href="/facts/Advaita_Vedanta/7Md58suk">Advaita Vedanta</a> developed later in this period. It was systematized by <a href="/facts/Adi_Shankara/QU5pCWV6">Adi Shankara</a> (c. 700–750 CE), who held that <a href="/facts/Monism/eskX5hbg">everything is one</a> and that the impression of a universe consisting of many distinct entities is an <a href="/facts/Maya_(religion)/I6lmhlnV">illusion</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:67" href="#fn:67">67</a> A slightly different perspective was defended by <a href="/facts/Ramanuja/xNPgxvY4">Ramanuja</a> (1017–1137 CE),<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:68" href="#fn:68">68</a> who founded the school of <a href="/facts/Vishishtadvaita_Vedanta/7ud6D9Bd">Vishishtadvaita Vedanta</a> and argued that individual entities are real as aspects or parts of the underlying unity.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:69" href="#fn:69">69</a> He also helped to popularize the <a href="/facts/Bhakti_movement/yASKGhTd">Bhakti movement</a>, which taught <a href="/facts/Bhakti/HXpPYMEf">devotion toward the divine</a> as a spiritual path and lasted until the 17th to 18th centuries CE.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:70" href="#fn:70">70</a> The modern period began roughly 1800 CE and was shaped by encounters with Western thought.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:71" href="#fn:71">71</a> Philosophers tried to formulate comprehensive systems to harmonize diverse philosophical and religious teachings. For example, <a href="/facts/Swami_Vivekananda/T6pyK2B4">Swami Vivekananda</a> (1863–1902 CE) used the teachings of Advaita Vedanta to argue that all the different religions are valid paths toward the one divine.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:72" href="#fn:72">72</a>

<h3>Chinese</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Chinese_philosophy/Tx4ruDzB">Chinese philosophy</a>

Chinese philosophy is particularly interested in practical questions associated with right social conduct, government, and <a href="/facts/Self-cultivation/kfjwUsaV">self-cultivation</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:73" href="#fn:73">73</a> Many <a href="/facts/Hundred_Schools_of_Thought/lBpawUJw">schools of thought</a> emerged in the 6th century BCE in competing attempts to resolve the political turbulence of that period. The most prominent among them were <a href="/facts/Confucianism/Nlbwgmxw">Confucianism</a> and <a href="/facts/Daoism/Bk79rd9J">Daoism</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:74" href="#fn:74">74</a> Confucianism was founded by <a href="/facts/Confucius/HrrVtjJp">Confucius</a> (551–479 BCE). It focused on different forms of moral <a href="/facts/Virtue/XT1frQVu">virtues</a> and explored how they lead to harmony in society.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:75" href="#fn:75">75</a> Daoism was founded by <a href="/facts/Laozi/H5PsnoQG">Laozi</a> (6th century BCE) and examined how humans can live in harmony with nature by following the <a href="/facts/Dao/DYSW698I">Dao</a> or the natural order of the universe.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:76" href="#fn:76">76</a> Other influential early schools of thought were <a href="/facts/Mohism/vRSuDb5N">Mohism</a>, which developed an early form of altruistic <a href="/facts/Consequentialism/kprB3wDt">consequentialism</a>,<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:77" href="#fn:77">77</a> and <a href="/facts/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)/vAmCUPdg">Legalism</a>, which emphasized the importance of a strong state and strict laws.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:78" href="#fn:78">78</a>
Buddhism was introduced to China in the 1st century CE and diversified into <a href="/facts/Chinese_Buddhism/k9EN28cK">new forms of Buddhism</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:79" href="#fn:79">79</a> Starting in the 3rd century CE, the school of <a href="/facts/Xuanxue/597AnM4r">Xuanxue</a> emerged. It interpreted earlier Daoist works with a specific emphasis on metaphysical explanations.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:80" href="#fn:80">80</a> <a href="/facts/Neo-Confucianism/PCkHarML">Neo-Confucianism</a> developed in the 11th century CE. It systematized previous Confucian teachings and sought a metaphysical foundation of ethics.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:81" href="#fn:81">81</a> The modern period in Chinese philosophy began in the early 20th century and was shaped by the influence of and reactions to Western philosophy. The emergence of <a href="/facts/Chinese_Marxism/5BuYekTx">Chinese Marxism</a>—which focused on <a href="/facts/Class_struggle/HUQIUXTj">class struggle</a>, <a href="/facts/Socialism/U2kVoPaA">socialism</a>, and <a href="/facts/Communism/PkUwa9xK">communism</a>—resulted in a significant transformation of the political landscape.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:82" href="#fn:82">82</a> Another development was the emergence of <a href="/facts/New_Confucianism/G5FS4mvF">New Confucianism</a>, which aims to modernize and rethink Confucian teachings to explore their compatibility with democratic ideals and modern science.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:83" href="#fn:83">83</a>

<h3>Other traditions</h3>
Traditional Japanese philosophy assimilated and synthesized ideas from different traditions, including the indigenous <a href="/facts/Shinto/HAAJ0D9C">Shinto</a> religion and Chinese and Indian thought in the forms of Confucianism and Buddhism, both of which entered Japan in the 6th and 7th centuries. Its practice is characterized by active interaction with reality rather than disengaged examination.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:84" href="#fn:84">84</a> Neo-Confucianism became an influential school of thought in the 16th century and the following <a href="/facts/Edo_period/BWxv9h57">Edo period</a> and prompted a greater focus on language and the natural world.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:85" href="#fn:85">85</a> The <a href="/facts/Kyoto_School/M3Eam8Ix">Kyoto School</a> emerged in the 20th century and integrated Eastern spirituality with Western philosophy in its exploration of concepts like absolute nothingness (zettai-mu), place (basho), and the <a href="/facts/Self/WjDCh04P">self</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:86" href="#fn:86">86</a>
Latin American philosophy in the <a href="/facts/Pre-Columbian_era/0Ntjleee">pre-colonial period</a> was practiced by indigenous civilizations and explored questions concerning the nature of reality and the role of humans.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:87" href="#fn:87">87</a> It has similarities to <a href="/facts/Indigenous_American_philosophy/dpsB07eK">indigenous North American philosophy</a>, which covered themes such as the interconnectedness of all things.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:88" href="#fn:88">88</a> Latin American philosophy during the <a href="/facts/European_colonization_of_the_Americas/1HImQual">colonial period</a>, starting around 1550, was dominated by religious philosophy in the form of <a href="/facts/Scholasticism/8AWMNsgV">scholasticism</a>. Influential topics in the post-colonial period were <a href="/facts/Positivism/on887AuJ">positivism</a>, the <a href="/facts/Philosophy_of_liberation/lPxVxATd">philosophy of liberation</a>, and the exploration of identity and culture.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:89" href="#fn:89">89</a>
Early African philosophy was primarily conducted and transmitted orally. It focused on community, morality, and ancestral ideas, encompassing folklore, wise sayings, religious ideas, and philosophical concepts like <a href="/facts/Ubuntu_philosophy/KbwTm9Dv">Ubuntu</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:90" href="#fn:90">90</a> Systematic African philosophy emerged at the beginning of the 20th century. It discusses topics such as <a href="/facts/Ethnophilosophy/9lQlpJ8a">ethnophilosophy</a>, <a href="/facts/N%C3%A9gritude/NFntEXNB">négritude</a>, <a href="/facts/Pan-Africanism/IGqVoWGk">pan-Africanism</a>, Marxism, <a href="/facts/Postcolonialism/XqYab5pI">postcolonialism</a>, the role of cultural identity, <a href="/facts/Relativism/a6s6dGtw">relativism</a>, <a href="/facts/African_philosophy/reXAo68o">African epistemology</a>, and the critique of <a href="/facts/Eurocentrism/TDweDqra">Eurocentrism</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:91" href="#fn:91">91</a>

<h2 id="core-branches">Core branches</h2>
See also: <a href="/facts/Outline_of_philosophy/rVGFT3l6">Outline of philosophy § Branches of philosophy</a>, and <a href="/facts/Outline_of_philosophy/rVGFT3l6">Outline of philosophy § Philosophical schools of thought</a>
Philosophical questions can be grouped into several branches. These groupings allow philosophers to focus on a set of similar topics and interact with other thinkers who are interested in the same questions. Epistemology, ethics, logic, and metaphysics are sometimes listed as the main branches.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:92" href="#fn:92">92</a> There are many other subfields besides them and the different divisions are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive. For example, political philosophy, ethics, and <a href="/facts/Aesthetics/FSD8f7oF">aesthetics</a> are sometimes linked under the general heading of <a href="/facts/Value_theory/VW3CJD2x">value theory</a> as they investigate <a href="/facts/Normative/CgTa03KU">normative</a> or evaluative aspects.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:93" href="#fn:93">93</a> Furthermore, philosophical inquiry sometimes overlaps with other disciplines in the natural and social sciences, religion, and mathematics.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:94" href="#fn:94">94</a>

<h3>Epistemology</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Epistemology/NsDwpcYH">Epistemology</a>
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies knowledge. It is also known as theory of knowledge and aims to understand what knowledge is, how it arises, what its limits are, and what value it has. It further examines the nature of <a href="/facts/Truth/NyQmBtUC">truth</a>, <a href="/facts/Belief/HbPvkGT6">belief</a>, <a href="/facts/Justification_(epistemology)/CxWaj0pY">justification</a>, and <a href="/facts/Reason/tcBImN8J">rationality</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:95" href="#fn:95">95</a> Some of the questions addressed by epistemologists include "By what method(s) can one acquire knowledge?"; "How is truth established?"; and "Can we prove causal relations?"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:96" href="#fn:96">96</a>
Epistemology is primarily interested in <a href="/facts/Declarative_knowledge/JMKfKmu7">declarative knowledge</a> or knowledge of facts, like knowing that Princess Diana died in 1997. But it also investigates <a href="/facts/Practical_knowledge/gYBuANxo">practical knowledge</a>, such as knowing how to ride a bicycle, and <a href="/facts/Knowledge_by_acquaintance/mIjvledD">knowledge by acquaintance</a>, for example, knowing a celebrity personally.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:97" href="#fn:97">97</a>
One area in epistemology is the <a href="/facts/Analysis_of_knowledge/hytLblxN">analysis of knowledge</a>. It assumes that declarative knowledge is a combination of different parts and attempts to identify what those parts are. An influential theory in this area claims that knowledge has three components: it is a belief that is justified and true. This theory is controversial and the difficulties associated with it are known as the <a href="/facts/Gettier_problem/bBQT9H7o">Gettier problem</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:98" href="#fn:98">98</a> Alternative views state that knowledge requires additional components, like the absence of luck; different components, like the manifestation of <a href="/facts/Epistemic_virtue/1hrnEG10">cognitive virtues</a> instead of justification; or they deny that knowledge can be analyzed in terms of other phenomena.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:99" href="#fn:99">99</a>
Another area in epistemology asks how people acquire knowledge. Often-discussed sources of knowledge are <a href="/facts/Perception/xLK0n2q4">perception</a>, <a href="/facts/Introspection/X8rBdaR0">introspection</a>, <a href="/facts/Memory/zucwQIEX">memory</a>, <a href="/facts/Inference/RBbe95bP">inference</a>, and <a href="/facts/Testimony/dxgk0txp">testimony</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:100" href="#fn:100">100</a> According to <a href="/facts/Empiricists/f68IpCeE">empiricists</a>, all knowledge is based on some form of experience. Rationalists reject this view and hold that some forms of knowledge, like <a href="/facts/Innate_knowledge/7FznTuwN">innate knowledge</a>, are not acquired through experience.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:101" href="#fn:101">101</a> The <a href="/facts/Regress_problem/EkKL9fpn">regress problem</a> is a common issue in relation to the sources of knowledge and the justification they offer. It is based on the idea that beliefs require some kind of reason or evidence to be justified. The problem is that the source of justification may itself be in need of another source of justification. This leads to an <a href="/facts/Infinite_regress/Y3rk8wQe">infinite regress</a> or <a href="/facts/Circular_reasoning/Kgac2eUw">circular reasoning</a>. <a href="/facts/Foundationalist/2hlTEXTg">Foundationalists</a> avoid this conclusion by arguing that some sources can provide justification without requiring justification themselves.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:102" href="#fn:102">102</a> Another solution is presented by <a href="/facts/Coherentist/7JRS1DLe">coherentists</a>, who state that a belief is justified if it coheres with other beliefs of the person.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:103" href="#fn:103">103</a>
Many discussions in epistemology touch on the topic of <a href="/facts/Philosophical_skepticism/xsNp72xg">philosophical skepticism</a>, which raises doubts about some or all claims to knowledge. These doubts are often based on the idea that knowledge requires absolute certainty and that humans are unable to acquire it.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:104" href="#fn:104">104</a>

<h3>Ethics</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Ethics/wNVNgL5q">Ethics</a>

Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, studies what constitutes right <a href="/facts/Action_(philosophy)/AHXKoq1V">conduct</a>. It is also concerned with the moral <a href="/facts/Values_(philosophy)/f2RW9TXW">evaluation</a> of character traits and institutions. It explores what the standards of <a href="/facts/Morality/CSjHHvff">morality</a> are and how to live a good life.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:105" href="#fn:105">105</a> Philosophical ethics addresses such basic questions as "Are moral obligations relative?"; "Which has priority: well-being or obligation?"; and "What gives life meaning?"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:106" href="#fn:106">106</a>
The main branches of ethics are <a href="/facts/Meta-ethics/a8pTEKr2">meta-ethics</a>, <a href="/facts/Normative_ethics/rLw6n8PV">normative ethics</a>, and <a href="/facts/Applied_ethics/2hJ71mWo">applied ethics</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:107" href="#fn:107">107</a> Meta-ethics asks abstract questions about the nature and sources of morality. It analyzes the meaning of ethical concepts, like right action and <a href="/facts/Obligation/FXaDeU8v">obligation</a>. It also investigates whether ethical theories can be <a href="/facts/Moral_relativism/GyfBrAvo">true in an absolute sense</a> and how to acquire knowledge of them.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:108" href="#fn:108">108</a> Normative ethics encompasses general theories of how to distinguish between right and wrong conduct. It helps guide moral decisions by examining what moral obligations and rights people have. Applied ethics studies the consequences of the general theories developed by normative ethics in specific situations, for example, in the workplace or for medical treatments.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:109" href="#fn:109">109</a>
Within contemporary normative ethics, consequentialism, <a href="/facts/Deontology/NG6tQP6U">deontology</a>, and <a href="/facts/Virtue_ethics/g6d88jYN">virtue ethics</a> are influential schools of thought.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:110" href="#fn:110">110</a> Consequentialists judge actions based on their consequences. One such view is <a href="/facts/Utilitarianism/CVw8Dmmt">utilitarianism</a>, which argues that actions should increase overall happiness while minimizing suffering. Deontologists judge actions based on whether they follow moral duties, such as abstaining from lying or killing. According to them, what matters is that actions are in tune with those duties and not what consequences they have. Virtue theorists judge actions based on how the moral character of the agent is expressed. According to this view, actions should conform to what an ideally virtuous agent would do by manifesting virtues like <a href="/facts/Generosity/TRHrPg3X">generosity</a> and <a href="/facts/Honesty/tXbRkyfA">honesty</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:111" href="#fn:111">111</a>

<h3>Logic</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Logic/8JnpJLtt">Logic</a>
Logic is the study of <a href="/facts/Logical_reasoning/NwR4hQva">correct reasoning</a>. It aims to understand how to distinguish good from bad <a href="/facts/Argument/1K1e3Xg4">arguments</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:112" href="#fn:112">112</a> It is usually divided into formal and <a href="/facts/Informal_logic/4R63HwsY">informal logic</a>. Formal logic uses <a href="/facts/Formal_language/crDTyP8q">artificial languages</a> with a precise symbolic representation to investigate arguments. In its search for exact criteria, it examines the structure of arguments to determine whether they are correct or incorrect. Informal logic uses non-formal criteria and standards to assess the correctness of arguments. It relies on additional factors such as content and context.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:113" href="#fn:113">113</a>
Logic examines a variety of arguments. <a href="/facts/Deductive_arguments/HadA1zWS">Deductive arguments</a> are mainly studied by formal logic. An argument is deductively <a href="/facts/Validity_(logic)/oMGkywGC">valid</a> if the truth of its <a href="/facts/Premise/HluL8lcd">premises</a> ensures the truth of its conclusion. Deductively valid arguments follow a <a href="/facts/Rule_of_inference/QV5NklQ9">rule of inference</a>, like <a href="/facts/Modus_ponens/Wq4NcmrG">modus ponens</a>, which has the following <a href="/facts/Logical_form/foVBtMX4">logical form</a>: "p; if p then q; therefore q". An example is the argument "today is Sunday; if today is Sunday then I don't have to go to work today; therefore I don't have to go to work today".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:114" href="#fn:114">114</a>
The premises of non-deductive arguments also support their conclusion, although this support does not guarantee that the conclusion is true.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:115" href="#fn:115">115</a> One form is <a href="/facts/Inductive_reasoning/EJ992JJ9">inductive reasoning</a>. It starts from a set of individual cases and uses generalization to arrive at a universal law governing all cases. An example is the inference that "all ravens are black" based on observations of many individual black ravens.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:116" href="#fn:116">116</a> Another form is <a href="/facts/Abductive_reasoning/QoHNqvKT">abductive reasoning</a>. It starts from an observation and concludes that the best explanation of this observation must be true. This happens, for example, when a doctor diagnoses a disease based on the observed symptoms.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:117" href="#fn:117">117</a>
Logic also investigates incorrect forms of reasoning. They are called <a href="/facts/Fallacies/IRVuLSef">fallacies</a> and are divided into <a href="/facts/Formal_fallacy/1c3P1BEH">formal</a> and <a href="/facts/Informal_fallacies/MfICjFRF">informal fallacies</a> based on whether the source of the error lies only in the form of the argument or also in its content and context.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:118" href="#fn:118">118</a>

<h3>Metaphysics</h3>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Metaphysics/fSFt6SHe">Metaphysics</a>

Metaphysics is the study of the most general features of <a href="/facts/Reality/oC1xokDB">reality</a>, such as existence, <a href="/facts/Object_(philosophy)/rf48DMvm">objects</a> and their <a href="/facts/Property_(philosophy)/mejP0slr">properties</a>, <a href="/facts/Mereology/WwzUjB95">wholes and their parts</a>, <a href="/facts/Space/tq6LUM3C">space</a> and <a href="/facts/Time/HceJKUGB">time</a>, <a href="/facts/Event_(philosophy)/Jf4tnpMj">events</a>, and <a href="/facts/Causality/Swh496X7">causation</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:119" href="#fn:119">119</a> There are disagreements about the precise definition of the term and its meaning has changed throughout the ages.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:120" href="#fn:120">120</a> Metaphysicians attempt to answer basic questions including "<a href="/facts/Why_is_there_something_rather_than_nothing%3F/xWhfjXEK">Why is there something rather than nothing?</a>"; "Of what does reality ultimately consist?"; and "Are humans free?"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:121" href="#fn:121">121</a>
Metaphysics is sometimes divided into general metaphysics and specific or special metaphysics. General metaphysics investigates being as such. It examines the features that all entities have in common. Specific metaphysics is interested in different kinds of being, the features they have, and how they differ from one another.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:122" href="#fn:122">122</a>
An important area in metaphysics is <a href="/facts/Ontology/QJKTsEIJ">ontology</a>. Some theorists identify it with general metaphysics. Ontology investigates concepts like <a href="/facts/Being/zwJ4I8Bc">being</a>, <a href="/facts/Becoming_(philosophy)/nFVoWYxD">becoming</a>, and reality. It studies the <a href="/facts/Categories_of_being/xG73S2Af">categories of being</a> and asks what exists on the most fundamental level.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:123" href="#fn:123">123</a> Another subfield of metaphysics is <a href="/facts/Philosophical_cosmology/r1ox0hIh">philosophical cosmology</a>. It is interested in the essence of the world as a whole. It asks questions including whether the universe has a beginning and an end and whether it was created by something else.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:124" href="#fn:124">124</a>
A key topic in metaphysics concerns the question of whether reality only consists of physical things like matter and energy. Alternative suggestions are that mental entities (such as <a href="/facts/Soul/DJl01SxP">souls</a> and <a href="/facts/Experience/1LeXy1DW">experiences</a>) and <a href="/facts/Abstract_and_concrete/uNshak6S">abstract entities</a> (such as numbers) exist apart from physical things. Another topic in metaphysics concerns the problem of <a href="/facts/Identity_(philosophy)/F9rr3GkA">identity</a>. One question is how much an entity can change while still remaining the same entity.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:125" href="#fn:125">125</a> According to one view, entities have <a href="/facts/Essence/X1uqmlSm">essential</a> and <a href="/facts/Accident_(philosophy)/gKmm2cJB">accidental features</a>. They can change their accidental features but they cease to be the same entity if they lose an essential feature.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:126" href="#fn:126">126</a> A central distinction in metaphysics is between <a href="/facts/Particular/AwbfD8jx">particulars</a> and <a href="/facts/Universals/8cCB0YnK">universals</a>. Universals, like the color red, can exist at different locations at the same time. This is not the case for particulars including individual persons or specific objects.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:127" href="#fn:127">127</a> Other metaphysical questions are whether the past <a href="/facts/Determinism/NhvNlAbe">fully determines</a> the present and what implications this would have for the existence of <a href="/facts/Free_will/LwkImELQ">free will</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:128" href="#fn:128">128</a>

<h3>Other major branches</h3>
See also: <a href="/facts/List_of_philosophies/89T4joz2">List of philosophies</a>
There are many other subfields of philosophy besides its core branches. Some of the most prominent are aesthetics, philosophy of language, philosophy of mind, philosophy of religion, philosophy of science, and political philosophy.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:129" href="#fn:129">129</a>
<a href="/facts/Aesthetics/FSD8f7oF">Aesthetics</a> in the philosophical sense is the field that studies the nature and appreciation of <a href="/facts/Beauty/AQTx8lL2">beauty</a> and other aesthetic properties, like <a href="/facts/The_sublime/htfVoJ3E">the sublime</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:130" href="#fn:130">130</a> Although it is often treated together with the <a href="/facts/Aesthetics/FSD8f7oF">philosophy of art</a>, aesthetics is a broader category that encompasses other aspects of experience, such as natural beauty.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:131" href="#fn:131">131</a> In a more general sense, aesthetics is "critical reflection on art, culture, and <a href="/facts/Nature/CRC3KQUg">nature</a>".<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:132" href="#fn:132">132</a> A key question in aesthetics is whether beauty is an objective feature of entities or a subjective aspect of experience.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:133" href="#fn:133">133</a> Aesthetic philosophers also investigate the nature of aesthetic experiences and <a href="/facts/Aesthetic_judgment/FSD8f7oF">judgments</a>. Further topics include the essence of <a href="/facts/Works_of_art/Kr7f0ugA">works of art</a> and the processes involved in creating them.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:134" href="#fn:134">134</a>
The <a href="/facts/Philosophy_of_language/qwNCwF4W">philosophy of language</a> studies the nature and function of <a href="/facts/Language/IRcTok2q">language</a>. It examines the concepts of <a href="/facts/Meaning_(philosophy)/WvFm4kKM">meaning</a>, <a href="/facts/Reference/pLmVxBjJ">reference</a>, and truth. It aims to answer questions such as how words are related to things and how language affects human <a href="/facts/Thought/loD3aFv9">thought</a> and understanding. It is closely related to the disciplines of logic and linguistics.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:135" href="#fn:135">135</a> The philosophy of language rose to particular prominence in the early 20th century in <a href="/facts/Analytic_philosophy/ALSWKaQa">analytic philosophy</a> due to the works of <a href="/facts/Frege/2hakUGbd">Frege</a> and Russell. One of its central topics is to understand how sentences get their meaning. There are two broad theoretical camps: those emphasizing the formal <a href="/facts/Truth_conditions/IMtoTRTc">truth conditions</a> of sentences<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:136" href="#fn:136">136</a> and those investigating circumstances that determine when it is suitable to use a sentence, the latter of which is associated with <a href="/facts/Speech_act_theory/l11PGwQu">speech act theory</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:137" href="#fn:137">137</a>
The <a href="/facts/Philosophy_of_mind/o6yNRjwd">philosophy of mind</a> studies the nature of mental phenomena and how they are related to the physical world.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:138" href="#fn:138">138</a> It aims to understand different types of <a href="/facts/Conscious/IAxmgt6c">conscious</a> and <a href="/facts/Unconscious_mind/BAIRTFMM">unconscious</a> <a href="/facts/Mental_states/sHsDj380">mental states</a>, like <a href="/facts/Belief/HbPvkGT6">beliefs</a>, <a href="/facts/Desire/wGGhA9G8">desires</a>, <a href="/facts/Intention/ahzUpq2G">intentions</a>, <a href="/facts/Feeling/RJgeFMo1">feelings</a>, <a href="/facts/Sense/n9kYQ3rf">sensations</a>, and free will.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:139" href="#fn:139">139</a> An influential intuition in the philosophy of mind is that there is a distinction between the inner experience of objects and their existence in the external world. The <a href="/facts/Mind-body_problem/86RGUgIK">mind-body problem</a> is the problem of explaining how these two types of thing—mind and matter—are related. The main traditional responses are <a href="/facts/Materialism/VKAovnPt">materialism</a>, which assumes that matter is more fundamental; <a href="/facts/Idealism/w8JAlhjG">idealism</a>, which assumes that mind is more fundamental; and <a href="/facts/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism/IbrW6R7C">dualism</a>, which assumes that mind and matter are distinct types of entities. In contemporary philosophy, another common view is <a href="/facts/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)/o5doIVHb">functionalism</a>, which understands mental states in terms of the functional or causal roles they play.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:140" href="#fn:140">140</a> The mind-body problem is closely related to the <a href="/facts/Hard_problem_of_consciousness/Um6k4wz6">hard problem of consciousness</a>, which asks how the physical brain can produce <a href="/facts/Qualia/YnwIAg5v">qualitatively subjective experiences.</a><a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:141" href="#fn:141">141</a>
The <a href="/facts/Philosophy_of_religion/1yI4cqMx">philosophy of religion</a> investigates the basic concepts, assumptions, and arguments associated with <a href="/facts/Religion/cxntrD0R">religion</a>. It critically reflects on what religion is, how to define the <a href="/facts/Divine/qU7hCtL5">divine</a>, and whether one or more gods exist. It also includes the discussion of <a href="/facts/Worldview/ppdl5PhI">worldviews</a> that reject religious doctrines.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:142" href="#fn:142">142</a> Further questions addressed by the philosophy of religion are: "How are we to interpret religious language, if not literally?";<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:143" href="#fn:143">143</a> "Is divine omniscience compatible with free will?";<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:144" href="#fn:144">144</a> and, "Are the great variety of world religions in some way compatible in spite of their apparently contradictory theological claims?"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:145" href="#fn:145">145</a> It includes topics from nearly all branches of philosophy.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:146" href="#fn:146">146</a> It differs from <a href="/facts/Theology/N71Fyw2M">theology</a> since theological debates typically take place within one religious tradition, whereas debates in the philosophy of religion transcend any particular set of theological assumptions.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:147" href="#fn:147">147</a>
The <a href="/facts/Philosophy_of_science/aonsfhTY">philosophy of science</a> examines the fundamental concepts, assumptions, and problems associated with science. It reflects on what science is and how to distinguish it from <a href="/facts/Pseudoscience/kdNzoLeS">pseudoscience</a>. It investigates the methods employed by scientists, how their application can result in knowledge, and on what assumptions they are based. It also studies the purpose and implications of science.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:148" href="#fn:148">148</a> Some of its questions are "What counts as an adequate explanation?";<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:149" href="#fn:149">149</a> "Is a scientific law anything more than a description of a regularity?";<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:150" href="#fn:150">150</a> and "Can some special sciences be explained entirely in the terms of a more general science?"<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:151" href="#fn:151">151</a> It is a vast field that is commonly divided into the philosophy of the <a href="/facts/Natural_sciences/8hg81Q2p">natural sciences</a> and the philosophy of the <a href="/facts/Social_sciences/hAbm1xtD">social sciences</a>, with further subdivisions for each of the individual sciences under these headings. How these branches are related to one another is also a question in the philosophy of science. Many of its philosophical issues overlap with the fields of metaphysics or epistemology.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:152" href="#fn:152">152</a>
<a href="/facts/Political_philosophy/JuLBNdAX">Political philosophy</a> is the philosophical inquiry into the fundamental principles and ideas governing political systems and societies. It examines the basic concepts, assumptions, and arguments in the field of <a href="/facts/Politics/1gDNy3RP">politics</a>. It investigates the nature and purpose of <a href="/facts/Government/N4bYL0VC">government</a> and compares its different forms.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:153" href="#fn:153">153</a> It further asks under what circumstances the use of political power is <a href="/facts/Political_legitimacy/n3CoAhK6">legitimate</a>, rather than a form of simple violence.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:154" href="#fn:154">154</a> In this regard, it is concerned with the distribution of political power, social and material goods, and <a href="/facts/Legal_rights/9TgjWASG">legal rights</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:155" href="#fn:155">155</a> Other topics are <a href="/facts/Justice/9mLpoA6B">justice</a>, <a href="/facts/Liberty/fHvkBVSv">liberty</a>, <a href="/facts/Social_equality/z9HzjDqI">equality</a>, <a href="/facts/Sovereignty/QnYhTTem">sovereignty</a>, and <a href="/facts/Nationalism/IECpIhm0">nationalism</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:156" href="#fn:156">156</a> Political philosophy involves a general inquiry into normative matters and differs in this respect from <a href="/facts/Political_science/Gqy5EoRX">political science</a>, which aims to provide empirical descriptions of actually existing states.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:157" href="#fn:157">157</a> Political philosophy is often treated as a subfield of ethics.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:158" href="#fn:158">158</a> Influential schools of thought in political philosophy are <a href="/facts/Liberalism/nj54a01U">liberalism</a>, <a href="/facts/Conservativism/2XdCcPzq">conservativism</a>, <a href="/facts/Socialism/U2kVoPaA">socialism</a>, and <a href="/facts/Anarchism/4a262gvQ">anarchism</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:159" href="#fn:159">159</a>

<h2 id="methods">Methods</h2>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Philosophical_methodology/mX2lWI5d">Philosophical methodology</a>
Methods of philosophy are ways of conducting philosophical inquiry. They include techniques for arriving at philosophical knowledge and justifying philosophical claims as well as principles used for choosing between competing theories.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:160" href="#fn:160">160</a> A great variety of methods have been employed throughout the history of philosophy. Many of them differ significantly from the methods used in the <a href="/facts/Natural_sciences/8hg81Q2p">natural sciences</a> in that they do not use experimental data obtained through measuring equipment.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:161" href="#fn:161">161</a> The choice of one's method usually has important implications both for how philosophical theories are constructed and for the arguments cited for or against them.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:162" href="#fn:162">162</a> This choice is often guided by epistemological considerations about what constitutes philosophical <a href="/facts/Evidence/d5IGUK0U">evidence</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:163" href="#fn:163">163</a>
Methodological disagreements can cause conflicts among philosophical theories or about the answers to philosophical questions. The discovery of new methods has often had important consequences both for how philosophers conduct their research and for what claims they defend.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:164" href="#fn:164">164</a> Some philosophers engage in most of their theorizing using one particular method while others employ a wider range of methods based on which one fits the specific problem investigated best.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:165" href="#fn:165">165</a>
Conceptual analysis is a common method in analytic philosophy. It aims to clarify the meaning of concepts by analyzing them into their component parts.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:166" href="#fn:166">166</a> Another method often employed in analytic philosophy is based on <a href="/facts/Common_sense/TlPpRoAx">common sense</a>. It starts with commonly accepted beliefs and tries to draw unexpected conclusions from them, which it often employs in a negative sense to criticize philosophical theories that are too far removed from how the average person sees the issue.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:167" href="#fn:167">167</a> It is similar to how <a href="/facts/Ordinary_language_philosophy/pA43hoje">ordinary language philosophy</a> approaches philosophical questions by investigating how ordinary language is used.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:168" href="#fn:168">168</a>

Various methods in philosophy give particular importance to <a href="/facts/Intuition/Mshu0Vxb">intuitions</a>, that is, non-inferential impressions about the correctness of specific claims or general principles.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:169" href="#fn:169">169</a> For example, they play an important role in <a href="/facts/Thought_experiment/GXlr0lz9">thought experiments</a>, which employ <a href="/facts/Counterfactual_thinking/dAkwvLIB">counterfactual thinking</a> to evaluate the possible consequences of an imagined situation. These anticipated consequences can then be used to confirm or refute philosophical theories.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:170" href="#fn:170">170</a> The method of <a href="/facts/Reflective_equilibrium/0E7MCuRL">reflective equilibrium</a> also employs intuitions. It seeks to form a <a href="/facts/Coherentism/7JRS1DLe">coherent</a> position on a certain issue by examining all the relevant beliefs and intuitions, some of which often have to be deemphasized or reformulated to arrive at a coherent perspective.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:171" href="#fn:171">171</a>
Pragmatists stress the significance of concrete practical consequences for assessing whether a philosophical theory is true.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:172" href="#fn:172">172</a> According to the <a href="/facts/Pragmatic_maxim/FB5xJ6Tq">pragmatic maxim</a> as formulated by <a href="/facts/Charles_Sanders_Peirce/z76dNqhM">Charles Sanders Peirce</a>, the idea a person has of an object is nothing more than the totality of practical consequences they associate with this object. Pragmatists have also used this method to expose disagreements as merely verbal, that is, to show they make no genuine difference on the level of consequences.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:173" href="#fn:173">173</a>
Phenomenologists seek knowledge of the realm of appearance and the structure of human experience. They insist upon the first-personal character of all experience and proceed by suspending theoretical judgments about the external world. This technique of phenomenological reduction is known as "bracketing" or <a href="/facts/Bracketing_(phenomenology)/fPURrgYq">epoché</a>. The goal is to give an unbiased description of the appearance of things.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:174" href="#fn:174">174</a>
<a href="/facts/Methodological_naturalism/Glvu6ASA">Methodological naturalism</a> places great emphasis on the empirical approach and the resulting theories found in the natural sciences. In this way, it contrasts with methodologies that give more weight to pure reasoning and introspection.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:175" href="#fn:175">175</a>

<h2 id="relation-to-other-fields">Relation to other fields</h2>
Philosophy is closely related to many other fields. It is sometimes understood as a meta-discipline that clarifies their nature and limits. It does this by critically examining their basic concepts, background assumptions, and methods. In this regard, it plays a key role in providing an <a href="/facts/Interdisciplinary/HP0uaNUs">interdisciplinary</a> perspective. It bridges the gap between different disciplines by analyzing which concepts and problems they have in common. It shows how they overlap while also delimiting their scope.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:176" href="#fn:176">176</a> Historically, most of the individual sciences originated from philosophy.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:177" href="#fn:177">177</a>
The influence of philosophy is felt in several fields that require difficult practical decisions. In <a href="/facts/Medicine/2fnp90Je">medicine</a>, philosophical considerations related to <a href="/facts/Bioethics/deT0les8">bioethics</a> affect issues like whether an <a href="/facts/Embryo/9QHnLVLN">embryo</a> is already a <a href="/facts/Personhood/B0VsAMo5">person</a> and under what conditions <a href="/facts/Abortion/ro0RjIBT">abortion</a> is morally permissible. A closely related philosophical problem is how humans should treat other animals, for instance, whether it is acceptable to use non-human animals as food or for <a href="/facts/Animal_experiments/mHMf98y8">research experiments</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:178" href="#fn:178">178</a> In relation to <a href="/facts/Business/For1e8Nh">business</a> and professional life, philosophy has contributed by providing ethical frameworks. They contain guidelines on which business practices are morally acceptable and cover the issue of <a href="/facts/Corporate_social_responsibility/lIoo9m1s">corporate social responsibility</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:179" href="#fn:179">179</a>
Philosophical inquiry is relevant to many fields that are concerned with what to believe and how to arrive at evidence for one's beliefs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:180" href="#fn:180">180</a> This is a key issue for the sciences, which have as one of their prime objectives the creation of scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge is based on <a href="/facts/Empirical_evidence/JUaYSGJc">empirical evidence</a> but it is often not clear whether empirical observations are neutral or already <a href="/facts/Theory-ladenness/R6q22KBg">include theoretical assumptions</a>. A closely connected problem is whether the available <a href="/facts/Underdetermination/UyKo0zJs">evidence is sufficient</a> to decide between competing theories.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:181" href="#fn:181">181</a> Epistemological problems in relation to the <a href="/facts/Law/luzxWkg0">law</a> include what counts as evidence and how much evidence is required to find a person <a href="/facts/Guilt_(law)/YmxC826s">guilty</a> of a crime. A related issue in <a href="/facts/Journalism/hue0m1xf">journalism</a> is how to ensure truth and <a href="/facts/Journalistic_objectivity/xhN96P80">objectivity</a> when reporting on events.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:182" href="#fn:182">182</a>
In the fields of <a href="/facts/Theology/N71Fyw2M">theology</a> and religion, there are many doctrines associated with the existence and nature of God as well as rules governing correct behavior. A key issue is whether a rational person should believe these doctrines, for example, whether <a href="/facts/Revelation/xMygzvLv">revelation</a> in the form of holy books and <a href="/facts/Religious_experience/QY5LYzon">religious experiences</a> of the divine are sufficient evidence for these beliefs.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:183" href="#fn:183">183</a>

Philosophy in the form of logic has been influential in the fields of mathematics and <a href="/facts/Computer_science/lN3pEyPz">computer science</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:184" href="#fn:184">184</a> Further fields influenced by philosophy include <a href="/facts/Psychology/duoqW7Sz">psychology</a>, <a href="/facts/Sociology/d2Fd0N87">sociology</a>, linguistics, <a href="/facts/Education/WIwsQKF9">education</a>, and <a href="/facts/The_arts/kabJ6XX6">the arts</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:185" href="#fn:185">185</a> The close relation between philosophy and other fields in the contemporary period is reflected in the fact that many philosophy graduates go on to work in related fields rather than in philosophy itself.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:186" href="#fn:186">186</a>
In the field of politics, philosophy addresses issues such as how to assess whether a government policy is just.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:187" href="#fn:187">187</a> Philosophical ideas have prepared and shaped various political developments. For example, ideals formulated in <a href="/facts/Enlightenment_philosophy/Uj2Fa8Mk">Enlightenment philosophy</a> laid the foundation for <a href="/facts/Constitutional_democracy/5blgnbkS">constitutional democracy</a> and played a role in the <a href="/facts/American_Revolution/zy1F0LxK">American Revolution</a> and the <a href="/facts/French_Revolution/PIkDlrC0">French Revolution</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:188" href="#fn:188">188</a> Marxist philosophy and its exposition of communism was one of the factors in the <a href="/facts/Russian_Revolution/kk1z6pnH">Russian Revolution</a> and the <a href="/facts/Chinese_Communist_Revolution/beGJXD3H">Chinese Communist Revolution</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:189" href="#fn:189">189</a> In India, <a href="/facts/Mahatma_Gandhi/epTj0j19">Mahatma Gandhi</a>'s <a href="/facts/Satyagraha/Wu9rGjqM">philosophy of non-violence</a> shaped the <a href="/facts/Indian_independence_movement/0n35LRk8">Indian independence movement</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:190" href="#fn:190">190</a>
An example of the cultural and critical role of philosophy is found in its influence on the <a href="/facts/Feminist/RRqUvGmk">feminist</a> movement through philosophers such as <a href="/facts/Mary_Wollstonecraft/oKNkF8LM">Mary Wollstonecraft</a>, <a href="/facts/Simone_de_Beauvoir/kJVUsLgo">Simone de Beauvoir</a>, and <a href="/facts/Judith_Butler/stbGjgkf">Judith Butler</a>. It has shaped the understanding of key concepts in feminism, for instance, the meaning of <a href="/facts/Gender/LfjRHcJy">gender</a>, how it differs from <a href="/facts/Biological_sex/ssBol2pP">biological sex</a>, and what role it plays in the formation of <a href="/facts/Personal_identity/HRfyp7qh">personal identity</a>. Philosophers have also investigated the concepts of justice and <a href="/facts/Social_equality/z9HzjDqI">equality</a> and their implications with respect to the <a href="/facts/Sexism/laBoxq0Q">prejudicial treatment of women</a> in <a href="/facts/Patriarchy/oTko9QfX">male-dominated societies</a>.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:191" href="#fn:191">191</a>
The idea that philosophy is useful for many aspects of life and society is sometimes rejected. According to one such view, philosophy is mainly undertaken for its own sake and does not make significant contributions to existing practices or external goals.<a class="footnote-ref" id="fnref:192" href="#fn:192">192</a>

<h2 id="see-also">See also</h2>
Main article: <a href="/facts/Outline_of_philosophy/rVGFT3l6">Outline of philosophy</a>
<ul>
<li>Philosophy portal</li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="/facts/List_of_important_publications_in_philosophy/DVuQpYBG">List of important publications in philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/List_of_philosophical_problems/SKQyv6r7">List of philosophical problems</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/List_of_philosophy_awards/aSYIejfC">List of philosophy awards</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/List_of_philosophy_journals/ffvQIEpF">List of philosophy journals</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/List_of_years_in_philosophy/kMymeRPp">List of years in philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="/facts/Lists_of_philosophers/4r1dYBlx">Lists of philosophers</a></li></ul>

<h3>Notes</h3>

<h3>Citations</h3>

<h3>Bibliography</h3>

<ul><li>Adamson, Peter; Ganeri, Jonardon (2020). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NCbTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA101">Classical Indian Philosophy</a>. A History of Philosophy Without Any Gaps. Vol. 5. Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-885176-9. Retrieved 30 June 2023.</li>
<li>Adamson, Peter; Taylor, Richard C. (2004). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iFMiAwAAQBAJ">The Cambridge Companion to Arabic Philosophy</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-107-49469-5. Retrieved 7 June 2023.</li>
<li>Adamson, Peter (2020). <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/al-kindi/">"Al-Kindi"</a>. <a href="/facts/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy/LDuL5HW4">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190521181245/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/al-kindi/">Archived</a> from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 7 June 2023.</li>
<li>Adamson, Peter (2022). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UmlbEAAAQBAJ">Byzantine and Renaissance Philosophy</a>. A History of Philosophy Without Any Gaps. Vol. 6. Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-266992-6. Retrieved 25 May 2023.</li>
<li>Adamson, Peter (2019). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hverDwAAQBAJ">Medieval Philosophy</a>. A History of Philosophy Without Any Gaps. Vol. 4. Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-884240-8. Retrieved 25 May 2023.</li>
<li>Adamson, Peter (2016). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KEpRDAAAQBAJ">Philosophy in the Islamic World</a>. A History of Philosophy Without Any Gaps. Vol. 3. Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-957749-1. Retrieved 25 May 2023.</li>
<li>Adler, Mortimer J. (2000). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Pv3BHyktJWkC">How to Think About the Great Ideas: From the Great Books of Western Civilization</a>. Open Court. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-8126-9412-3. Retrieved 10 November 2023.</li>
<li><a href="https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=philosophy&submit.x=58&submit.y=14">"Philosophy"</a>. The American Heritage Dictionary. HarperCollins. 2022. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230903173017/https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=philosophy&submit.x=58&submit.y=14">Archived</a> from the original on 3 September 2023. Retrieved 7 July 2023.</li>
<li>Ainley, Alison (2005). "Feminist Philosophy". In Honderich, Ted (ed.). <a href="https://philpapers.org/rec/HONTOC-2">The Oxford Companion to Philosophy</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-0-19-926479-7. <a href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210129082636/https://philpapers.org/rec/HONTOC-2">Archived</a> from the original on 29 January 2021. Retrieved 2 January 2022.</li>
<li>Andrea, Alfred J.; Overfield, James H. (2015). <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x5-aBAAAQBAJ">The Human Record: Sources of Global History, Volume I: To 1500</a>. Cengage Learning. <a href="/facts/ISBN_(identifier)/15AdSPa9">ISBN</a> 978-1-305-53746-0. Retrieved 10 June 2023.</li>
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<h2 id="external-links">External links</h2>

<ul><li><a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a> – a peer-reviewed online encyclopedia of philosophy</li>
<li><a href="http://plato.stanford.edu/">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a> – an online encyclopedia of philosophy maintained by <a href="/facts/Stanford_University/JEQeF9z2">Stanford University</a></li>
<li><a href="https://philpapers.org/">PhilPapers</a> – a comprehensive directory of online philosophical articles and books by academic philosophers</li>
<li><a href="https://www.inphoproject.org">Internet Philosophy Ontology Project</a> – a model of relationships between philosophical ideas, thinkers, and journals</li></ul>

<h2 id="references">References</h2>

<ol>
<li id="fn:1">Hoad 1993, p. 350Simpson 2002, PhilosophyJacobs 2022, p. 23 - Hoad, T. F. (1993). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-283098-8. <a href="#fnref:1" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:2">The Ancient Greek philosophos ('philosopher') was itself possibly borrowed from the Ancient Egyptian term mer-rekh (mr-rḫ) meaning 'lover of wisdom'.[3] <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian" target="_blank">/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian</a> <a href="#fnref:2" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:3">Bottin 1993, p. 151Jaroszyński 2018, p. 12 - Bottin, Francesco (1993). Models of the History of Philosophy: From Its Origins in the Renaissance to the 'Historia Philosophica': Volume I: From Its Origins in the Renaissance to the 'Historia Philosophica'. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-0-7923-2200-9. Retrieved 7 July 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FJ7UBP_jYeMC&pg=PA151" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=FJ7UBP_jYeMC&pg=PA151</a> <a href="#fnref:3" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:4">OED staff 2022, Philosophy, n.Hoad 1993, p. 350 - "Philosophy, n.". Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press. 2022. Archived from the original on 23 November 2023. Retrieved 10 November 2023. <a href="https://www.oed.com/dictionary/philosophy_n?tab=factsheet#30785611" target="_blank">https://www.oed.com/dictionary/philosophy_n?tab=factsheet#30785611</a> <a href="#fnref:4" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:5">Ten 1999, p. 9Tuomela 1985, p. 1Grant 2007, p. 303 - Ten, C. L. (1999). Routledge History of Philosophy: The nineteenth century. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-05604-5. Retrieved 10 November 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=04yBhMdnd3MC&pg=PA9" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=04yBhMdnd3MC&pg=PA9</a> <a href="#fnref:5" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:6">Kenny 2018, p. 189Grant 2007, p. 163Cotterell 2017, p. 458Maddy 2022, p. 24 - Kenny, Anthony (2018). An Illustrated Brief History of Western Philosophy, 20th Anniversary Edition. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-119-45279-9. Retrieved 5 July 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fn9xDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR20" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=fn9xDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR20</a> <a href="#fnref:6" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:7">Grant 2007, p. 318Ten 1999, p. 9 - Grant, Edward (2007). A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-86931-7. Retrieved 7 July 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BxbLDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA318" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=BxbLDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA318</a> <a href="#fnref:7" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:8">Cotterell 2017, p. 458Maddy 2022, p. 24Regenbogen 2010, Philosophiebegriffe - Cotterell, Brian (2017). Physics and Culture. World Scientific. ISBN 978-1-78634-378-9. Retrieved 25 August 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hpA4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA458" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=hpA4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA458</a> <a href="#fnref:8" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:9">Grayling 2019, Philosophy in the Nineteenth CenturyRegenbogen 2010Ten 1999, p. 9AHD Staff 2022 - Grayling, A. C. (2019). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. Retrieved 30 June 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bDJwDwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=bDJwDwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:9" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:10">Audi 2006, Lead Section, § ConclusionQuinton 2005, p. 702Regenbogen 2010, PhilosophiebegriffeEB Staff 2023aOUP Staff 2020Adler 2000 - Audi, Robert (2006). "Philosophy". In Borchert, Donald M. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 7: Oakeshott - Presupposition (2. ed.). Thomson Gale, Macmillan Reference. ISBN 978-0-02-865787-5. Archived from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 10 November 2023. <a href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/philosophy" target="_blank">https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/philosophy</a> <a href="#fnref:10" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:11">Perry, Bratman & Fischer 2010, p. 4. - Perry, John; Bratman, Michael; Fischer, John Martin (2010). Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings (5th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-539036-0. Retrieved 9 July 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0ndAAQAAIAAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=0ndAAQAAIAAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:11" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:12">Russell 1912, p. 91Blackwell 2013, p. 148Pojman 2009, p. 2Kenny 2004, p. xvVintiadis 2020, p. 137 - Russell, Bertrand (1912). The Problems of Philosophy. H. Holt and Company. OCLC 542749. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/542749" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/542749</a> <a href="#fnref:12" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:13">Plato 2023, Apology. - Plato (2023) [1871]. "Apology". Dialogues. Translated by Jowett, Benjamin. Standard Ebooks. Archived from the original on 14 November 2023. Retrieved 14 November 2023. <a href="https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/plato/dialogues/benjamin-jowett/text/apology#apology-text" target="_blank">https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/plato/dialogues/benjamin-jowett/text/apology#apology-text</a> <a href="#fnref:13" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:14">McCutcheon 2014, p. 26. - McCutcheon, Russell T. (2014). Studying Religion: An Introduction. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-49166-8. Retrieved 10 November 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vpzCBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA26" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=vpzCBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA26</a> <a href="#fnref:14" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:15">Russell 1912, p. 91Blackwell 2013, p. 148 - Russell, Bertrand (1912). The Problems of Philosophy. H. Holt and Company. OCLC 542749. <a href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/542749" target="_blank">https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/542749</a> <a href="#fnref:15" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:16">Quinton 2005, p. 702Regenbogen 2010, Philosophiebegriffe - Quinton, Anthony Meredith (2005). "Philosophy". In Honderich, Ted (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926479-7. Archived from the original on 29 January 2021. Retrieved 2 January 2022. <a href="https://philpapers.org/rec/HONTOC-2" target="_blank">https://philpapers.org/rec/HONTOC-2</a> <a href="#fnref:16" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:17">Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013, pp. vii, 17. - Overgaard, Søren; Gilbert, Paul; Burwood, Stephen (2013). "What Is Philosophy?". An Introduction to Metaphilosophy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-19341-2. Archived from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022. <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE" target="_blank">https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE</a> <a href="#fnref:17" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:18">Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013, pp. 20, 44, What Is Philosophy?Mittelstraß 2005, Philosophie - Overgaard, Søren; Gilbert, Paul; Burwood, Stephen (2013). "What Is Philosophy?". An Introduction to Metaphilosophy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-19341-2. Archived from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022. <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE" target="_blank">https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE</a> <a href="#fnref:18" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:19">JollOvergaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013, pp. 20–21, 25, 35, 39, What Is Philosophy? - Joll, Nicholas. "Metaphilosophy". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 15 May 2019. Retrieved 1 February 2022. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/con-meta/" target="_blank">https://iep.utm.edu/con-meta/</a> <a href="#fnref:19" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:20">Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013, pp. 20–22, What Is Philosophy?Rescher 2013, pp. 1–3, 1. The Nature of PhilosophyNuttall 2013, pp. 12–13, 1. The Nature of Philosophy - Overgaard, Søren; Gilbert, Paul; Burwood, Stephen (2013). "What Is Philosophy?". An Introduction to Metaphilosophy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-19341-2. Archived from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022. <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE" target="_blank">https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE</a> <a href="#fnref:20" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:21">Guyer 2014, pp. 7–8Kant 1998, p. A805/B833Kant 1992, p. 9:25 - Guyer, Paul (2014). Kant. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-01563-3. Retrieved 9 July 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a4T8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA7" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=a4T8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA7</a> <a href="#fnref:21" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:22">Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013, pp. 20–22, What Is Philosophy?. - Overgaard, Søren; Gilbert, Paul; Burwood, Stephen (2013). "What Is Philosophy?". An Introduction to Metaphilosophy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-19341-2. Archived from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022. <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE" target="_blank">https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE</a> <a href="#fnref:22" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:23">Regenbogen 2010, Philosophiebegriffe. - Regenbogen, Arnim (2010). "Philosophiebegriffe". In Sandkühler, Hans Jörg (ed.). Enzyklopädie Philosophie (in German). Meiner. Archived from the original on 20 March 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022. <a href="https://meiner.de/enzyklopadie-philosophie-14071.html" target="_blank">https://meiner.de/enzyklopadie-philosophie-14071.html</a> <a href="#fnref:23" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:24">Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013, pp. 26–27, What Is Philosophy?Hylton & Kemp 2020 - Overgaard, Søren; Gilbert, Paul; Burwood, Stephen (2013). "What Is Philosophy?". An Introduction to Metaphilosophy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-19341-2. Archived from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022. <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE" target="_blank">https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE</a> <a href="#fnref:24" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:25">Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013, pp. 25–27, What Is Philosophy?Chalmers 2015, pp. 3–4Dellsén, Lawler & Norton 2021, pp. 814–815 - Overgaard, Søren; Gilbert, Paul; Burwood, Stephen (2013). "What Is Philosophy?". An Introduction to Metaphilosophy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-19341-2. Archived from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022. <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE" target="_blank">https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE</a> <a href="#fnref:25" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:26">Regenbogen 2010, PhilosophiebegriffeMittelstraß 2005, PhilosophieOvergaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013, pp. 27–30, What Is Philosophy? - Regenbogen, Arnim (2010). "Philosophiebegriffe". In Sandkühler, Hans Jörg (ed.). Enzyklopädie Philosophie (in German). Meiner. Archived from the original on 20 March 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022. <a href="https://meiner.de/enzyklopadie-philosophie-14071.html" target="_blank">https://meiner.de/enzyklopadie-philosophie-14071.html</a> <a href="#fnref:26" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:27">Hacker 2013, p. 6Regenbogen 2010, Philosophiebegriffe - Hacker, P. M. S. (2013). Wittgenstein: Comparisons and Context. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-967482-4. Retrieved 10 July 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8W1BAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA6" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=8W1BAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA6</a> <a href="#fnref:27" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:28">Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013, pp. 34–36, What Is Philosophy?Rescher 2013, pp. 1–2, 1. The Nature of Philosophy - Overgaard, Søren; Gilbert, Paul; Burwood, Stephen (2013). "What Is Philosophy?". An Introduction to Metaphilosophy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-19341-2. Archived from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022. <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE" target="_blank">https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE</a> <a href="#fnref:28" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:29">Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013, pp. 20–21, 29, What Is Philosophy?Nuttall 2013, pp. 12–13, 1. The Nature of PhilosophyShaffer 2015, pp. 555–556 - Overgaard, Søren; Gilbert, Paul; Burwood, Stephen (2013). "What Is Philosophy?". An Introduction to Metaphilosophy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-19341-2. Archived from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022. <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE" target="_blank">https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE</a> <a href="#fnref:29" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:30">Overgaard, Gilbert & Burwood 2013, pp. 36–37, 43, What Is Philosophy?Nuttall 2013, p. 12, 1. The Nature of Philosophy - Overgaard, Søren; Gilbert, Paul; Burwood, Stephen (2013). "What Is Philosophy?". An Introduction to Metaphilosophy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-19341-2. Archived from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022. <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE" target="_blank">https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE</a> <a href="#fnref:30" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:31">Regenbogen 2010, PhilosophiebegriffeJoll, Lead Section, § 2c. Ordinary Language Philosophy and the Later WittgensteinBiletzki & Matar 2021 - Regenbogen, Arnim (2010). "Philosophiebegriffe". In Sandkühler, Hans Jörg (ed.). Enzyklopädie Philosophie (in German). Meiner. Archived from the original on 20 March 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022. <a href="https://meiner.de/enzyklopadie-philosophie-14071.html" target="_blank">https://meiner.de/enzyklopadie-philosophie-14071.html</a> <a href="#fnref:31" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:32">Joll, § 4.a.iGelan 2020, p. 98, Husserl's Idea of Rigorous Science and Its Relevance for the Human and Social SciencesIngarden 1975, pp. 8–11, The Concept of Philosophy as Rigorous ScienceTieszen 2005, p. 100 - Joll, Nicholas. "Metaphilosophy". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 15 May 2019. Retrieved 1 February 2022. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/con-meta/" target="_blank">https://iep.utm.edu/con-meta/</a> <a href="#fnref:32" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:33">Smith, § 2.b. - Smith, Joel. "Phenomenology". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 25 May 2020. Retrieved 10 October 2021. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/phenom/" target="_blank">https://iep.utm.edu/phenom/</a> <a href="#fnref:33" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:34">Banicki 2014, p. 7Hadot 1995, 11. Philosophy as a Way of Life - Banicki, Konrad (2014). "Philosophy As Therapy: Towards a Conceptual Model". Philosophical Papers. 43 (1): 7–31. doi:10.1080/05568641.2014.901692. ISSN 0556-8641. S2CID 144901869. Archived from the original on 13 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022. <a href="https://philpapers.org/rec/BANPAT" target="_blank">https://philpapers.org/rec/BANPAT</a> <a href="#fnref:34" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:35">Grimm & Cohoe 2021, pp. 236–237. - Grimm, Stephen R.; Cohoe, Caleb (2021). "What Is Philosophy as a Way of Life? Why Philosophy as a Way of Life?". European Journal of Philosophy. 29 (1): 236–251. doi:10.1111/ejop.12562. ISSN 1468-0378. S2CID 225504495. Archived from the original on 13 February 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022. <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ejop.12562" target="_blank">https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ejop.12562</a> <a href="#fnref:35" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:36">Sharpe & Ure 2021, pp. 76, 80. - Sharpe, Matthew; Ure, Michael (2021). Philosophy as a Way of Life: History, Dimensions, Directions. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-350-10216-3. Retrieved 15 November 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LIstEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA76" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=LIstEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA76</a> <a href="#fnref:36" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:37">Copleston 2003, pp. 4–6Santinello & Piaia 2010, pp. 487–488Verene 2008, pp. 6–8 - Copleston, Frederick (2003). History of Philosophy Volume 1: Greece and Rome. Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-6895-6. Retrieved 25 May 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Y08L-MC36JUC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Y08L-MC36JUC</a> <a href="#fnref:37" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:38">Laerke, Smith & Schliesser 2013, pp. 115–118Verene 2008, pp. 6–8Frede 2022, p. xBeaney 2013, p. 60 - Laerke, Mogens; Smith, Justin E. H.; Schliesser, Eric (2013). Philosophy and Its History: Aims and Methods in the Study of Early Modern Philosophy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-985716-6. <a href="#fnref:38" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:39">Scharfstein 1998, pp. 1–4Perrett 2016, Is There Indian Philosophy?Smart 2008, pp. 1–3Rescher 2014, p. 173Parkinson 2005, pp. 1–2 - Scharfstein, Ben-Ami (1998). A Comparative History of World Philosophy: From the Upanishads to Kant. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-3683-7. Retrieved 30 June 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iZQy2lu70bwC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=iZQy2lu70bwC</a> <a href="#fnref:39" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:40">Smart 2008, pp. v, 1–12Flavel & Robbiano 2023, p. 279Solomon & Higgins 2003, pp. xv–xviGrayling 2019, Contents, Preface - Smart, Ninian (2008). World Philosophies (Rev. 2nd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-41188-2. <a href="#fnref:40" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:41">Blackson 2011, IntroductionGraham 2023, Lead Section, 1. Presocratic ThoughtDuignan 2010, pp. 9–11 - Blackson, Thomas A. (2011). Ancient Greek Philosophy: From the Presocratics to the Hellenistic Philosophers. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-9608-9. Retrieved 28 May 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=89zzlbsG1KgC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=89zzlbsG1KgC</a> <a href="#fnref:41" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:42">Graham 2023, Lead Section, 2. Socrates, 3. Plato, 4. AristotleGrayling 2019, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle - Graham, Jacob N. (2023). "Ancient Greek Philosophy". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 25 August 2022. Retrieved 25 May 2023. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/ancient-greek-philosophy/" target="_blank">https://iep.utm.edu/ancient-greek-philosophy/</a> <a href="#fnref:42" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:43">Long 1986, p. 1Blackson 2011, Chapter 10Graham 2023, 6. Post-Hellenistic Thought - Long, A. A. (1986). Hellenistic Philosophy: Stoics, Epicureans, Sceptics. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-05808-8. Retrieved 28 May 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3s6DILqP1MwC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=3s6DILqP1MwC</a> <a href="#fnref:43" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:44">Duignan 2010, p. 9Lagerlund 2020, p. vMarenbon 2023, Lead SectionMacDonald & Kretzmann 1998, Lead Section - Duignan, Brian (2010). Ancient Philosophy: From 600 BCE to 500 CE. The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. ISBN 978-1-61530-141-6. Retrieved 30 June 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MfBS-RXJ5RsC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=MfBS-RXJ5RsC</a> <a href="#fnref:44" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:45">Grayling 2019, Part II: Medieval and Renaissance PhilosophyAdamson 2019, pp. 3–4 - Grayling, A. C. (2019). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. Retrieved 30 June 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bDJwDwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=bDJwDwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:45" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:46">Parkinson 2005, pp. 1, 3Adamson 2022, pp. 155–157Grayling 2019, Philosophy in the RenaissanceChambre et al. 2023, Renaissance Philosophy - Parkinson, G. H. R., ed. (2005). IV. The Renaissance and Seventeenth-Century Rationalism. Routledge History of Philosophy. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-02914-5. <a href="#fnref:46" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:47">Grayling 2019, The Rise of Modern Thought; The Eighteenth-century EnlightenmentAnstey & Vanzo 2023, pp. 236–237 - Grayling, A. C. (2019). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. Retrieved 30 June 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bDJwDwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=bDJwDwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:47" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:48">Grayling 2019, The Eighteenth-Century EnlightenmentKenny 2006, pp. 90–92 - Grayling, A. C. (2019). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. Retrieved 30 June 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bDJwDwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=bDJwDwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:48" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:49">Grayling 2019, Philosophy in the Nineteenth Century. - Grayling, A. C. (2019). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. Retrieved 30 June 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bDJwDwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=bDJwDwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:49" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:50">Grayling 2019, Philosophy in the Twentieth CenturyLivingston 2017, 6. 'Analytic' and 'Continental' PhilosophySilverman & Welton 1988, pp. 5–6 - Grayling, A. C. (2019). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. Retrieved 30 June 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bDJwDwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=bDJwDwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:50" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:51">Grayling 2019, Philosophy in the Twentieth Century. - Grayling, A. C. (2019). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. Retrieved 30 June 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bDJwDwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=bDJwDwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:51" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:52">Waithe 1995, pp. xix–xxiii. - Waithe, Mary Ellen (1995). A History of Women Philosophers. 4: Contemporary Women Philosophers 1900 - today. Nijhoff. ISBN 978-0-7923-2808-7. <a href="#fnref:52" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:53">Adamson & Taylor 2004, p. 1EB Staff 2020Grayling 2019, Arabic–Persian PhilosophyAdamson 2016, pp. 5–6 - Adamson, Peter; Taylor, Richard C. (2004). The Cambridge Companion to Arabic Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-49469-5. Retrieved 7 June 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iFMiAwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=iFMiAwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:53" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:54">Esposito 2003, p. 246Nasr & Leaman 2013, 11. Al-KindiNasr 2006, pp. 109–110Adamson 2020, Lead Section - Esposito, John L. (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512559-7. Retrieved 10 November 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6VeCWQfVNjkC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=6VeCWQfVNjkC</a> <a href="#fnref:54" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:55">Gutas 2016Grayling 2019, Ibn Sina (Avicenna) - Gutas, Dimitri (2016). "Ibn Sina [Avicenna]". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 27 April 2023. Retrieved 7 June 2023. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ibn-sina/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ibn-sina/</a> <a href="#fnref:55" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:56">Adamson 2016, pp. 140–146Dehsen 2013, p. 75Griffel 2020, Lead Section, 3. Al-Ghazâlî's "Refutations" of Falsafa and Ismâ’îlism, 4. The Place of Falsafa in Islam - Adamson, Peter (2016). Philosophy in the Islamic World. A History of Philosophy Without Any Gaps. Vol. 3. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-957749-1. Retrieved 25 May 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KEpRDAAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=KEpRDAAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:56" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:57">Grayling 2019, Ibn Rushd (Averroes)Kaminski 2017, p. 32 - Grayling, A. C. (2019). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. Retrieved 30 June 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bDJwDwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=bDJwDwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:57" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:58">Rizvi 2021, Lead Section, 3. Metaphysics, 4. Noetics — Epistemology and PsychologyChamankhah 2019, p. 73 - Rizvi, Sajjad (2021). "Mulla Sadra". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 27 May 2023. Retrieved 8 June 2023. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mulla-sadra/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mulla-sadra/</a> <a href="#fnref:58" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:59">Moaddel 2005, pp. 1–2Masud 2009, pp. 237–238Safi 2005, Lead Section - Moaddel, Mansoor (2005). Islamic Modernism, Nationalism, and Fundamentalism: Episode and Discourse. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-53333-9. Retrieved 23 August 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Dk6BLopmn3gC&pg=PA1" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=Dk6BLopmn3gC&pg=PA1</a> <a href="#fnref:59" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:60">Smart 2008, p. 3Grayling 2019, Indian Philosophy - Smart, Ninian (2008). World Philosophies (Rev. 2nd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-41188-2. <a href="#fnref:60" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:61">Perrett 2016, Indian philosophy: A Brief Historical Overview, the Ancient Period of Indian PhilosophyGrayling 2019, Indian PhilosophyPooley & Rothenbuhler 2016, p. 1468Andrea & Overfield 2015, p. 71 - Perrett, Roy W. (2016). An Introduction to Indian Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85356-9. Retrieved 9 June 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q7wwCwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=q7wwCwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:61" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:62">Perrett 2016, The Ancient Period of Indian PhilosophyRuether 2004, p. 57 - Perrett, Roy W. (2016). An Introduction to Indian Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85356-9. Retrieved 9 June 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q7wwCwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=q7wwCwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:62" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:63">Perrett 2016, The Ancient Period of Indian PhilosophyRuether 2004, p. 57 - Perrett, Roy W. (2016). An Introduction to Indian Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85356-9. Retrieved 9 June 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q7wwCwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=q7wwCwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:63" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:64">Perrett 2016, The Ancient Period of Indian PhilosophyVallely 2012, pp. 609–610Gorisse 2023, Lead Section - Perrett, Roy W. (2016). An Introduction to Indian Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85356-9. Retrieved 9 June 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q7wwCwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=q7wwCwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:64" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:65">The exact periodization is disputed with some sources suggesting it started as early as 500 BCE, while others argue it began as late as 200 CE.[66] <a href="#fnref:65" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:66">Perrett 2016, Indian Philosophy: A Brief Historical Overview, The Classical Period of Indian Philosophy, The Medieval Period of Indian PhilosophyGlenney & Silva 2019, p. 77Adamson & Ganeri 2020, pp. 101–102 - Perrett, Roy W. (2016). An Introduction to Indian Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85356-9. Retrieved 9 June 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q7wwCwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=q7wwCwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:66" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:67">Perrett 2016, The Medieval Period of Indian PhilosophyDalal 2021, Lead Section, 2. MetaphysicsMenon, Lead Section - Perrett, Roy W. (2016). An Introduction to Indian Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85356-9. Retrieved 9 June 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q7wwCwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=q7wwCwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:67" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:68">These dates are traditionally cited but some recent scholars suggest that his life ran from 1077 to 1157.[69] <a href="#fnref:68" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:69">Ranganathan, Lead Section, 2c. Substantive Theses. - Ranganathan, Shyam. "Ramanuja". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 12 February 2020. Retrieved 7 September 2023. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/ramanuja/" target="_blank">https://iep.utm.edu/ramanuja/</a> <a href="#fnref:69" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:70">Ranganathan, 4. Rāmānuja's SoteriologyKulke & Rothermund 1998, p. 139Seshadri 1996, p. 297Jha 2022, p. 217 - Ranganathan, Shyam. "Ramanuja". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 12 February 2020. Retrieved 7 September 2023. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/ramanuja/" target="_blank">https://iep.utm.edu/ramanuja/</a> <a href="#fnref:70" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:71">Perrett 2016, Indian Philosophy: A Brief Historical Overview, the Modern Period of Indian PhilosophyEB Staff 2023 - Perrett, Roy W. (2016). An Introduction to Indian Philosophy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85356-9. Retrieved 9 June 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q7wwCwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=q7wwCwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:71" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:72">Banhatti 1995, pp. 151–154Bilimoria 2018, pp. 529–531Rambachan 1994, pp. 91–92 - Banhatti, G. S. (1995). Life and Philosophy of Swami Vivekananda. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. ISBN 978-81-7156-291-6. Retrieved 10 November 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jK5862eV7_EC" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=jK5862eV7_EC</a> <a href="#fnref:72" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:73">Smart 2008, pp. 3, 70–71EB Staff 2017, Lead Section, § Periods of Development of Chinese PhilosophyLittlejohn 2023Grayling 2019, Chinese PhilosophyCua 2009, pp. 43–45Wei-Ming, Lead Section - Smart, Ninian (2008). World Philosophies (Rev. 2nd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-41188-2. <a href="#fnref:73" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:74">Perkins 2013, pp. 486–487Ma 2015, p. xivBotz-Bornstein 2023, p. 61 - Perkins, Dorothy (2013). Encyclopedia of China: History and Culture. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-93562-7. Retrieved 10 November 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KMQeAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA486" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=KMQeAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA486</a> <a href="#fnref:74" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:75">EB Staff 2017, Lead Section, § Periods of Development of Chinese PhilosophySmart 2008, pp. 70–76Littlejohn 2023, 1b. Confucius (551–479 B.C.E.) of the AnalectsBoyd & Timpe 2021, pp. 64–66Marshev 2021, pp. 100–101 - "Chinese Philosophy". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2017. Archived from the original on 2 May 2015. Retrieved 12 June 2023. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Chinese-philosophy" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Chinese-philosophy</a> <a href="#fnref:75" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:76">EB Staff 2017, Lead Section, § Periods of Development of Chinese PhilosophySlingerland 2007, pp. 77–78Grayling 2019, Chinese Philosophy - "Chinese Philosophy". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2017. Archived from the original on 2 May 2015. Retrieved 12 June 2023. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Chinese-philosophy" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/topic/Chinese-philosophy</a> <a href="#fnref:76" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:77">Grayling 2019, Chinese PhilosophyLittlejohn 2023, 1c. Mozi (c. 470–391 B.C.E.) and MohismDefoort & Standaert 2013, p. 35 - Grayling, A. C. (2019). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. Retrieved 30 June 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bDJwDwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=bDJwDwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:77" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:78">Grayling 2019, Chinese PhilosophyKim 2019, p. 161Littlejohn 2023, 2a. Syncretic Philosophies in the Qin and Han Periods - Grayling, A. C. (2019). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. Retrieved 30 June 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bDJwDwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=bDJwDwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:78" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:79">Littlejohn 2023, § Early Buddhism in ChinaEB Staff 2017, § Periods of Development of Chinese Philosophy - Littlejohn, Ronnie (2023). "Chinese Philosophy: Overview of History". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 1 June 2023. Retrieved 12 June 2023. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/chinese-philosophy-overview-of-history/" target="_blank">https://iep.utm.edu/chinese-philosophy-overview-of-history/</a> <a href="#fnref:79" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:80">Littlejohn 2023, § Early Buddhism in ChinaEB Staff 2017, § Periods of Development of Chinese Philosophy - Littlejohn, Ronnie (2023). "Chinese Philosophy: Overview of History". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 1 June 2023. Retrieved 12 June 2023. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/chinese-philosophy-overview-of-history/" target="_blank">https://iep.utm.edu/chinese-philosophy-overview-of-history/</a> <a href="#fnref:80" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:81">Littlejohn 2023, 4b. Neo-Confucianism: The Original Way of Confucius for a New EraEB Staff 2017, § Periods of Development of Chinese Philosophy - Littlejohn, Ronnie (2023). "Chinese Philosophy: Overview of History". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 1 June 2023. Retrieved 12 June 2023. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/chinese-philosophy-overview-of-history/" target="_blank">https://iep.utm.edu/chinese-philosophy-overview-of-history/</a> <a href="#fnref:81" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:82">Littlejohn 2023, 5. The Chinese and Western Encounter in PhilosophyJiang 2009, pp. 473–480Qi 2014, pp. 99–100Tian 2009, pp. 512–513 - Littlejohn, Ronnie (2023). "Chinese Philosophy: Overview of History". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 1 June 2023. Retrieved 12 June 2023. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/chinese-philosophy-overview-of-history/" target="_blank">https://iep.utm.edu/chinese-philosophy-overview-of-history/</a> <a href="#fnref:82" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:83">Van Norden 2022, § 6. InfluenceRedse 2015, pp. 21–22Makeham 2003, pp. 94–95 - Van Norden, Bryan (2022). "Wang Yangming". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 1 May 2023. Retrieved 23 August 2023. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/wang-yangming/#Infl" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/wang-yangming/#Infl</a> <a href="#fnref:83" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:84">Kasulis 2022, Lead Section, § 3.2 Confucianism, § 3.3 BuddhismKasulis 1998, Lead Section - Kasulis, Thomas P. (2022). "Japanese Philosophy". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 8 August 2023. Retrieved 7 November 2023. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/japanese-philosophy" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/japanese-philosophy</a> <a href="#fnref:84" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:85">Kasulis 2022, § 4.3 Edo-period Philosophy (1600–1868)Kasulis 1998, Lead Section - Kasulis, Thomas P. (2022). "Japanese Philosophy". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 8 August 2023. Retrieved 7 November 2023. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/japanese-philosophy" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/japanese-philosophy</a> <a href="#fnref:85" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:86">Davis 2022, Lead Section, § 3. Absolute Nothingness: Giving Philosophical Form to the FormlessKasulis 2022, § 4.4.2 Modern Academic Philosophies - Davis, Bret W. (2022). "The Kyoto School". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 28 September 2023. Retrieved 7 November 2023. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kyoto-school/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kyoto-school/</a> <a href="#fnref:86" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:87">Gracia & Vargas 2018, Lead Section, § 1. HistoryStehn, Lead Section, § 1. Indigenous PeriodMaffie - Gracia, Jorge J. E.; Vargas, Manuel (2018). "Latin American Philosophy". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 11 June 2018. Retrieved 7 November 2023. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/latin-american-philosophy/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/latin-american-philosophy/</a> <a href="#fnref:87" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:88">Arola 2011, pp. 562–563Rivera Berruz 2019, p. 72 - Arola, Adam (2011). "40 Native American Philosophy". In Garfield, Jay L.; Edelglass, William (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of World Philosophy. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195328998.003.0048. ISBN 978-0-19-532899-8. Archived from the original on 14 November 2023. Retrieved 14 November 2023. <a href="https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/28241/chapter-abstract/213354161?redirectedFrom=fulltext" target="_blank">https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/28241/chapter-abstract/213354161?redirectedFrom=fulltext</a> <a href="#fnref:88" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:89">Gracia & Vargas 2018, Lead Section, § 1. HistoryStehn, Lead Section, § 4. Twentieth Century - Gracia, Jorge J. E.; Vargas, Manuel (2018). "Latin American Philosophy". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 11 June 2018. Retrieved 7 November 2023. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/latin-american-philosophy/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/latin-american-philosophy/</a> <a href="#fnref:89" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:90">Grayling 2019, African PhilosophyChimakonam 2023, Lead Section, 6. Epochs in African PhilosophyMangena, Lead Section - Grayling, A. C. (2019). The History of Philosophy. Penguin UK. ISBN 978-0-241-98086-6. Retrieved 30 June 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bDJwDwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=bDJwDwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:90" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:91">Chimakonam 2023, Lead Section, 1. Introduction, 5. The Movements in African Philosophy, 6. Epochs in African PhilosophyBell & Fernback 2015, p. 44Coetzee & Roux 1998, pp. 88Wiredu 2005, p. 12Chimakonam & Ogbonnaya 2021 - Chimakonam, Jonathan O. (2023). "History of African Philosophy". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 5 June 2023. Retrieved 14 June 2023. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/history-of-african-philosophy/" target="_blank">https://iep.utm.edu/history-of-african-philosophy/</a> <a href="#fnref:91" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:92">Brenner 1993, p. 16Palmquist 2010, p. 800Jenicek 2018, p. 31 - Brenner, William H. (1993). Logic and Philosophy: An Integrated Introduction. University of Notre Dame Press. ISBN 978-0-268-15898-9. Retrieved 5 July 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DFoFDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT16" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=DFoFDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT16</a> <a href="#fnref:92" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:93">Schroeder 2021, Lead Section: "In its broadest sense, 'value theory' is a catch-all label used to encompass all branches of moral philosophy, social and political philosophy, aesthetics, and sometimes feminist philosophy and the philosophy of religion – whatever areas of philosophy are deemed to encompass some 'evaluative' aspect.". - Schroeder, Mark (2021). "Value Theory". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2021 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 31 March 2021. Retrieved 27 March 2021. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2021/entries/value-theory/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2021/entries/value-theory/</a> <a href="#fnref:93" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:94">Kenny 2018, p. 20Lazerowitz & Ambrose 2012, pp. 9 - Kenny, Anthony (2018). An Illustrated Brief History of Western Philosophy, 20th Anniversary Edition. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-119-45279-9. Retrieved 5 July 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fn9xDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR20" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=fn9xDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR20</a> <a href="#fnref:94" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:95">Martinich & Stroll 2023, Lead Section, The Nature of EpistemologySteup & Neta 2020, Lead SectionTruncellito, Lead SectionGreco 2021, Article Summary - Martinich, A. P.; Stroll, Avrum (2023). "Epistemology". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 10 July 2019. Retrieved 22 June 2020. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/epistemology" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/topic/epistemology</a> <a href="#fnref:95" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:96">Mulvaney 2009, p. ix. - Mulvaney, Robert J. (2009). Classical Philosophical Questions (13th ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-600652-7. <a href="#fnref:96" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:97">Steup & Neta 2020, Lead Section, 2. What Is Knowledge?Truncellito, Lead Section, 1. Kinds of KnowledgeColman 2009a, Declarative Knowledge - Steup, Matthias; Neta, Ram (2020). "Epistemology". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 21 July 2020. Retrieved 30 June 2020. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology/</a> <a href="#fnref:97" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:98">Martinich & Stroll 2023, The Nature of KnowledgeTruncellito, Lead Section, 2. The Nature of Propositional Knowledge - Martinich, A. P.; Stroll, Avrum (2023). "Epistemology". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 10 July 2019. Retrieved 22 June 2020. <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/epistemology" target="_blank">https://www.britannica.com/topic/epistemology</a> <a href="#fnref:98" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:99">Ichikawa & Steup 2018, § 3. The Gettier Problem, § 11. Knowledge FirstTruncellito, § 2d. The Gettier Problem - Ichikawa, Jonathan Jenkins; Steup, Matthias (2018). "The Analysis of Knowledge". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 2 May 2022. Retrieved 15 November 2023. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/knowledge-analysis/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/knowledge-analysis/</a> <a href="#fnref:99" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:100">Steup & Neta 2020, 5. Sources of Knowledge and JustificationTruncellito, Lead Section, 4a. Sources of Knowledge - Steup, Matthias; Neta, Ram (2020). "Epistemology". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 21 July 2020. Retrieved 30 June 2020. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology/</a> <a href="#fnref:100" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:101">Hetherington, § 3c. Knowing Purely by ThinkingBlackburn 2008, EmpiricismBlackburn 2008, Rationalism - Hetherington, Stephen. "Knowledge". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. § 3c. Knowing Purely by Thinking. Archived from the original on 2 June 2022. Retrieved 22 July 2023. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/knowledg/#SH3c" target="_blank">https://iep.utm.edu/knowledg/#SH3c</a> <a href="#fnref:101" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:130">Smith, Brown & Duncan 2019, p. 174McQuillan 2015, pp. 122–123Janaway 2005, p. 9, Aesthetics, History Of - Smith, Matthew J.; Brown, Matthew; Duncan, Randy (2019). More Critical Approaches to Comics: Theories and Methods. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-429-78275-6. Retrieved 21 July 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QkmqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT174" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=QkmqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT174</a> <a href="#fnref:130" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:131">Nanay 2019, p. 4McQuillan 2015, pp. 122–123 - Nanay, Bence (2019). Aesthetics: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-882661-3. <a href="#fnref:131" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:134">Smith, Brown & Duncan 2019, p. 174McQuillan 2015, pp. 122–123 - Smith, Matthew J.; Brown, Matthew; Duncan, Randy (2019). More Critical Approaches to Comics: Theories and Methods. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-429-78275-6. Retrieved 21 July 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QkmqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT174" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=QkmqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT174</a> <a href="#fnref:134" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:135">Audi 2006, § Philosophy of LanguageRussell & Fara 2013, pp. ii, 1–2Blackburn 2022, Lead Section - Audi, Robert (2006). "Philosophy". In Borchert, Donald M. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 7: Oakeshott - Presupposition (2. ed.). Thomson Gale, Macmillan Reference. ISBN 978-0-02-865787-5. Archived from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 10 November 2023. <a href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/philosophy" target="_blank">https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/philosophy</a> <a href="#fnref:135" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:136">The truth conditions of a sentence are the circumstances or states of affairs under which the sentence would be true.[137] <a href="#fnref:136" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:137">Wolf 2023, §§ 1.a-b, 3–4Ifantidou 2014, p. 12 - Wolf, Michael P. (2023). "Philosophy of Language". The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 15 June 2023. Retrieved 13 July 2023. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/lang-phi/" target="_blank">https://iep.utm.edu/lang-phi/</a> <a href="#fnref:137" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:138">Lowe 2000, pp. 1–2Crumley 2006, pp. 2–3 - Lowe, E. Jonathan (2000). An Introduction to the Philosophy of Mind. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-65428-9. Retrieved 19 July 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mH12kYm1RKAC&pg=PA1" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=mH12kYm1RKAC&pg=PA1</a> <a href="#fnref:138" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:139">Audi 2006, § Philosophy of MindHeidemann 2014, p. 140 - Audi, Robert (2006). "Philosophy". In Borchert, Donald M. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 7: Oakeshott - Presupposition (2. ed.). Thomson Gale, Macmillan Reference. ISBN 978-0-02-865787-5. Archived from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 10 November 2023. <a href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/philosophy" target="_blank">https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/philosophy</a> <a href="#fnref:139" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:140">Heil 2013, pp. 1–3, 9, 12–13Weir 2023, pp. 10–11Shiraev 2010, pp. 83–84Polger, Lead Section - Heil, John Fergusson (2013). Philosophy of Mind: A Contemporary Introduction (3rd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-89175-2. <a href="#fnref:140" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:141">Heil 2013, pp. 1–3, 12–13Weisberg, Lead Section, 1. Stating the Problem - Heil, John Fergusson (2013). Philosophy of Mind: A Contemporary Introduction (3rd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-89175-2. <a href="#fnref:141" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:142">Taliaferro 2023, Lead Section, § 5.2Burns 2017, pp. i, 1–3Audi 2006, § Philosophy of ReligionMeister, Lead Section - Taliaferro, Charles (2023). "Philosophy of Religion". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 23 November 2023. Retrieved 6 September 2023. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2023/entries/philosophy-religion/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2023/entries/philosophy-religion/</a> <a href="#fnref:142" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:143">Taliaferro 2023, § 1. - Taliaferro, Charles (2023). "Philosophy of Religion". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 23 November 2023. Retrieved 6 September 2023. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2023/entries/philosophy-religion/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2023/entries/philosophy-religion/</a> <a href="#fnref:143" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:144">Taliaferro 2023, § 5.1.1. - Taliaferro, Charles (2023). "Philosophy of Religion". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 23 November 2023. Retrieved 6 September 2023. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2023/entries/philosophy-religion/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2023/entries/philosophy-religion/</a> <a href="#fnref:144" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:145">Taliaferro 2023, § 6. - Taliaferro, Charles (2023). "Philosophy of Religion". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 23 November 2023. Retrieved 6 September 2023. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2023/entries/philosophy-religion/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2023/entries/philosophy-religion/</a> <a href="#fnref:145" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:146">Taliaferro 2023, IntroductionAudi 2006, § Philosophy of Religion - Taliaferro, Charles (2023). "Philosophy of Religion". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 23 November 2023. Retrieved 6 September 2023. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2023/entries/philosophy-religion/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2023/entries/philosophy-religion/</a> <a href="#fnref:146" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:147">Bayne 2018, pp. 1–2Louth & Thielicke 2014 - Bayne, Tim (2018). The Philosophy of Religion: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-875496-1. <a href="#fnref:147" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:148">Audi 2006, § Philosophy of ScienceKitcher 2023Losee 2001, pp. 1–3Wei 2020, p. 127Newton-Smith 2000, pp. 2–3 - Audi, Robert (2006). "Philosophy". In Borchert, Donald M. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 7: Oakeshott - Presupposition (2. ed.). Thomson Gale, Macmillan Reference. ISBN 978-0-02-865787-5. Archived from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 10 November 2023. <a href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/philosophy" target="_blank">https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/philosophy</a> <a href="#fnref:148" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:152">Papineau 2005, p. 852Audi 2006, § Philosophy of Science - Papineau, David (2005). "Science, Problems of the Philosophy of". In Honderich, Ted (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926479-7. Archived from the original on 23 November 2023. Retrieved 13 July 2023. <a href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199264797.001.0001/acref-9780199264797-e-2279" target="_blank">https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199264797.001.0001/acref-9780199264797-e-2279</a> <a href="#fnref:152" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:153">Molefe & Allsobrook 2021, pp. 8–9Moseley, Lead SectionDuignan 2012, pp. 5–6Bowle & Arneson 2023, Lead SectionMcQueen 2010, p. 162 - Molefe, Motsamai; Allsobrook, Christopher (2021). Towards an African Political Philosophy of Needs. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-030-64496-3. Retrieved 21 July 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wKQeEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=wKQeEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8</a> <a href="#fnref:153" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:154">Molefe & Allsobrook 2021, pp. 8–9Howard 2010, p. 4 - Molefe, Motsamai; Allsobrook, Christopher (2021). Towards an African Political Philosophy of Needs. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-030-64496-3. Retrieved 21 July 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wKQeEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=wKQeEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8</a> <a href="#fnref:154" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:155">Wolff 2006, pp. 1–2. - Wolff, Jonathan (2006). An Introduction to Political Philosophy (Rev. ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-965801-5. <a href="#fnref:155" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:156">Molefe & Allsobrook 2021, pp. 8–9. - Molefe, Motsamai; Allsobrook, Christopher (2021). Towards an African Political Philosophy of Needs. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-030-64496-3. Retrieved 21 July 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wKQeEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=wKQeEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8</a> <a href="#fnref:156" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:157">Moseley, Lead SectionMolefe & Allsobrook 2021, pp. 8–9 - Moseley, Alexander. "Political Philosophy: Methodology". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 2 April 2009. Retrieved 21 July 2023. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/polphil/" target="_blank">https://iep.utm.edu/polphil/</a> <a href="#fnref:157" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:158">Audi 2006, § Subfields of Ethics. - Audi, Robert (2006). "Philosophy". In Borchert, Donald M. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 7: Oakeshott - Presupposition (2. ed.). Thomson Gale, Macmillan Reference. ISBN 978-0-02-865787-5. Archived from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 10 November 2023. <a href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/philosophy" target="_blank">https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/philosophy</a> <a href="#fnref:158" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:159">Moseley, Lead Section, § 3. Political Schools of ThoughtMcQueen 2010, p. 162 - Moseley, Alexander. "Political Philosophy: Methodology". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 2 April 2009. Retrieved 21 July 2023. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/polphil/" target="_blank">https://iep.utm.edu/polphil/</a> <a href="#fnref:159" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:160">McKeon 2002, Lead Section, § Summation Overgaard & D'Oro 2017, pp. 1, 4–5, IntroductionMehrtens 2010, Methode/Methodologie - McKeon, R. (2002). "Methodology (Philosophy)". New Catholic Encyclopedia. Gale Research Inc. ISBN 978-0-7876-4004-0. Archived from the original on 30 April 2022. Retrieved 18 April 2022. <a href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/methodology-philosophy" target="_blank">https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/methodology-philosophy</a> <a href="#fnref:160" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:161">Daly 2010, p. 9, IntroductionWilliamson 2020Ichikawa 2011 - Daly, Christopher (2010). "Introduction". An Introduction to Philosophical Methods. Broadview Press. ISBN 978-1-55111-934-2. Retrieved 7 June 2022. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wilaDwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=wilaDwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:161" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:162">Overgaard & D'Oro 2017, pp. 1, 3–5, IntroductionNado 2017, pp. 447–449, 461–462Dever 2016, 3–6 - Overgaard, Søren; D'Oro, Giuseppina (2017). "Introduction". The Cambridge Companion to Philosophical Methodology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-54736-0. Archived from the original on 1 May 2022. Retrieved 18 April 2022. <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-companion-to-philosophical-methodology/introduction/03C3CBE35E1E1FD54E29AD2D5E1C4D48" target="_blank">https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-companion-to-philosophical-methodology/introduction/03C3CBE35E1E1FD54E29AD2D5E1C4D48</a> <a href="#fnref:162" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:163">Daly 2010, pp. 9–11, IntroductionOvergaard & D'Oro 2017, pp. 3, IntroductionDever 2016, pp. 3–4, What Is Philosophical Methodology? - Daly, Christopher (2010). "Introduction". An Introduction to Philosophical Methods. Broadview Press. ISBN 978-1-55111-934-2. Retrieved 7 June 2022. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wilaDwAAQBAJ" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=wilaDwAAQBAJ</a> <a href="#fnref:163" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:164">Daly 2015, pp. 1–2, 5, Introduction and Historical OverviewMehrtens 2010, Methode/MethodologieOvergaard & D'Oro 2017, pp. 1, 3–5, Introduction - Daly, Christopher (2015). "Introduction and Historical Overview". The Palgrave Handbook of Philosophical Methods. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 1–30. doi:10.1057/9781137344557_1. ISBN 978-1-137-34455-7. Archived from the original on 1 May 2022. Retrieved 18 April 2022. <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9781137344557_1" target="_blank">https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9781137344557_1</a> <a href="#fnref:164" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:165">Williamson 2020Singer 1974, pp. 420–421Venturinha 2013, p. 76Walsh, Teo & Baydala 2014, p. 68 - Williamson, Timothy (2020). "1. Introduction". Philosophical Method: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-184724-0. Archived from the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 18 April 2022. <a href="https://www.veryshortintroductions.com/view/10.1093/actrade/9780198810001.001.0001/actrade-9780198810001-chapter-1" target="_blank">https://www.veryshortintroductions.com/view/10.1093/actrade/9780198810001.001.0001/actrade-9780198810001-chapter-1</a> <a href="#fnref:165" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:166">Eder, Lawler & van Riel 2020, p. 915Shaffer 2015, pp. 555–556Audi 2006, § Philosophical Methods - Eder, Anna-Maria A.; Lawler, Insa; van Riel, Raphael (2020). "Philosophical Methods Under Scrutiny: Introduction to the Special Issue Philosophical Methods". Synthese. 197 (3): 915–923. doi:10.1007/s11229-018-02051-2. ISSN 1573-0964. S2CID 54631297. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11229-018-02051-2" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11229-018-02051-2</a> <a href="#fnref:166" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:167">Ichikawa 2011Reynolds 2010, pp. 231–232EB Staff 2007 - Ichikawa, Jonathan (2011). "Chris Daly: An Introduction to Philosophical Methods". Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews. Archived from the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 22 February 2022. <a href="https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/an-introduction-to-philosophical-methods/" target="_blank">https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/an-introduction-to-philosophical-methods/</a> <a href="#fnref:167" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:168">Mehrtens 2010, Methode/MethodologieParker-Ryan, Lead Section, § 1. IntroductionEB Staff 2022 - Mehrtens, Arnd (2010). "Methode/Methodologie". In Sandkühler, Hans Jörg (ed.). Enzyklopädie Philosophie (in German). Meiner. ISBN 978-3-7873-3545-9. Archived from the original on 20 March 2022. Retrieved 15 February 2022. <a href="https://meiner.de/enzyklopadie-philosophie-14071.html" target="_blank">https://meiner.de/enzyklopadie-philosophie-14071.html</a> <a href="#fnref:168" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:169">Daly 2015, pp. 11–12, Introduction and Historical OverviewDuignan 2009 - Daly, Christopher (2015). "Introduction and Historical Overview". The Palgrave Handbook of Philosophical Methods. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 1–30. doi:10.1057/9781137344557_1. ISBN 978-1-137-34455-7. Archived from the original on 1 May 2022. Retrieved 18 April 2022. <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9781137344557_1" target="_blank">https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9781137344557_1</a> <a href="#fnref:169" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:170">Brown & Fehige 2019, Lead SectionGoffi & Roux 2011, pp. 165, 168–169Eder, Lawler & van Riel 2020, pp. 915–916 - Brown, James Robert; Fehige, Yiftach (2019). "Thought Experiments". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 21 November 2017. Retrieved 29 October 2021. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/thought-experiment/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/thought-experiment/</a> <a href="#fnref:170" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:171">Daly 2015, pp. 12–13, Introduction and Historical OverviewDaniels 2020, Lead Section, § 1. The Method of Reflective EquilibriumLittle 1984, pp. 373–375 - Daly, Christopher (2015). "Introduction and Historical Overview". The Palgrave Handbook of Philosophical Methods. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 1–30. doi:10.1057/9781137344557_1. ISBN 978-1-137-34455-7. Archived from the original on 1 May 2022. Retrieved 18 April 2022. <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9781137344557_1" target="_blank">https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9781137344557_1</a> <a href="#fnref:171" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:172">McDermid, Lead SectionLegg & Hookway 2021, Lead Section - McDermid, Douglas. "Pragmatism". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 23 May 2019. Retrieved 22 February 2022. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/pragmati/" target="_blank">https://iep.utm.edu/pragmati/</a> <a href="#fnref:172" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:173">McDermid, Lead Section, § 2a. A Method and A MaximLegg & Hookway 2021, Lead Section, § 2. The Pragmatic Maxim: Peirce - McDermid, Douglas. "Pragmatism". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 23 May 2019. Retrieved 22 February 2022. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/pragmati/" target="_blank">https://iep.utm.edu/pragmati/</a> <a href="#fnref:173" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:174">Cogan, Lead Section, § 5. The Structure, Nature and Performance of the Phenomenological ReductionMehrtens 2010, Methode/MethodologieSmith 2018, Lead Section, § 1. What Is Phenomenology?Smith, Lead Section, § 2.Phenomenological Method - Cogan, John. "Phenomenological Reduction, The". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 4 April 2020. Retrieved 27 February 2022. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/phen-red/" target="_blank">https://iep.utm.edu/phen-red/</a> <a href="#fnref:174" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:175">Fischer & Collins 2015, p. 4Fisher & Sytsma 2023, Projects and Methods of Experimental PhilosophyPapineau 2023, § 2. Methodological Naturalism - Fischer, Eugen; Collins, John (2015). Experimental Philosophy, Rationalism, and Naturalism: Rethinking Philosophical Method. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-50027-8. Retrieved 10 November 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4VuhCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=4VuhCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4</a> <a href="#fnref:175" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:176">Audi 2006, pp. 332–337. - Audi, Robert (2006). "Philosophy". In Borchert, Donald M. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 7: Oakeshott - Presupposition (2. ed.). Thomson Gale, Macmillan Reference. ISBN 978-0-02-865787-5. Archived from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 10 November 2023. <a href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/philosophy" target="_blank">https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/philosophy</a> <a href="#fnref:176" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:177">Tuomela 1985, p. 1Grant 2007, p. 303 - Tuomela, Raimo (1985). Science, Action, and Reality. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-90-277-2098-6. Retrieved 6 July 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2Hg9rKafnHsC&pg=PA1" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=2Hg9rKafnHsC&pg=PA1</a> <a href="#fnref:177" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:178">Dittmer, Lead Section, § 3. BioethicsLippert-Rasmussen 2017, pp. 4–5Uniacke 2017, pp. 34–35Crary 2013, pp. 321–322 - Dittmer, Joel. "Ethics, Applied". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 1 June 2023. Retrieved 2 July 2023. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/applied-ethics/" target="_blank">https://iep.utm.edu/applied-ethics/</a> <a href="#fnref:178" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:179">Dittmer, Lead Section, § 2. Business Ethics, § 5. Professional EthicsLippert-Rasmussen 2017, pp. 4–5Uniacke 2017, pp. 34–35 - Dittmer, Joel. "Ethics, Applied". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 1 June 2023. Retrieved 2 July 2023. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/applied-ethics/" target="_blank">https://iep.utm.edu/applied-ethics/</a> <a href="#fnref:179" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:180">Lippert-Rasmussen 2017, pp. 51–53. - Lippert-Rasmussen, Kasper (2017). "The Nature of Applied Philosophy". In Lippert-Rasmussen, Kasper; Brownlee, Kimberley; Coady, David (eds.). A Companion to Applied Philosophy. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-86911-6. <a href="#fnref:180" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:181">Bird 2010, pp. 5–6, 8–9Rosenberg 2013, pp. 129, 155 - Bird, Alexander (2010). "The Epistemology of Science—a Bird's-eye View". Synthese. 175 (S1): 5–16. doi:10.1007/s11229-010-9740-4. S2CID 15228491. <a href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11229-010-9740-4" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11229-010-9740-4</a> <a href="#fnref:181" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:182">Audi 2006, pp. 332–337. - Audi, Robert (2006). "Philosophy". In Borchert, Donald M. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 7: Oakeshott - Presupposition (2. ed.). Thomson Gale, Macmillan Reference. ISBN 978-0-02-865787-5. Archived from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 10 November 2023. <a href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/philosophy" target="_blank">https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/philosophy</a> <a href="#fnref:182" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:183">Clark 2022, Lead Section, § 1. Reason/RationalityForrest 2021, Lead SectionDougherty 2014, pp. 97–98 - Clark, Kelly James (2022). "Religious Epistemology". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 21 September 2022. Retrieved 21 September 2022. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/relig-ep/" target="_blank">https://iep.utm.edu/relig-ep/</a> <a href="#fnref:183" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:184">Kakas & Sadri 2003, p. 588Li 2014, pp. ix–xNievergelt 2015, pp. v–vi - Kakas, Antonis C.; Sadri, Fariba (2003). Computational Logic: Logic Programming and Beyond: Essays in Honour of Robert A. Kowalski, Part II. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-45632-2. Retrieved 6 July 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wQVqCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA588" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=wQVqCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA588</a> <a href="#fnref:184" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:185">Audi 2006, pp. 332–37Murphy 2018, p. 138Dittmer, Lead Section, Table of ContentsFrankena, Raybeck & Burbules 2002, § Definition - Audi, Robert (2006). "Philosophy". In Borchert, Donald M. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 7: Oakeshott - Presupposition (2. ed.). Thomson Gale, Macmillan Reference. ISBN 978-0-02-865787-5. Archived from the original on 14 February 2022. Retrieved 10 November 2023. <a href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/philosophy" target="_blank">https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/philosophy</a> <a href="#fnref:185" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:186">Cropper 1997. - Cropper, Carol Marie (1997). "Philosophers Find the Degree Pays Off in Life and in Work". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 28 January 2017. Retrieved 2 May 2016. <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/1997/12/26/business/philosophers-find-the-degree-pays-off-in-life-and-in-work.html" target="_blank">https://www.nytimes.com/1997/12/26/business/philosophers-find-the-degree-pays-off-in-life-and-in-work.html</a> <a href="#fnref:186" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:187">Dittmer, Lead Section, § 6. Social Ethics, Distributive Justice, and Environmental EthicsLippert-Rasmussen 2017, pp. 4–5 - Dittmer, Joel. "Ethics, Applied". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 1 June 2023. Retrieved 2 July 2023. <a href="https://iep.utm.edu/applied-ethics/" target="_blank">https://iep.utm.edu/applied-ethics/</a> <a href="#fnref:187" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:189">Pipes 2020, p. 29Wolff & Leopold 2021, § 9. Marx's LegacyShaw 2019, p. 124 - Pipes, Richard (2020). "Reflections on the Russian Revolution". In Stockdale, Melissa K. (ed.). Readings on the Russian Revolution. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-350-03743-4. Retrieved 10 November 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aXX0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA29" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=aXX0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA29</a> <a href="#fnref:189" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
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<li id="fn:191">McAfee 2018, Lead Section, 2.1 Feminist Beliefs and Feminist MovementsAinley 2005, pp. 294–296Hirschmann 2008, pp. 148–151McAfee et al. 2023, Lead Section, 1. What Is Feminism? - McAfee, Noëlle (2018). "Feminist Philosophy". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Archived from the original on 22 June 2023. Retrieved 8 July 2023. <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminist-philosophy/" target="_blank">https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminist-philosophy/</a> <a href="#fnref:191" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
<li id="fn:192">Jones & Bos 2007, p. 56Rickles 2020, p. 9Lockie 2015, pp. 24–28 - Jones, Campbell; Bos, René ten (2007). Philosophy and Organization. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-19659-3. Retrieved 6 July 2023. <a href="https://books.google.com/books?id=g6x_AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT56" target="_blank">https://books.google.com/books?id=g6x_AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT56</a> <a href="#fnref:192" class="footnote-back-ref">↩</a></li>
</ol>

Philosophy open-in-new

Philosophy